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I 

SPECIAL REPORT 



BY THE 



BUHEAU OF EDUCATION. 



EDUCATIOML EXHIBITS AND CONVENTIONS 



WORLD'S INDUSTRIAL AND COTTON 
CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, 



NEW OELEANS, 1884-'85. 



F»^IIT I. 

CATAI.OGUE OF EXHIBITS. 



WASHIKGTOlNfi 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1886. 
1950 COT • 1 






"fA"? 




CONTENTS OF PART I. 



f 



Page. 

Lettsr of transmission to the Secretary of the Interior 5 

Introduction 7 

Letter of transmission to Commissioner Eaton 31 

Exhibit of the Bureau of Education 34 

Exhibit of the Office of Indian Affairs 41 

State educational exhibits : 

Florida 44 

Illinois .- 45 

Iowa 46 

Louisiana 50 

Michigan 51 

Minnesota 51 

Nebraska 59 

New Hampshire 61 

New Jersey , ■. . 62 

Ohio 64 

Rhode Island 71 

Tennessee 71 

Virginia 72. 

West Virginia 73 

Wisconsin 73 

City school exhibits : 

Albany, N. Y 74 

Alexandria, Va , 74 

Atlanta, Ga 74 

Chicago, 111 74 

Denver, Colo 74 

Leavenworth, Kans 74 

Oak Park, 111 74 

Portland, Oreg 74 

Washington, D. C 75 

West Denver, Colo 84 

Wilkes Barre, Pa 84 

Miscellaneous exhibits : 

Text-books a 85 

School apparatus 89 

Kindergarten , 93 

Kitchen-garden 96 

Crfeche '. 96 

Normal schools 97 

Business colleges 1 98 

Institutions for secondary instruction 98 

Institutions for the superior instruction of women 101 

Colleges and schools of science 103 

Museums and science collections -. 105 

Physical and chemical apparatus 127 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Miseelluneous exhibits — Continued. 

Models illustrating descriptive geometry •. 134 

Gymnastic apparatus 136 

Library collections. 136 

Art exhibits 141 

Schools of medicine 142 

Nurse training schools 14'i 

Schools for the deaf and dumb 144 

Schools for the blind 147 

Reform and industrial schools - 148 

Schools for the feeble-minded 149 

American Missionary Association 149 

Christian Brothers 151 

Freedman's Aid Society 162 

Department of Colored Exhibits 164 

Foreign exhibits : 

England 165 

Jamaica 166 

Japan • 166 

France 186 

Letter transmitting list of awards 202 

Awards : 

Belgium 2C6 

England 206 

Honduras 206 

Jamaica 206 

Japan 206 

Mexico 207 

France 208 

Bureau of Education - 214 

Bureau of Indian Affairs 215 

Woman's Department 215 

States of the Union - .--- 217 

American Missionary Association 228 

Brothers of the Christian Schools •. ^ 228 

Department of Colored Exhibits 230 

Freedman's Aid Society 231 

Commercial Department 231 

Index 233 

4 



LETTER. 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington, D. C, November 25, 1885. 

Sir : The accompanying papers,' which are hereby transmitted for 
publication, give the best view, doubtless, that it is possible to preserve 
of education at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Expo- 
sition. It was early manifest that the exhibition would present a 
rare opportunity for the promotion of the advancement of education. 
The desire on the part of the Management to improve this oppor- 
tunity to the utmost was expressed in the most explicit and emphatic 
terms by the Director-General, Hon. E. A. Burke, when he declared 
that they sought not only that the exhibition should be thoroughly 
national and intern3,tional and in all its aspects educational, but 
that education itself, its systems, institutions, principles, methods, and 
results should be shown as far as possible by its literature and appli- 
ances, by models, by graphics, by actual class work, and by papers 
and discussions from the ablest educators. The following papers will 
make known how far the purposes of the Management have been real- 
ized, and their publication will preserve and extend the usefulness of 
whatever was accomplished in this behalf. The fullness of the papers 
and of the report of Lyndon A. Smith, Esq., my representative and chief 
assistant in immediate charge of the Department of Education at the 
exhibition, renders it unnecessary that I should here enter into details 
which would otherwise require more specific reference. 

I desire to tender most hearty thanks to all those who have in any 
way aided in the work here reported, but it would require a catalogue 
larger than Homer's to specify each one by name. 

I have the honor to be, very respectfully,'your obedient servant, 

JOHN eato:n^. 

Commissioner. 
The Hon. Secretary of the Interior. 



^ The proceedings and papers of the International Congress of'Educators may be 
found in Part II of this Eeport ; the proceedings of the Department of Superintend- 
ence and Education Day addresses in Part III. 

5 



EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS 

EXPOSITION. 



INTEODUCTION. 

EXPOSITION AUTHORITIES INTERESTED IN EDUCATION. 

The World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition provided, 
in its earliest plans, for a department of education. The director- 
general, members of the Board of Management, and influential citizens 
believed it would be an interesting and profitable feature of the exhi- 
bition. They also desired that educational meetings should be held to 
unite the words of experienced men with the lessons of silent exhib- 
its, and thus create a lasting impression upon the surrounding States 
in favor of popular education. The Department of Superintendence of 
the National Educational Association is accustomed to hold a winter 
session, and consequently this body was invited to meet at New Orleans 
during the continuance of the Exposition. This first public effort by 
the Management in behalf of education was in February, 1884, and the 
acceptance of the invitation was accompanied by the appointment of a 
committee to co-operate with the Bureau of Education in arranging for 
a suitable exhibition of education. The members of this committee 
were Hon. G. J. Orr, State school commissioner, Georgia ; Hon. H. Clay 
Armstrong, State superintendent of education, Alabama; Hon. W. O. 
Eogers, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. ; Hon. Aaron Gove, 
superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.; Hon. J. H. Smart, president 
of Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind.; Hon. T. W. Bicknell, Boston, 
Mass., president of the National Educational Association; and Hon. 
B. L. Butcher, State superintendent of free schools. West Virginia, 
and president of the Department of Superintendence. The wishes of 
the director- general, Maj. E. A. Burke, were expressed in his first report 
to the President of the United States, dated April 10, 1884. He said : 
" Extensive preparations have been made for a national educational 
display. * * * jjfo subject claims greater attention on the part of 
our people, and the effect of this school of instruction will be to impart 
a healthy impulse to the cause of education and a better knowledge of 
methods. Already local educational societies are being organized 
throughout the State of Louisiana, and I am sure that the Exposition 
will secure for the cause of education a more liberal provision from all 

of the backward States." 

7 



8 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 
APPOINTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENT. 

The Board of Management selected Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner 
of Education, as superintendent of the Department of Education, and 
urged him to accept the position. He consulted the Secretary of the 
Interior, and not only received permission to accept the appointment, 
but was encouraged to devote a portion of his own time and to assist 
the enterprise by the means at the command of his office. Prepara- 
tory work was immediately undertaken, and a preliminary circular 
issued to scatter information and stimulate activity. Scarcely more 
than this could be done until money had been appropriated and more 
definite knowledge of the inclinations of educators obtained. 

REPORT OF COMMITTEE TO CO-OPERATE WITH BUREAU OF EDUCA- 
TION. 

The National Educational Association met in July at Madison, Wis. 
The subject was presented at one of its meetings by Director- General 
Burke and •Commissioner Eaton. The former considered education 
the great need of the South ; believed that its people realize that the 
peace, progress, and happiness of that section depend ujjon it, and ex- 
pected much aid from a well-sustained exhibition of education. The 
committee appointed by the Department of Superintendence made a re- 
port which has been circulated by the Bureau of Education. This re- 
port enumerated the articles that could be contributed to an educational 
display, and gave rules for preparing material. Among its recommenda- 
tions was one " that the State and city educational authorities act as 
agents of their respective States and cities in the preparation of the 
representation of the systems, institutions, and instrumentalities within 
the sphere and range of their official connection or authority." The 
principle recognized in this recommendation did much to determine the 
grouping of exhibits at the Exposition. Generous rivalry between 
States, localities, and Institutions helped to improve the quality of their 
collections. 

ACTION OF SCHOOL OFFICERS. 

The superintendents of x)ublic instruction for several States ijromptly 
began efforts to have their educational exhibits creditable and complete. 
Circulars were issued informing teachers and superintendents of the 
nature of material desired, inquiring what and how much could be sup- 
plied, and offering assistance in the work of preparation. The circular 
sent out by the Nebraska superintendent, Hon. W. W. W. Jones, illus- 
trates the initiatory steps taken in some States. He divided the work 
of preparation into eight sections, and assigned the control of each sec- 
tion to a i^erson familiar with the field given him. The divisions are 
best presented in his own words : 

(1) A showing of the State organization of schools and the administration thereof, 
with statistics of growth, school funds, &c. 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

(2) The State university, its organization, growth, and present condition, and 
specimens of work. 

(3) A complete showing of the normal school work, with history of the normal 
school; also, the ^ora and fauna of Nebraska. 

(4) A statement of our normal institutes, with methods, courses of study, announce- 
ments, circulars, examinations, and general character. 

(5) The work of the children of the State is of highest importance, and should 
occupy the most prominent place. The teachers of the State are especially requested 
to make this department most creditable. 

Examinations, daily written work, map drawing, free-hand drawing, c<impo8ition8, 
specimens of penmanship, which may be copies of several lines of prose or poetry, 
specimens of handiwork in or out of school, in fact, anything that shows wliat our 
children are doing in an edacational way. 

Ungraded, graded, and high school work will all be included in this department. 
The county superintendents, teachers, and principals are earnestly requested to lend 
their assistance and are urged to co-operate in making this department all it should be. 

All pupils' work should be upon paper of uniform size, 8^ by 11 inches, with a 
margin of one inch, written only upon one side and neatly bound for preservation. 

(6) A collection of kindergarten work ; photographs and ground plans of our best 
public and private school buildings; plans and specifications for the lighting, ven- 
tilation, and construction of school houses ; also, a collection of school literature and 
periodicals published in this State, school books, and educational addresses, and 
woman's work in connection with the public schools. 

(7) Exhibits of technical work ; industrial and other departments of schools for the 
deaf and dumb, the blind, and the feeble minded, and of reform schools. 

(8) A department showing the plan, organization, curriculum, work, and history 
of the denominational schools of the State. 

The action of city superintendents in carrying out the suggestions 
and recommendations of the committee of the National Educational 
Association is excellently illustrated by the course of Superintendent 
W. O. Kogers, of New Orleans. Already an appropriation had been 
made to meet necessary expenses. Public interest had been stimulated. 
Teachers' meetings were held to consider how best their work could be 
represented. The general directions issued by the Bureau of Education 
were adapted to the particular needs of the city schools, and circulars 
printed to show what to do, and how to do it. Examinations were con- 
ducted by means of questions prepared by the superintendent, and pre- 
caution exercised to have the true condition and work of the schools 
shown. Penmanship, map drawing, and composition received special 
attention, as affording very suitable material for exhibition. By such 
means not only New Orleans, but many other cities, collected repre- 
sentative exhibits from their public schools. 

PLAN OF EXHIBIT OF BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

The end sought by the plans made for the exhibit of the Bureau of 
Education was the display of material illustrating the work of all classes 
of schools and as many phases of education as practicable. This was 
to be arranged according to the relations existing between the different 
articles. As museums, in general, ignore geographical boundaries and 
recognize only scientific classifications and relations, so an educational 

9 



10 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

display would be most effective in which the same rule prevailed. This 
idea was expressed by the committee of the National Educational As- 
sociation in the following words : 

It would seem wise to represent the education of the country as a whole, sections 
and State lines being disregarded, due credit being given for all contributions, 
whether from States, municipalities, institutions, or individuals, by the mode of in- 
stallation, by appropriate labels, and otherwise. 

The extent of the educational display and the feelings of the exhib- 
itors made the logical arrangement of the entire department undesira- 
ble, and increased the importance of consecutive display by the Bureau 
of Education. Contributions were obtained from many sources, so that 
the principal branches of education were represented by suitable arti- 
cles. The methods followed in collecting material are indicated by the 
following rules early adopted by the Bureau : (1) Coutributioas of fur- 
niture and appliances are to be solicited from mauufactnrers of school 
supplies; (2) text- books are to be asked from publishers; (3) gifts and 
loans may be accompanied by the owner's card or labeled so as to iden- 
tify him ; (4) practical and tested apparatus is to be preferred to costly 
instruments, and those having limited and infrequent uses; (5) avail- 
able schools may be resorted to for pupils' work; and (6) purchases are 
to be made or aid given in cases when it is necessary in order to com- 
plete an exhibit or to insure the representation of a class of schools. 

ALLOTMENT TO BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

An essential element in all plans was economy. The limits of the 
appropriation to the Interi(;r Department for the preparation of its ex- 
hibits, and the many bureaus in the Department having close relations 
with the industry and progress of the country, reduced the amounts re- 
ceived by them respectively. Hon. Benjamin Butterworth, represent- 
ative of the Interior Department for the exposition, said in his letter 
apportioning the fund at his disposal : 

The amount appropriated for the Department of the Interior is grossly inadequate 
to defray the expense of making a full and creditable exhibit. We are compelled, 
therefore, to do the best we can with the money we have received. It was the desire 
of Congress that there should be shown at New Orleans thnt which is indicative of 
the resources of this country, embracing every department of iield and forest, shops 
and factory, mills and mines, lakes, rivers, &c., to show the greatness of industrial 
art and its effect upon the general prosperity of our people, and also the progress that 
has been made in education and the means adopted for the general diffusion of knowl- 
edge among the people. 

The amount assigned to the Bureau was $15,000. This was done 
"with the intent to add to the sum so apportioned as we progress with 
the work." 

The intention so expressed has been carried out by Marcellus Gard- 
ner, esq., the successor of General Butterworth as representative of 
the Department; for, though the plans of the Bureau, formed after the 
apportionment, did not contemplate an expenditure in excess of the 

10 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

original apportionment, a slight excess became necessary. The amount 
accomplished by this comparatively small sum has been surprising to 
those acquainted with the facts. 

TEXT-BOOKS AND APPARATUS. 

The collection of text-books and apparatus was greatly facilitated by 
a circular letter from the Commissioner of Education to all the firms 
known to the Bureau as publishing school books, or dealing in or manu- 
facturing educational appliances. The body of this letter was as fol- 
lows: 

In the course of preparation for the New Orleans Exposition it has become proba- 
ble that this Bureau will display in its exhibit a considerable amount of school appa- 
ratus and many text-books. Some firms have offered to supply, free of charge, such 
articles of their manufacture or publication as I may wish to use in this exhibit. While 
intending to accept these offers, I desire to show no partiality, and would be glad to 
receive others of similar nature. 

The response to this letter was very general on the part of publishers. 
Charts and maps, slates and black-boards, pencils and crayons were 
sent forward in suitable shape and quantity for exhibition. Only two 
manufacturers of school furniture responded, though others who re- 
ceived invitation to contribute regretted afterward their failure to do' 
so. The same hesitancy to exhibit heating and ventilating apparatus 
existed. The catalogue of exhibits contains a list of these contribu- 
tions, to which reference may be made. 

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTKY. 

Several dealers in physical and chemical apparatus expressed a will- 
ingness to exhibit their wares with the Bureau. The museum of the 
Bureau already contained a collection of valuable physical appliances. 
The amount of apparatus available suggested the equipment of labora- 
tories for physics and chemistry. Prof. Isaac J. Osbun, of Dennison 
University, Granville, Ohio, was requested to furnish a plan of a model 
laboratory suitable for a high or normal school, and did so. It was in- 
tended to economize space in schools and be in itself an exhibition of a 
room adapted to the purposes of both a laboratory and recitations with- 
out either use diminishing its value for the other. The plan was adopted 
in a modified form, but there were difficulties in the way that prevented 
the free use of the laboratory for illustrating chemistry and limited the 
work in it to a few simple experiments. The physical apparatus was 
utilized for public instruction and entertainment. Every department 
of physics was illustrated, as the collection of apparatus was complete 
and adapted to the purpose. The Bureau secured from an expert a 
list of articles necessary to illustrate all the leading divisions of physics, 
such as heat, light, acoustics, magnetism, and electricity. The Com- 
missioner put Mr. Charles H. Eichardson, a gentleman of experience, 
in charge of the collected material, and placed at his disposal means 

11 



12 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

for making his section intensely interesting. Tlie finest apparatus 
showing the wonders and curiosities of electricity contributed to the 
attractions. Later a solar microscope was fitted up and drew the atten- 
tion of visitors to the revelations of processes and products of nature. 
Thus the Bureau furnished simple chemical experiments, illustrations 
of peculiar electrical phenomena, representations of the laws of physics, 
and the display of objects by a solar microscope, as the fulfillment of 
its plan for chemical and physical laboratories. 

EXHIBITS ILLUSTEATING SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE. 

Instruction in science is accompanied by not only the use of appa-^ 
ratus, but also other illustrations that attract notice. Drawing and 
the construction of models are taught, especially in institutions where 
engineering is a principal subject of study. Classical colleges have 
much less to exhibit that is of popular interest than have schools of 
science. Consequently an effort was made to have the latter make ex- 
hibits in accordance with their possibilities in that direction. A collec- 
tion of drawings from them was desired, and a letter sent to them ask- 
ing each institution for two specimens. By these efforts, and the use 
of material from the museum of the Bureau, a good display of the 
means and methods of instruction in various departments of engineer- 
ing was secured. English exhibits added much to the display in me- 
chanical engineering, and other displays not with the Bureau con- 
tained material representing every feature of instruction in science. 

MANUAL TRAININGS. 

Closely allied to instruction in mechanical engineering is training in 
mechanic arts. It is but a few years since this was systematically at- 
temjjted by American schools. Already the experiment has met with 
such success as to assure the usefulness of schools of manual training. 
The instruction imparted in them is of a kind needed by the South at 
this time, when its resources are being developed and its industries 
multiplied. It seemed of utmost importance that this kind of instruc- 
tion should be adequately represented at the Exposition. Tulane 
University, in New Orleans, was at the point of organizing a school for 
manual training, and the Bureau secured its co-operation in establish- 
ing and conducting it in the gallery of the Government building ad- 
joining the exhibits of the Bureau of Education. In this way a full 
exhibit was set conspicuously before the visitors at a comparatively 
small expense, and the hopes of Commissioner Eaton for such a display 
fully realized. Drawing-tables, work-benches, and tools were supplied 
and arranged for the use of students, and daily instruction given in 
drawing and wood-working. The more elaborate processes of metal- 
working were not attempted, as no pupils were prepared to undertake 
their difficulties, and the equij)meut for them could not readily be set 
up in an exposition. The classes were occupied with their lesson from 

12 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

3 to 5 each afternoon except Saturday, when earlier hours were pre- 
ferred. Carpentry and wood-turning were taken up in turn, and some 
excellent specimens of work done by the students were presented for 
public inspection toward the close of the Exposition. Peo])le were 
greatly interested in this novel feature of an exhibition, and watched 
the work and progress of the boys to findtheproofs of the value of manual 
training. 

HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRY AND KINDERGARTEN. 

An object to be promoted by an exhibition of education is the sug- 
gestion of means by which the prevalent system of instruction may be 
broadened and perfected. The criticism is often made that our schools 
do not prepare pupils for the duties and labors they are to meet and per- 
form after leaving school. Manual training schools have sprung up 
partially in response to this sentiment, and are fitting boys to enter 
fields of usefulness not likely to be overcrowded. The question has 
arisen whether there is not a corresponding course of training needed 
in duties peculiar to girls. A majority pass from the school into the 
family, and find their life-work as sisters, wives, and mothers; on their 
skill depends the health of the child and the comfort of the grown per- 
son. Skill may be increased not only by practice, but also by informa- 
tion and instruction. Several societies have this work in hand, and 
they desired to have it displayed effectively at the Exposition. Four 
means of representing it commanded attention: First, a nursery show- 
ing the appliances, aids, and methods of saving infant life, and making 
it comfortable and healthful; second, a kindergarten to illustrate the 
most approved system of developing normally the mind of a child; 
third, a kitchen-garden, applying the principles of the kindergarten to 
l^reparation for housework; and, fourth, a school of household industry 
carried on in a "model home" and giving instruction in cooking, sew- 
ing, &c. The limited time for preparation did not permit the execution 
of this plan by co-operative action, and it was left for the Bureau of 
Education to do what it could in these directions. The kindergarten 
and kitchen-garden were put in operation. Children came in from 
homes near the Exposition. The kindergarten was under the instruc- 
tion of Mrs. Anna B. Ogden, and afterwards Miss May Crosby, both of 
Washington ; had its sessions in the forenoon ; and was in operation dur- 
ing nearly the entire length of the Exposition. Miss Olivia Tracy, of 
Kew York, taught the kitchen-garden, having afternoon sessions four 
days in the week during March and April. A kitchen -garden class 
from Leland University had one exercise a week in the Department of 
Colored Exhibits. The exhibition of a nursery was found impracticable. 
Much material similar to that which would have constituted such a dis- 
play was contained in the exhibit of the Fitch creche. Exhibits of 
sewing from public and normal schools and Miss L. J. Kirkwood's sew- 
ing box were other principal displays of the Department of Education 
in the line of household industry. 

13 



14 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 
EEFOEMATORY EDUCATION. 

The introduction of industrial education into reformatory and penal 
institutions has been successful in promoting the virtues and suppress- 
ing the vices of the inmates. It may determine whether a person shall 
go out to become a valuable citizen or a hardened criminal. The trades 
and pursuits that can be utilized were well represented at the Exposi- 
tion. Boots and shoes, brooms and brushes, woodwork and clothing, 
these and many other articles showed the work done in reform schools. 
Photographs illustrated. the difference of arrangements in the congre- 
gate and family systems. The Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls, 
aided by the Bureau of Education, made a fine display, including photo- 
graphs, publications, kindergarten work, sewing and fancy work. 

EDUCATION OF THE DEFECTIVE CLASSES. 

Prof. E. Louis Soldan, principal of the St. Louis Normal School, in a 
report on the educational exhibits at the Exposition, uses the follow- 
ing language: 

Beside the main stream of public education which runs in the direction of the com- 
mon schools, there are strong side currents in education, and the fresher impulse of 
the main stream seems to have affected them. One of these side currents tends to- 
ward the thorough training of those whom some natural defect renders more helpless 
than others. 

It was the extensive collection of exhibits from schools for the deaf 
and dumb, the blind, and the feeble-minded that elicited this remark, 
Preparations for the exhibits in the section for deaf mutes was com- 
menced by the adoption of the following resolutions by the National 
Conference of Principals and Superintendents of Institutions for Deaf- 
Mutes, held in July, 1884: 

Besolved, That it is the sense of this Conference that the interests of deaf-mute.s and 
the subject of their education have assumed such proportions and demand such atten- 
tion that it is deemed proper and desirable to secure space and arrange for a deaf- 
mate department in the Cotton Centennial Exposition to be opened in the city of New 
Orleans, December 1, 1884. 

Besolved, further, That a committee of three superintendents of institutions be ap- 
pointed to consider the feasibility of such a plan, and, if found practicable, to make 
the necessary arrangements. 

Besolved, further. That we will lend such a movement all the aid in our power, and 
give it our hearty co-operation. 

The committee appointed was J. E. Dobyns, of Mississippi, David 
Greenberger, of New York City, and J. L. Noyes, A. M,, of Minnesota. 
They prosecuted their work in harmony with the Bureau of Education, 
and received from it pecuniary aid and satisfactory space on condition 
that they should locate with the Bureau and form its exhibit of deaf-mute 
education. The prominent features of deaf-mute instruction and speci- 
mens of the work done after leaving school united in forming an in- 
structive and noteworthy display. The interest in it on the part of 
deaf-mutes was increased by the presence of a deaf-mute in the Chatau- 

14 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

qua alcove, not far distaut, wbo took i)leasurc iu showing its several 
articles and conversing with deaf-mutes iu their own peculiar way. 
The collection ut exhibits of schools for the blind was under the charge 
of a committee, consisting of William B. Wait, of Kew York, P. Lane, 
of Louisiana, and Prof. John T. Sibley, of Missouri. This class of ex- 
hibits was not extensive, but fairly representative of so much of the 
work of the blind, iu school and out, as could be presented readily. 

MEDICAL EDUCATION. 

The arrangements of the medical section were aided greatly by Dr. 
J. M. Toner, LL.D., who helped to secure a large collection of photo- 
graphs of instructors in medicine, and by Prof. A. F. A. King, M.D., 
dean of the National Medical College, Columbian University, Wash- 
ington, who secured from his associate professors lists of articles that 
could be exhibited advantageously iu illustration of several branches 
of instruction, viz: medical chemistry, anatomy, i^hysiology, surgery, 
theory and practice of medicine, obstetrics and gynaecology. This was 
the foundation for building a medical exhibit, but modifications were 
necessary here also. The chemical laboratory was so near that its ma- 
terial was not du|)licated for the medical exhibit. Pathological speci- 
mens were not secured to the full extent suggested. The departments 
of anatomy, obstetrics, gynaecology, and surgery were excellently rep- 
resented. Several microscopes, with slides for the use of the student 
of medicine, were exhibited. Several medical journals were on file ; 
and i)ictures of nurse-training schools made up a very interesting por- 
tion of the Bureau exhibit. 

PHYSICAL CULTURE. 

Physical culture adapted to produce sound bodies is neglected in 
many schools. Its importance increases with the progress of civiliza- 
tion and the consequent filling up of cities and diminution of opportu- 
nities for out-door sports and exercise. Three kinds of apparatus were 
shown by the Bureau of Education, namely, home gymnasiums, com- 
plete in themselves and serviceable for the use of families and small 
schools; special pieces of apparatus, as poles, ropes, horses, wall- 
ladder, horizontal bar for more violent exercises, and elaborate pieces se- 
lected from those devised by Dr. D. A. Sargent, of Harvard University. 
The instruments for testing the strength of certain groups of muscles 
and for ascertaining height, chest dimensions, weight, &c., were pro- 
cured and kept accessible to visitors interested in anthropometric meas- 
urements. Mr. Hartvig Nissen, of Washington, and afterward his 
assistant, Mr. Klaus Olsen, were in charge of the displays of gymnastic 
apparatus. They gave lessons and illustrations several times a day, 
using not only the apparatus already mentioned, but a large Swedish 
gymnasium exhibited by Th. Nordenfeldt, of London. The purposes 

15 



1 6 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

served by their efforts were, first, to show the manner of using the ap- 
]3aratus ; second, to interest Aisitors in the more general introduction 
of gymnastics into schools ; and third, to illustrate, not the method of 
training athletes and acrobats, but the possibilities of developing the 
body and endowing it with health and vigor. 

LIBRARY. 

The library was to be represented at the Exposition by a well-fur- 
nished room, ornamented by selections from the art displays, equipped 
with the. appliances useful in conducting a library, and containing, 
books representing the classes of literature of peculiar importance to 
teachers and school officers. Casts and drawings from schools of indus- 
trial art adorned the section set apart for library purposes. Appli- 
ances from the Library Bureau at Boston were exhibited. School laws j 
reports of school officers in the United States and foreign countries; 
bound volumes of educational publications; treatises on teaching, dis- 
cipline, education, «&c.; books of reference and for general culture, and 
the text-books of higher instruction, were arranged near each other ; 
and with the miscellaneous volumes contributed by publishers and not 
ranked as text-books, they constituted the library. Text-books suita- 
ble for public schools were displayed in connection with school-work 
and apparatus. 

STATISTICAL CHARTS. 

Statistical charts were prepared for use in the library section and 
with exhibits from classes of schools whose statistics were given. The 
statistics graphically represented showed the increase in number of in- 
stitutions, instructors, and students in nearly all classes of schools ; 
the location of those schools; school population, enrollment, and at- 
tendance, represented so as to aid comparisons ; ratio of students to 
teachers ; illiteracy, and the distribution of the Poabody fund. These 
charts were prepared by Mr. H. M. Waitt, S. B., a graduate of the Mas- 
sachusetts Institute of Technology, assisted by Miss E. Anna Hanson, 
from the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, and under the di- 
rection of Dr. Charles Warren, statistician of the Bureau of Education, 
ifearly all statistics may be presented in a way to attract notice by a 
suitable arrangement of large areas of distinct colors. Some admira- 
ble charts showing distribution and location of school-houses were 
shown by States. 

This introductory statement is intended to be rather a recital of things 
done than a full report of results. The exhibit of the Bureau of Edu- 
cation, as it appeared after its completion, is described in connection 
with the catalogue proper. By reference to it the reader can ascertain 
the cities, institutions, and individuals contributing most extensively, 
obtain an idea of their arrangement, and see the ultimate result of 
plans and efforts made with care and due deliberation, but sometimes 
16 



INTRODUCTION. 



17 



thwarted or seriously modified by lack of 
time and money. The private schools 
giving instruction superior to that of the 
ungraded public school and inferior to 
that of the full college, were represented 
more poorly than any other classes of in- 
stitutions whose courses of instruction 
are accompanied by tlie use of appliances 
or produce evidences of progress suitable 
for exhibition. 

AID TO EXHIBITORS. 

States and institutions were aided in 
the preparation of their exhibits by the 
exposition management. This aid was 
rendered through different channels and 
in different ways. Direct apportion- 
ments of money were made to some, 
upon an understanding or contract that 
a specified exhibit should be presented. 
Several of the educational exhibitors 
were aided through General Eaton, as 
chief of the Department of EdncHtion. 
Installation was aided by assignments 
of laborers, gifts of lumber and nails, 
and, occasionally, small contributions of 
money. Close economy was required in 
the expenditure of money and the use of 
material furnished by the Exposition. 
All decoration in excess of that ueces- 
sary for the proper display of material 
was at the expense of i)ersons exhibiting 
or represented bi^ exhibitors. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

The exhibit of the Bureau of Educa- 
tion was installed at as little expense as 
was consistent. It occupied the eastern 
portion of the southern gallery of the 
Government building. A plan of the 
space occupied is herewith given. The 
partitions were wooden framework cov- 
ered with inexpensive brown or maroon 
cloth. Solid board partitions were made 
where wall space for heavy exhibits was 
needed. Tables were made upon the 
ground, and covered to correspond with 
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17 



18 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

adjoining screens. Such material as required protection was arranged in 
counter or upright cases, the latter being fitted with shelves or partitions 
to make a surface on which the several exhibits could be disjjlayed to 
best advantage. The dark room, for electrical experiments, and the 
room for the solar microscope were of wood, and were lined with black 
cloth. The screen on which the pictures were thrown was of white cloth, 
and placed near the main aisle. The decorations of the exhibit were few 
and plain. The posts of the building passing up through the gallery 
were covered with alternate strips of red and white cloth, with a band 
of blue at the top of the decoration. The wall of the building was cov- 
ered with white cloth, with a border of red at the top. The ceiling was 
not covered, and because of this some exhibits were injured by material 
from the rojof. The only exhibits included among those of the Bureau 
of Education that were installed with a view primarily to artistic effect 
were those of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, arranged 
by Mr. E. A. Spring, and the Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf 
and Dumb, New York City, arranged by Prof. A. Le Prince. The kin- 
dergarten room and exhibits were located apart from the other exhibits 
of the Bureau, in the southwest corner of the building. The room was 
comfortably furnished and tastefully decorated under the supervision of 
Mrs. Ogden, the kindergartner. 

STATE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS. 

The state educational exhibits, located in the northern portion of the 
eastern gallery, formed one of the most interesting features of the edu- 
cational department. The intelligent visitor could not fail to observe 
the excellent quality of the material gathered in them ; the ingenious 
construction of tables, stands, and screens for exhibiting purposes ; the 
positions selected for them so as to make the best use of space and take 
advantage of the best lights; and the arrangement of the articles to 
harmonize with those around them and to conform to the relations ex- 
isting between them. To these State exhibits belongs a large share of 
the compliment paid by the Hon. W. T. Harris, LL. D., to the educa- 
tional department in the remark that "A great variety of things and 
processes that we had despaired of showing in an exposition are in- 
structively displayed here." 

NEW HAMPSHIKE AND PENNSYLVANIA. 

A person passing from the main entrance of the building up to the 
State exhibits found at the head of the stairs two small exhibits, one 
from Wilkes Barre, Pa., and the other from the cities of New Hampshire. 
The former displayed material completely illustrative of a city school 
system. It was neatly arranged by the city superintendent. Prof. A. 
W. Potter. The New Hampshire exhibits were rather specimens from 
different cities than a collective State exhibit. Some particular feature 
was ilrominent in the exhibit of each city, as, for instance, work in 
chemistry from Nashua, and plans of school buildings from Manchester. 

18 



INTEODUCTION. 



19 




19 



20 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

IOWA. 

The first of the great exhibits reached by the visitor after those just 
mentioned was that of Iowa. It had a frontage of forty-five feet on 
the main aisle and extended back thirty feet. 

It was installed by State Superintendent John W. Akers, and Prof. 
T. H. McBride, of the State University. Much of the material was 
placed on tables and on screens rising vertically from the middle of 
the tables. The effect of the exhibit was greatly increased by the paper- 
ing of the walls and ceiling, the prevailing tint of the paper being such 
as to produce pleasing effects in its contrast with the white paper used 
for drawings and school work. The distinguishing feature of this ex- 
hibit was the large amount of graded school work collected from nearly 
all of the larger cities and towns of the State, and bearing testimony 
to the efficiency of their graded school system. 

MINNESOTA. 

The next exhibit was that of Minnesota, occupying about the same 
space and arranged in somewhat the same way as that of Iowa. The 
stands on which the exhibits were placed were made with wings that 
could be folded and feet that (;ould be removed, so that the whole could 
be readily transported, a pattern that can be recommended for more 
extensive use. An interesting part of the exhibit was the apparatus 
for regulating clocks pnt up in various parts of the building. This ex- 
hibit was to illustrate primarily the work of the Carleton College ob- 
servatory at Northfleld, Minn., Prof. W. W. Paine, director, in regulat- 
ing the clocks of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Eailroad, and 
incidentally the common practice of regulating time by electric connec- 
tion of clocks with some standard time-piece. A chief excellence of the 
Minnesota exhibit lay in the fact that it represented in a comprehensive 
and symmetric manner the educational system and institutions of the 
State. No class was admitted, nor did the exhibit of any class have a 
relative importance in the entire display greatly out of proportion to 
its actual place in the educational system of the State. The exhibit 
was arranged under the immediate direction of the State Superintend- 
ent, Eev. D. L. Kiehle, assisted by Prof. Irwin Shepard, of the normal 
school at Winona, and Supt. W. F. Phelps, of that city. The exhibit was 
cared for by a relay of prominent Minnesota educators, each remaining 
two weeks. 

LOUISIANA. 

The Louisiana exhibit was largely from the city of Kew Orleans. 
Among the things that visitors would notice most quickly were a large 
case of slates containing work from the primary schools, an exhibit of 
the botanical collections made by pupils in the high school, and a bound 
volume of views of the McDonogh school buildings erected ;iud to be 
erected in accordance with the provisions of the will of John McDonogh, 
20 



INTEODUCTION. 21 

who left a fuud, the interest of which was to be used in the construc- 
tion^ of public school buildings in New Orleans. 

NEBRASKA. 

By the side of the Louisiana exhibit came that of Nebraska, which 
contained a very valuable display from its State normal school at Peru, 
and many others of more or less interest. An important suggestion 
was given by the display of apparatus for determining the atmospheric 
condition of a school-room. 

INDIANA. 

Indiana occupied a large section at the center of the State exhibits. 
Its space was well filled with exhibits, chiefly from rural schools, taste- 
fully arranged by Mr. A. E. Buckley. These exhibits were elementary 
in their character, but, with some others contributed by private institu- 
tions in different parts of the State, made up a very excellent exhibit, 
although it is to be regretted that the wealthier institutions of the State 
and those under its special control did not make exhibits to correspond 
with their resources. 

OHIO. 

Beyond the Indiana exhibit was that of Ohio. It contained very ex- 
tensive displays from colleges arranged by Prof. A. H. Tuttle, of the 
Ohio State University, and a fine exhibit of drawing prepared by the 
schools of Columbus under the direction of Prof. W. S. Goodnough. 
The other exhibits were such as to make the Ohio space one of the 
most instructive to visitors. It was arranged and cared for by Pro- 
fessor Goodnough, Hon. John Hancock, of Dayton, and Stat« Superin- 
tendent Leroy D. Brown. 

TENNESSEE. 

The exhibits from the State of Tennessee were made principally by 
private institutions. Several of those making the largest displays were 
institutions for the superior instruction of women. Drawing, painting, 
and the decoration of china, which form a part of the studies pursued in 
these schools, furnished material for making the Tennessee section one 
of the most attractive in the whole line, though it was not so well filled 
with exhibits. Still, representations of public school work and of that of 
universities were not wanting. The exhibits from other Southern States 
were interesting principally as showing the progress of newly inaugu- 
rated systems of public education, and were full of promise for the 
future of these systems. 

NEW JERSEY. 

The New Jersey exhibit arrived too late to be installed with the other 
States, but was placed in the southern part of the same gallery. It 
contained more bound volumes of school work and photographs of 

21 



22 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



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school buildings than any other 
State exhibit. Its exhibits of draw- 
ing, especially of maps, was most 
excellent. 

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES. 

At the northern end of the east- 
ern gallery were the exhibits of the 
Freedmau's Aid Society, the Amer- 
ican Missionary Association, and 
the International Missionary Asso- 
ciation, all of them denominational 
societies. The exhibits of the 
Freedman's Aid Society were prin- 
cipally examination papers and 
other written work from the vari- 
ous schools for the colored race 
over which it had control. There 
were a few specimens of industrial 
work. A portion of the material 
for this exhibit was diverted from 
its intended place and scattered 
among State exhibits and in the 
Colored Department. The exhibits 
of the American Missionary Asso- 
ciation were more varied, contain- 
ing, besides examination papers, 
drawing, and fancy work, many ar- 
ticles made in the Hampton (Va.) 
Normal and Agricultural Institute, 
and the San tee Normal Training 
School, San tee Indian Agency, 
Nebraska. Exhibits indicative of 
Rev. Sheldon Jackson's efforts for 
education in Alaska and the work 
of Miss Amy M. Bradley at Wil- 
mington, N. C, were located near 
by. 

wabd's museum. 

Ward's Museum of natural his- 
tory was located immediately south 
of the State educational exhibits. 
It was an extensive and accurately 
classified collection of specimens 
representing the several depart- 
ments of science. The representa- 



22 



INTEODUCTION. 23 

tion (restoration) t)f the mammoth, occupying a central position at the 
front of the gallery, was one of the most conspicuous objects iu the 
entire building. Visitors spent much time in examining the stuffed 
animals and other articles, and gave evidence of the popular interest 
in an exhibit eminently scientific in character. The extent to which 
the museum is described in the catalogue obviates the necessity of its 
more extended notice in this place. A ground plan of the space occu- 
pied by it at the center of the gallery gives an idea of its extent and 
completeness.^ 

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 

The Christian Brothers, with the Kew York Catholic Protectory, oc- 
cupied ninety feet of the gallery next to the exhibit of natural science. 
Economy of space, systematic arrangement, and the observance of ar- 
tistic requirements marked the installation of their exhibits. Tables, 
shelves, and screens were placed as near each other as consistent with 
the free passage of visitors in and out among the exhibits. Two nor- 
mal schools, eleven colleges, twelve academies, thirty-seven parochial 
schools, two industrial and training schools, and two orphanages con- 
tributed material. An exhibit of the educational books and charts of 
which members of the brotherhood were authors, included the histori- 
cal works of the order, charts for teaching writing and drawing, text- 
books, literary and scientific works, and normal manuals. A choice 
part of the collection was the display of models and casts for instruction 
in drawing, designing, and architecture. The exhibit was under the 
care of Brother Maurelian, president of Christian Brothers College, 
Memphis, Tenn. He was assisted from time to time by various mem- 
bers of the order, all of whom displayed zeal and unwearying interest 
in the exhibit, so that it never failed to be a model of cleanliness and 
order, and to show an increasing attractiveness in arrangement. The 
exhibit of the New York Catholic Protectory was composed chiefly of 
shoes, suits of clothes, books and printing, electrotyping, chairs, socks 
and stockings, and silk, from the male department ; lace work, plain 

1 During a display of the Ward collection at the Milwaukee Exposition, and before 
its contents and their excellence had become fully known, an opinion was asked from 
Prof. Spencer F. Baird, the director of the National Museum at Washington, as to 
Mr. Ward's work in general, and this present collection in particular. Professor Baird 
promptly returned a reply, from which we have been kindly allowed by the gentleman 

to whom it was addressed to make the following extract : 

• * « « « « « 

"We occasionally buy specimens from Professor Ward, and are constantly having 
specimens mounted and skeletons prepared at his establishment. 

"Professor Ward's specimens are uniformly well prepared and preserved, and we 
have found them thoroughly satisfactory. • * * 

"His establishment is probably the largest and best conducted of the kind in the 
world, and he has done much service to the cause of museum education in this coun- 
try, and by his own efforts has greatly raised the standard of excellence in the class 
of objects in«which he deals." 

23 



24 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



and fancy sewing, embroidery, 
and kid gloves, from the female 
department. The articles were 
of excellent quality and taste- 
fully displayed. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXHIBITS. 

The other exhibits in the east- 
ern gallery possessed no pecu- 
liarities not suggested by the 
catalogue lists of their articles. 
Most of them were installed by 
the Exposition and were without 
special decoration. The exhib- 
its of Judson Institute, Marion, 
Ala., and the Indian Training 
School, at Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 
were exceptions, the former be- 
ing installed under the supervis- 
ion of its principal, Robert Fra- 
zer., A. M., and the latter by Mr. 
A. J. Standing, assistant super- 
intendent. The art work in the 
former and the industrial work 
in the latter enabled them to 
make excellent displays. The 
plan of this part of the gallery 
gives a general idea of the posi- 
tions and extent of the exhibits. 

FOREIGN EXHIBITS. 

Japan, France, Belgium, Eng- 
land, Jamaica, Mexico, and Hon- 
duras were represented by ex- 
hibits of greater or less extent. 
Their presence was in nearly 
if not quite all cases due to 
the solicitation and encourage- 
ment of the Commissioner of 
Education. For this purpose he 
visited the Health Exhibition in 
Loudon and several cities in Bel- 
gium, France, and Great Britain. 
The exhibits of Japan, Jamaica, 
Belgium, and Honduras were in- 
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2o EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Erposition, out of the domain of the department of education. The Mex- 
ican ed.ucational exhibits were partly in the main bnOding and partly in 
the Women's Department. A small i>ortion of the English and French 
educational exhibits -were placed in the sections set apart for the com- 
mercial exhibits fiom those countries. It is to be hoped that the 
proper reports will do justice to the exhibits outside of those over 
which the Bureau of Education had soi>ervision, whether they were 
State, national, or individual. 

ENGLAND. 

The exhibits from England were sent by cities or individuals, and in- 
cluded a display from f 1 Birmingham School Board : (2) Shefl&eld School 
Board; (3j James Bigg. Engineer, London, E. C. ; (4) Prof. Henry Stayne, 
Technical College, Finsbury, London ; {5) British and Foreign Blind 
Association ; (6) Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and 
Dumb; (7) T. Xordeufeldt (Swedish gymnasium;: and (8) Bath. The 
Birmingham exhibit consisted of a model of a school house built on the 
class-room system ; pieces of physical apparatus made by pupils ; needle- 
work : and folios and volumes of school work. The Sheffield exhibit 
iIltLStrated by woodwork and mechanical drawings a course of study 
devised for the purpose of making a "proi>er connection between the 
theoretical instruction of the class-room and the practical instruction of 
the work -shop.'' 

The Swedish gymnasium occupied, a square 39 feet on the side. It 
was necessary to put it up so as to include the exhibits of Professor 
Stayne, Mr. Bigg, and the Sheffield School Board within its outer 
limits. This was done in such a way as not to do injury to the effect 
produced by these displays, nor hinder free access to them, nor render 
them liable to injury from the exhibition of the gymnasium. The use 
of the gymnasium was restricted, but not sufficiently to jjrevent the 
testing of its merits. The system on which the gymnasium was con- 
structed was designed to be productive rather of health than strength, 
and was understood and approved by the persons employed by the Bu- 
reau of Education to call attention to gymnastic apparatus and the 
methods and value of physical culture. 

The Bath exhibit was located at the south end of the western gal- 
lery, occuxjying a space fifty by thirty feet. It consisted of models of 
ancient Boman and modern baths, with drawings and photographs rep- 
resenting the baths and their surroundings, and antiqnities, such as his- 
toric flagstones, pottery, and lead jnpe from the Eoman baths. The ex- 
hibit was put in place by Mr. and Mrs. George Morris, of Bath, nnder 
the direction of Lieut.-Gol. Eugene Hay Cameron, who lost his life on 
the passage back to England. This exhibit illustrated the use of min- 
eral baths aisi the aid rendered to history by the excavation of ancient 
cities. 

26 



INTRODUCTION. 



27 



FRANCE. 



The French exhibit was extensive, complete, and systematic. It 
occupied most of the western half of the southern gallery. Its divisions 
are shown by the accompanying plan of the space occupied, formal 
school material was arranged 



ifJSotucccUan. 



along the front of the gallery. 
The arrangement was such 
as to produce the best im- 
pression and to command the 
admiration of visitors. " The 
genius of the French," said 
Dr. Harris, "wide-reaching 
as it is, is especially manifest 
in that very quality for which 
the whole Exposition is dis- 
tinguished — the art of ar- 
ranging and disposing things 
so as to make them display 
themselves. One can say 
truly that the apparatus of 
the French ef.ucational ex- 
hibit actually makes things 
into teachers." The French 
exhibit was under the im- 
mediate charge of Mons. B. 
Buisson, assisted by Mr. A. 
Duvall; and, therefore, its 
history is rather to be given 
by him in the catalogue than 
in a report of the Department 
of Education, whose officers 
only assigned space, secured 
privileges, and exchanged 
courtesies. One quotation 
may be appropriately added, 
in which Mr. E. V. Smalley 
aptly describes to the read- 
ers of the Century the French 
educational exhibit: 

It covers the whole field of edu- 
catioual efiort in France, from the 
creche for infants and the primary 
school to the cottages, the medical 
schools, the schools for manual 

labor, and the national schools of decorative arts. The American teacher visiting 
the crowded gallery containing this exhibit will be struck, first, by the way in which 
the French carry their love of system into their school work ; next, by a certain 

27 




28 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

artistic feeling and indefinable touch of taste in the work of the pupils ; and then, 
most of all, by the many evidences that instruction is carried outside the text-book, 
as far as possible, to objects and their relations, teaching theories by things and not 
by sentences learned by rote. 

SPECIAL OC0UBEEN0E8. 

teachers' visits. 

The lirst special event connected \^ith the Department of Education 
worthy of notice was the visits of teachers to the Exposition at the Christ- 
mas holidays. It is to be regretted that the educational exhibits were 
not all in order and completeness at the time. Those that were ready 
for inspection were examined by hundreds of teachers whose only op- 
portunity of visiting 'New Orleans was their holiday vacation. One 
gathering of teachers at the Exposition was particularly worthy of note. 
It was a meeting of two hundred from Texas, to listen to an address by 
Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner of Education, and to be introduced by 
him to persons in charge of educational exhibits. The line of march was 
through Ward's Museum, which was described in popular language by 
its proprietor ; to tbe Christian Brothers exhibit, where Brother Noah, 
of Amawalk, K. Y., was in charge, and spoke to them of the qualities 
and lessons of exhibits received, and mentioned others that were ex- 
pected ; to the display of manual training under Prof. John M. Ordway ; 
to the exhibit of physical culture under Prof. Hartvig Nissen ; and to 
the Chautauqua alcove, the exposition home of Prof. E. A. Spring. 
Teachers did not cease to visit the Exposition during its continuance, 
and frequently brought their schools or classes with them. The interest 
shown by New Orleans teachers in the educational exhibits was most 
commendable. They frequently came, either alone or in groups, often 
with pupils, and examined the scholars' work, the specimens of draw- 
ing and writing, the api^aratus and text-books suitable for their schools, 
and other exhibits of peculiar value to actual teachers. 

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS. 

An International Congress of Educators was held in connection with 
the Exposition. The arrangements for it were made by a committee 
consisting of Hon. M. A. Newell, State superintendent of public instruc- 
tion, Maryland; Hon. W. T. Harris, LL.D., Concord, Mass.; William H. 
Payne, A. M., professor of the science and art of teaching. University of 
Michigan; Hon. Le Eoy D. Brown, State commissioner of common 
schools, Ohio; and Hon. A. Coward, State superintendent of common 
schools, South Carolina. Abundant reason for holding it existed in the 
universal interest felt in the Exposition, the natural movement of in- 
telligent people toward it, the facilities for illustration and instruction 
it possessed, and the great value of combining educational exhibits and 
theories to produce the most permanent results. The Department of 



INTRODUCTION. 29 

Superintendence held its winter session at the same time. Both meet- 
ings were successful and may be reckoned among the events of the 
Exposition. Committees were appointed to examine minutely the edu- 
cational exhibits and to report on them, that their valuable lessons 
might be given to the teachers and educators, not only of this country, 
but also of foreign nations. 

children's jubilee. 

A "Children's Jubilee" was celebrated on April 10. It consisted of 
songs by the white school children of l^ew Orleans. The program was : 
(1) "Let us with a gladsome mind''^ (2) i)atriotic song from the Swlssj 
(3) Summer, by the girls' high school; (4) America; and (5) Auld 
Lang Syne, by the young ladies of the high school. The preparation of 
the children for singiQg was supervised by Prof. Luther W. Mason. 
The prime movers in the project were Eev. D. L. Mitchell and TJlric Bet- 
tison, Esq., superintendent of city schools. The Management admitted 
free all who were to participate in the singing. It was estimated that 
120 teachers and 4,500 children were present. 

EDUCATION DAYS. 

Education days were celebrated on May 12 and 14. The earlier was 
an occasion for a review of the educational field represented by the ex- 
hibits of an educational nature, and afforded an opportunity for express- 
ing the gratitude the friends of education had for the support given 
that department by the Exposition. The latter education day was in 
the interests of colored education. Its orators were Southern men who 
had a practical realization of the need and means of educating the 
colored race. The occasion was enlivened by the songs of some 1,600 
pupils of institutions in the city. A careful examination of the addresses 
of this day is recommended to students of the race problem in the 
South. 

RETURN OF EXHIBITS. 

At the close of the Exposition the educational exhibits were packed 
up either by those directly interested in them or by employes of the 
Department of Education. A circular letter had been sent to the own- 
ers of exhibits asking for the address to which each should be returned. 
Answers to nearly all were received and the exhibits were shipped ac- 
cording to direction, advantage being taken of contracts for the free re- 
turn of goods on which full freight to the Exposition had been paid. As 
in collecting exhibits for the Bureau of Education part had been shipped 
through the Bureau and part direct to New Orleans, so in returning 
those exhibited by the Bureau there was a choice made between these 
two methods. Few errors in shipment occurred, and these were rem- 
edied when brought to the attention of the proper officials. 

Many of the foreign exhibits were contributed to the Bureau of Edu- 
cation for its museum. All the Japanese exhibit, large portions of the 

29 



30 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Frencli and the English exhibits, except those of Professor Stayne, the 
Sheffield School Board, Th. Nordenfeldt, and Bath, went to the Bureau. 
The Bath exhibit was given to the museum of hygiene of the United 
States Navy Department. The exhibits of Professor Stayne, the Shef- 
field School Board, and Th. Nordenfeldt were packed, marked, and 
turned over to the officers of the Exposition to be returned to their 
owners. 

FAVORS RECEIYED. 

It would be impossible to enumerate in full those persons and insti- 
tutions that have placed the Department of Education under obligations 
by reason of favors granted and kindness shown. It may not be amiss to 
mention a few from whom the Department has received great assistance. 
William O. Eogers, Esq., and Rev. D. L. Mitchell, of New Orleans, were 
especially helpful. The Louisiana Educational Society placed its con- 
venient rooms at the disposal of the head of the educational interests 
of the Exposition and his assistants. Tulane University opened its doors 
to the friends of education, whether they came as individuals or in 
bodies, and they received a most cordial welcome from Col. William 
Preston Johnston, the eminent president, and his assistants. The Bu- 
reau of Education had at all times the sympathy and co-operation of 
officers of the Interior Department exhibit, and its thanks and those of 
the Educational Department of the Exposition are due to its secretaries, 
Hon. H. M. Teller and Hon. L. Q. C. Lamar ; to its representatives, 
Hon. Benjamin Butterworth and Marcellus Gardner, Esq. j and to its 
chief clerk at the Exposition, Col. H. W. Coffin. 
30 



CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 



LETTER OF TEAI^SMISSION TO THE COMMISSIONER OF 

EDUCATION. 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau op Education, 
Washington, D. C, November 21, 1885. 
Dear Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a catalogue of edu- 
cational material exhibited at the World's Industrial and Cotton Cen- 
tennial Exposition. A few exhibits not in the Department of Education 
either were not catalogued or the catalogue was not furnished ; there- 
fore they do not appear in these pages. 

arrangement. 

The arrangement of the catalogue corresponds nearly with the order 
required by the logical relations of exhibits and the preferences of State 
school officers. The unclassified exhibits of the National Bureau of Ed- 
ucation are presented at the beginning, prefaced by a statement of the 
work of the Bureau, and of the special exhibits displayed under its im- 
mediate control. Catalogues of State educational exhibits follow. These 
preserve, usually, the peculiarities wrought into them by their authors. 
Generally they are prefaced by an outline of the school system of the 
State. The lists of text-books and school appliances follow immediately 
the catalogue of city school exhibits. The reason of this is that city 
school exhibits represent the public school system, and the public schools 
are the principal purchasers and users of school books and appliances. 

From this point onward the arrangement conforms approximately to 
the classification of schools in your annual report. Museums, cabinets, 
models for technical instruction, laboratory and gymnastic appliances 
are brought into delation with the exhibits of colleges and schools of 
science. The enumeration of articles exhibited by societies, or from 
foreign countries, completes the catalogue. 

collection. 

The lists of articles have been obtained from persons in charge of ex- 
hibits whenever practicable. Endeavors to obtain them were begun 

31 



32 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

even before the opening of the Exposition. Personal solicitation often 
renewed failed sometimes to produce satisfactory response. By the use 
of your circular letter of February last much was accomplished. That 
this catalogue is not complete is not the fault of the compilers or the 
Bureau; for some who have been asked many times for their portion 
have never supplied it. The work of collecting and preserving the data 
and preparing certain sections of the catalogue was performed by Henry 
H. Piper, A. B., with painstaking and accuracy. Mr. Charles H. Eich- 
ardson prepared the material for the section relating to chemical and 
physical apparatus. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

If excuses are needed because the entries in the catalogue do not con- 
form to a single standard, they are found in the variety and amount of 
the material to be catalogued, the number of persons unused to cata- 
loguing engaged necessarily in the work, and the limited time at the 
disposal of any one concerned. An alphabetical arrangement has pre- 
dominated. Departure from it has been made whenever clearness of 
explanation or correctness of impression required. The lack of uni- 
formity is comx>ensated by the introduction of excellences characteristic 
of different cataloguers. A study of these would aid materially in the 
preparation of a set of rules for future use in expositions and pedagog- 
ical museums. 

HISTORICAL MATTER. 

The historical and statistical matter presented at intervals is of much 
value in enabling the reader to judge correctly of the significance of 
exhibits. The work of schools newly established and still struggling 
agairst prejudice and indifference possesses an interest not existing in 
case where material is sent from schools long established and generously 
supported. The statistics of education formed in many cases distinct 
and attractive exhibits, useful in indicating to the emigrant or capital- 
ist the intelligence and social condition of communities offering homes 
or investments. They also stir up the educational laggards and the 
unwilling tax-payers. They enlighten and direct the teachable citizen 
of ignorant but aspiring communities, and furnish him arguments for 
the support of schools and the promotion of education. 

. FOREIGN EXHIBITS. 

Catalogues, more or less complete, of exhibits from foreign countries 
are appended. A few small exhibits, as those of Belgium and Hon- 
duras, and the material included with the Mexican exhibit and not 
separately arranged in it, do not appear. The catalogue of the Japanese 
exhibit is very complete, being a description rather than an enumeration. 
These catalogues are full of information of the educational condition 
and peculiarities of the countries the exhibits represent. Nothing can 
show the drift of the French Republic, the rapid modification of the 



LETTEE TKANSMITTING CATALOGUE. 33 

Japanese people, better than tlie display of the material and methods 
used in the preparation of their children for industry, influence, and 
citizenship. These exhibits are produced by the same instrumentalities 
that are producing the history of these nations for the next fifty years. 
The omissions from the catalogue can be supplied, in cases where the 
material unmentioned is meritorious, from the list of awards made by 
the educational jury. Few exhibits of value escaped its notice, or, 
being noticed, did not receive recognition. 

Altogether the catalogue fairly represents the great collection of edu- 
cational material at the recent Exposition. The opportunity to see it 
is past ; the chance to know of it, to study its lessons, and to refer 
to it for information, will remain indefinitely, and become more advan- 
tageous than the temporary exhibition of the articles themselves. 
Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

LYNDON A. SMITH, 
Representative, Bureau of Education, 

W. I. and G. C. Exposition. 
Hon. John Eaton, 

Commissioner of Education, 
7950 COT 3 33 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 
John Eaton, Commissioner. 



DBSCKIPTIVE SKETCH OF THE BUEEATJ. 

The Bureau of Education was created "for the purpose of collecting such statistics 
as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and Territo- 
ries, and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and management of 
school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in 
the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote 
the cause of education. ' ' 

It will be perceived that the chief duty of the office under the law is to act as an ed- 
ucational exchange. Exercising and seeking to exercise no control whatever over its 
thousands of correspondents, the office occupies a position as the recipient of voluntary 
information which is unique. European ministries require paid subordinates to furnish 
the information needed for the compilation of their official reports; but at considerable 
expense of time and trouble the great body of intelligent educators of this country gratu- 
itously furnish a mass of information concerning their work, which in character and 
extent is believed to surpass what is brought together anywhere else. In collecting this 
information, the main reliance is placed, as has been intimated, upon correspondence ; 
but the exchange of publications and appliances and the purchase of books, pamphlets, 
and educational apparatus are also resorted to. The results have been a very large and 
continually increasing correspondence, an educational library of great value, and the 
rudiments of a most interesting museum. 

The language of the law already quoted authorizes the Bureau to enter upon a wide 
field of research, sends it to the study of school systems elsewhere prevalent, and leads 
to inquiry as to the ministries of instruction in the several European states, as to the 
useful suggestions in foreign educational reports and journals, and as to the systems of 
training in the universities, gymnasien, realschulen, schools of architecture and draw- 
ing, and the various institutions for primary education in every civilized community or 
state, in order that whatever is peculiar or excellent in each may be collected, with a 
view to the assistance of our educators in their work. 

All this, with the educational collections from our country, is presented by the Bureau 
in annual reports, each giving abstracts of the various classes of instruction (such as pri- 
mary, secondary, superior, professional, and special), with lists and statistics of all 
noticeable institutions and a general summary of the whole educational field; in occa- 
sional circulars of information, of which 68 have been published since 1870, besides 
special reports on topics of particular importance and smaller publications on topics of 
minor moment; and in written answers to inquiries on school matters from a great 
variety of sources, both in this country and abroad. 

The amount of information conveyed by these means with respect to educational sys- 
tems, school laws, and important institutions is such as has never previously been made 
34 



BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 35 

generally accessible in the United States, such as no agency belonging merely to a single 
State could possibly have gathered, and such as private persons could not have obtained, 
even vyith vast labor and at great expense. 

In obedience to the law requiring the Bureau of Education to diffuse information re- 
specting the organization and management of schools and school systems, and methods 
of teaching, it has sought to reach people vs^here they congregate in large masses. It has 
made a display, at expositions of national or international importance, of such evi- 
dences of improved methods and appliances as could be shov?n either from the collection 
it has made for permanent use, or from institutions and individuals choosing to display 
through the medium of the Bureau. The Bureau has not only displayed articles from 
its own material, but has also superintended collective exhibits of educational material 
and appliances. The following circular gives a correct idea of the logical representa- 
tion of education made under the immediate charge of the Bureau: 



Plan. — The intention of the exhibit of the Bureau of Education was to show in logical 
sequence the material of education in all grades and forms. States and institutions seemed 
to have a less wide field to draw from, and to have peculiarities best shown by separate 
exhibits. Then, too, there is much material sent to a great exposition which is valuable and 
instructive, and which cannot be shown advantageously unless grouped with other simi- 
lar articles. The arrangement of the Bureau exhibit enabled those in charge of it to 
bring into harmonious relations and appropriate surroundings many pieces of apparatus 
and much scholar's work. Charts of history are hung around a model of thatcenier of 
American history, the National Capitol. The various devices for instruction in number 
find a place on the same shelf. Maps and globes are gathered for the most part around 
a single center. 

School architecture. — In the logical arrangement of the exhibit school architecture 
holds a fundamental place. The child of tender years, susceptible to every iiijurious in- 
fluence from impure atmosphere and unequal heating, needs a school-room with acces- 
sories that will not impair its health or implant germs of future disease. Such a school 
building is shown as a crown-piece among the models of school-houses. The model is of 
wood, constructed so as to show the location of all air passages, the flues used in venti- 
lation, the dressing rooms, the stairways, and the means of lighting. The building 
from which the model is taken is one recently erected in the city of Washington, and 
embodies the results of years of study by the school of&cials, especially the superintend- 
ent. It combines excellent ventilation, suitable heating, lighting in sufficient amount 
and from the right direction, convenience of ingress and egress, and economy of con- 
struction. The plans of the building and a diagram of a cross-section accompany the 
model. The other representations of school buildings are designed to unite with this 
in showing the progress in school architecture, from the log house of the newly settled 
regions and days fast going by, to the more modern and convenient rural and village 
schools. 

Photographs and plans of schools in Denver, Colo., show admirable arrangement and 
appropriate architecture. The plans of the Whittier and Emerson buildings are especially 
elaborate. The fresh-air passages are colored blue ; those for the pure air after it is heated 
are red; and those for the impure air are black. The heating is a system of indirect radi- 
ation. The plans approved by the Maryland educational authorities for country school- 
houses are also found in this section. 

Early child life. — The early education of the child and his care before entering the 
public school are shown by the kindergarten and kitchen-garden displays and a collec- 
tion of photographs and articles from the Fitch creche, at Buffalo, N. Y. This institution 
is a home for little children whose mothers are away from them at work. The children 
are taken care of, and those of suitable age are instructed in a kindergarten. Photo- 
graphs of the pound, the dining-room, the wardrobe, and dormitories are interesting. 
Infants' clothing and toilet sets, and cribs and cradles are shown. 

Kindergarten. — The kindergarten display is located apart from the main portion of the 
Bureau exhibit, in a room at a sunny corner of the gallery. Here a class is instructed 
five times a week by Mrs. Anna B. Ogden, a teacher now employed by the Bureau. The 
class is comprised of children from homes near the Exposition grounds, and attracts a con- 
siderable circle of parents and visitors. Much interest in the class is manifested by those 
passing through the gallery, and many return for a second view of the busy children. 
The exhibits of kindergarten work are from schools in distant portions of the country, 
Washington, San Francisco, Indian Territory. Much of the material displayed has been 

35 



36 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

furnished by the manufacturers, and has been wrought into designs illustrative of the 
system, by a skillful teacher and student of kindergarten principles. 

Kitchen-garden. — The kindergarten room is occupied in the afternoon four days in the 
week, Mondays, "Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, by a class in kitchen-garden. 
This system of instruction is an application of kindergarten methods to the instruction 
of girls in household duties. "It is a combination of songs, exercises, and plays de- 
signed in a thoroughly practical way to train a child in simple housework. " It is divided 
into six parts or occupations, including such operations as kindling fires, waiting on the 
door, the care of rooms, laundry work, and cooking. The class is conducted by Miss 
Olivia Tracy, a pupil and assistant of the founder of the system. The music for the ex- 
ercises is supplied from a fine "Weber piano, loaned by the manufecturers. 

Primary schools. — The primary section includes apparatus directly adapted to the 
younger classes of scholars and material produced by them. The apparatus includes 
charts to be used in teaching reading, spelling, and arithmetic, slates in frames and in 
covers, crayons used in blackboard work, blackboards, a dissected map, outline maps, 
and object-lesson cards of various kinds. Seats of sizes used in primary schools are ar- 
ranged with the exhibit, and some text-books are put here on account of their special 
use by young children. 

The scholars' work for all the grades was furnished by the public schools of "Washing- 
ton, as that city was most accessible to the Bureau of Education and has excellent schools. 
The primary material from these schools represents actual work done in the lower grades, 
when the pupil first enters upon study. It consists of copy-books, movement exercises 
in penmanship, samplers (collections of miscellaneous school work), compositions, slate 
work, and map drawing. The material, except that of the last two classes, is in bound 
volumes, placed on desks representing those actually used in "^"ashington. The slate 
work is partly in a counter case and partly on the wall, where the map drawing is dis- 
played. 

Grammar schools. — The grammar school section contains much of the apparatus and 
material contributed by manufacturers and publishers. The collections of text-books 
common to public schools are displayed in counter cases. The globes and maps are 
most appropriately located here. The material for teaching sewing and articles of cloth- 
ing made by pupils in the "Winthrop School, Boston, fill one case. Another contains 
home-made physical apparatus and models to be used in teaching drawing. A most 
noticeable feature of this section of the exhibit is the putty maps made by children un- 
der instruction. They show countries in relief and indicate natural productions and re- 
sources by little pieces of minerals or grains of wheat, rice, or com. A child knows a 
country well after he has made a miniature of its coast, rivers, and mountains, and lo- 
cated its principal cities. The other work from "Washington consists of bound volumes 
of samplers, copy-books, drawing-books, compositions, examinations, and the like. Pho- 
tographs of school buildings and interiors, a map showing 'the location of schools in the 
District of Columbia, and astronomical charts, are on the walls of this section. 

High schools. — The high school exhibit includes the text-books used in the "Washing- 
ton High wSchool; photographs of the building, the cadets, the chemical and botanical 
laboratories, the library, drill hall, drawing-room, and physics lecture room; bound vol- 
umes containing catalogues, examination papers, essays, observation papers (Ijotany), and 
miscellaneous exercises in the languages, sciences and mathematics, history and political 
science, and business training. 

Across the aisle from the high school exhibit, or between it and the normal displays, 
are collections of bound volumes of school work from Atlanta, Ga. , and Leavenworth, 
Kans. ; drawing from Oak Park, a suburb of Chicago; a model of the Xational Capitol, 
surrounded by historical charts and photographs of historic interest; and a collection of 
drawings representing the work of each grade of the "Washington public schools. It was 
put in its present form and orderly arrangement by the special teacher of dravring. Fur- 
niture suitable for high schools is shown in the vicinity. 

Xormal schools. — The normal school exhibits are from the Maryland State Normal School, 
at Baltimore, and the Washington Xormal School. While these displays are alike in 
many respects, they are sufQ.ciently unlike to aid each other in making a complete 
exhibit. The normal exhibit from Washington contains much material designed for 
the education of quite young children. Seed cards for number lessons, worsteds for 
color lessons, tin coins for trading, mounted leaves to teach their forms and sizes, linen 
tracings for story making, and minerals to illustrate this department of natural history, 
are skillfully prepared for use in the school-room. One hundred mounted botanical 
specimens are placed on screens and covered with glass. Portfolios of drawings and de- 
signs from plant and geometrical forms, frames of designs shaded and in colors, and pho- 
tographs of the school-room are exhibited. 

The exhibit of the Maryland State Normal School has portfolios of maps, reading 
charts, history charts, original designs, rapid crayon drawings, examination papers, bo- 
36 



BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 37 

tanical specimens, etc. Leaves from these portfolios are shown on wall space so as to 
illustrate the nature of the covered exhibit. Books of sketches and drawings, photo- 
graphs of blackboard work, a picture of the building, and views of its interior are pre- 
sented. ~ The distinctive feature of the displaj^ is the work in sewing. A portfolio of 
pieces shows the different steps in teaching sewing. Two cases are filled with hand- 
sewing, embroidery, and similar evidences of woman's handiwork, all attractive in ap- 
pearance and creditably executed. 

Colleges and universities. — Colleges and universities occupy a space adjacent to normal 
schools, and have a varied but not large display. Photographs of buildings, plans of 
grounds, and the literature of the institutions make up a large part of the collection. 
Conspicuous among the objects are models of engineering construction (bridge, wharf, 
tunnel, etc.), from the University of Pennsylvania. The museum of the Bureau of Ed- 
ucation is represented by a series of miniature ploughs showing the improvements made 
in this instrument, which might j ustly be termed an index of agricultural progress; and 
also by a set of models for use in teaching descriptive geometry. Surveying instruuients 
and cabinets of minerals add to the completeness of the college exhibit. 

Gymnasium. — Physical culture, instruction in art, and the use of the library, accom- 
pany, or should accompany, every grade of instruction. They are therefore grouped in 
the space beyond the college exhibit, which represents the culmination of public and gen- 
eral education. The collection of gymnastic apparatus is chosen so as to represent such 
physical training as will make of students, not acrobats or athletes, but healthy men and 
women. Sluch of the apparatus is of recent design and prepared after a long experience 
with gymnasiums and college students. Weight, height, strength of hands, and strength 
of lungs, are noted, and such measurements may be made as will indicate the strong and 
weak points of each individual. 

Art instruction. — The art display is peculiarly industrial, and is from the public schools 
of Chicago, the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, and the Pennsylvania Jluseum 
and School of Industrial Art. The Chicago exhibit includes specimeus irom all the grades 
of instruction usual in public schools; that of the Philadelphia School of Design for 
Women has a preponderance of designs for wall papers, cloths, and carpets, and includes 
specimens of carpets in which the design is wrought out; and that of the Pennsylvania 
Museum and School of Industrial Art is accompanied by ornamental work in plaster. 
These institutions are not neglectful of fine art, although their purpose is to prepare their 
students for earning their livelihood in the industries; and many pieces exhibited are 
the product of high artistic skill, and merit notice and close examination as such. 

Library. — The library section contains material customarily found in an educational 
library and reading room — educational reports, higher text-books, pedagogical literature, 
educational periodicals, and the like. The reports of the Bureau of Education and the 
publications of Hon. Henry Barnard are conspicuous by their number. The most num- 
erous collection of literary publications, including an elegant edition of Longfellow's 
works, is from Houghton, Mifdin & Co. A set of the registers, records, cases for card 
catalogues, and other appliances, useful in conducting a library, is worthy of the in- 
spection of all connected with library management or desiring information on the subject. 

Physical and chemical laboratory. — A combined laboratory for physics and chemistry 
was contemplated in the first plans for an exhibit by the Bureau. A gentleman who 
had given much study to the most convenient arrangement of a school-room for labora- 
tory work commenced the plan for this section, but died before its completion. This 
and the limitations of space caused a modification of the plan. The present arrangement 
is suggestive, and the equipment of the laboratories excellent. Many experiments can 
be shown by the gentleman in charge, and electrical phenomena are given prominence. 
The solar microscope shows in a most interesting manner the same tbings that can be 
seen by an ordinary microscope; and the curiosities of polarized light are shown to visit- 
ors. A fine exhibit of optical goods from Bausch, Lomb & Co. is included in the lab- 
oratory space; and E. B. Benjamin, of New York, James W. Queen & Co., of Philadel- 
phia, and E. S. Eitchie & Sons, of Boston, are large contributors to the display. 

Medical and nurse-training schools. — Medical education is ' represented by^ anatomical 
models, obstetrical instruments, chemical apparatus, and pi'ofessional literature. The 
photographs of many faculties of medicine are collected. An interesting portion of this 
display is that furnished by nurse-training schools. Their exhibits are photographs of 
hospitals, hospital wards, interiors and exteriors of homes for nurses, and the nurses 
themselves. The strength of mind and body of nurses, made obvious by their photo- 
graphs, indicates partially the severe course of training and experience which sifts out 
weak material from the sisterhood of trained nurses and insures the quality of those who 
are allowed to graduate at these schools. 

Schools for the blind. — The collective exhibit of schools for the blind is the first of a 
series of displays of the education of the defective and delinquent classes. The books 
used by them and printed in raised letters of several varieties; the blocks and other ap- 

37 



B8 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

pliances used in mathematical study, the fabrics knit by their sensitive hands, and the 
forms of industry they are able to pursue are here represented as far as possible. Com- 
paratively little is present to show the musical opportunities and capacities of the blind, 
except some compositions fiom a blind boy of Mississippi. Among the institutions 
largely represented are those of New York, Ohio, and Louisiana. 

Schools for the deaf and dimib. — The education of the deaf and dumb is well illustrated 
by the objects collected from their schools, and by specimens of their handiwork after 
leaving school. The largest exhibits are from the Institution for the Instruction of the 
Deaf and Dumb, New York City; the Illinois Institution for the Education of the Deaf 
and Dumb, Jacksonville, and the Mississippi Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Jack- 
son. The first-named institution prepared its display at home and sent a gentleman of 
rare artistic ability to place it. The products of the art and industrial departments are 
displayed to the best advantage, the paintings, metal work, tiles, and art needle-work 
being made to contribute to the appearance of the ruder constructions of the shop. The 
Illinois institution has a varied exhibit, including bound volumes of examination papers, 
sketches and portraits in pencil and crayon, shoes, and the like. Many institutions and 
individuals are represented by the works of art and mechanism displayed. The collec- 
tion owes its extent and quality largely to Prof J. E. Dobyns, superintendent of the 
Mississippi institution. 

Reform schools. — Reformatory education is shown by various exhibits, chiefly from in- 
dustrial departments. Clothing from the Colorado State Industrial School, sewing from 
the Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls, Avood-work from the Minnesota Reform School, 
and brushes from the Newark City Home are prominent exhibits. The photographs from 
the Connecticut State Reform School give indications of the enlightened methods of 
dealing with young offenders, by giving them homes instead of congregating tJiem in 
prison-like buildings. 

Schools for the feeble-minded. — Two institutions for the instruction of the feeble-minded, 
those in Kentucky and Minnesota, present exhibits of the work of this class of youth. 
The work is not shown because of its superiority, but because it proves that much may 
be accomplished in the way of preparing those low in intelligence to become useful men 
and women. 

Publications. — Report of the Commissioner of Education, with circulars and documents 
accompanying the same, 1868. Special Report of the Commissioner of Education on the 
condition and improvement of public schools in the District of Columbia, 1868. ^ 

Annual reports of the Commissioner of Education for the years 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 
1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882-'83. 

Contributions to the annals of medical progress and medical education in the United 
States before and during the war of Independeuce,by Joseph M[eredith] Toner, M. D., 1874. 
Public libraries in the United States of America; their history, condition, and manage- 
ment, special report, 1876. Contributions to the history of medical education and 
medical institutions in the United States of America, 1776-1876, special report, by N. 
S. Davis, A. M., M. D., 1877. Industrial education in the United States, special re- 
port, 1883. 

Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education for August, 1870. Contents : Illit- 
eracy of 1860; educational statistics; Virchow on school-room diseases; education of 
French and Prussian conscripts; school organization, «fec. 

Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education for July, 1871. Contents: Public 
instruction in^Sweden and Norway ; the folkehoiskoler of Denmark. Same for November, 
1871: Methods of school discipline. Same ior December, 1871: Compulsory education. 
Same for January, 1872 : German and other foreign universities. Same for February, 
1872 : Public instruction in Greece, the Argentine Republic, Chili, and Ecuador; statistics 
respecting Japan and Portugal ; technical education in Italy. Same for March, 1872 : Vital 
statistics of college graduates; distribution of college students in 1870-'71; vital statistics 
in the United States, with diagrams, &c. Same for April, 1872 : Relation of education to 
labor. Same for June, 1872 : Ediication in the British West Indies. Same for July, 1872 : 
The kindergarten. Same for November, 1872 : American education at the Vienna Ex- 
position of 1873. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1873. Contents : 
No. 1. Historical summary and reports on tlie systems of public instruction in Spain, 
Bolivia, Uruguay, and Portugal. No. 2. Schools in British India. No. 3. Account of 
college commencements for the summer of 1873, in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Massachusetts. Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. 
No. 4. Lists of publications by members of certain college faculties and learned societies 
in the United States, 1867-1872. No. 5. Account of college commencements during 
1873 in the Western and Southern States. 

' Valuable reports on Technical Education and Education in Europe were also prepared, but were 
not ordered to be printed. 

38 



BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 39 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1874. Contenis : 
No. 1. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational 
Association, January, 1874. No. 2. Drawing in public schools. The present relation 
of art to education in the United States. No. 3. History of secondary instruction in 
Germany. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1875. Contents : 
No. 1. Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1875. No. 2. Education 
in Japan. No. 3. Public instruction in Belgium, Russia, Turkey, Servia, and Egypt. 
No. 4. Waste of labor in the work of education. No. 5. Educational exhibit at the Cen- 
tennial in 1876. No. 6. Reformatory, charitable, and industrial schools in the United 
States. No. 7. Constitutional provisions in regard to education in the several States. 
No. 8. Schedule of students' work for the Centennial Exhibition, 1876. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1877. Contents: 
No. 1. Education in China. No. 2. Public instruction in Finland, the Netherlands, 
Denmark, Wiirtemberg, and Portugal; the TJniversity of Leipzig. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1878. Contents: No. 
1. The training of teachers in Germany. No. 2. Elementary education in London. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1879. Contenis: No. 
1. Training-schools for nurses. No. 2. Proceedings of the Department of Superintend- 
ence of the National Educational Association in 1877 and 1879, and of the conference of 
State college presidents held in Ohio in 1877. No. 3. Value of common-school education 
to common labor. No. 4. Training-schools of cookery. No. 5. American education as 
described by the French Commission to the International Exhibition of 1876. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1880. Contenis: No. 
1. College libraries as aids to instruction. No. 2. Proceedings of the Department of Su- 
perintendence of the National Educational Association in 1880. No. 3. Legal rights of 
children. No. 4. Rural school architecture. No. 5. English rural schools. No. 6. 
Teaching of chemistry and physics in the United States. No. 7. The spelling reform. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1881. Contents: No. 
1. Construction of library buildings. No. 2. Relation of education to industry and tech- 
nical training in American schools. No. 3. Proceedings of the Department of Super- 
intendence of the National Educational Association in 1881 . No. 4. Education in France. 
No. 5. Causes of deafness among school children and the instruction of children with 
impaired hearing. No. 6. Effects of student life on the eyesight. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1882. Contents: No. 
1. Inception, organization, and management of training-schools for nurses. No. 2. Pro- 
ceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association 
for 1882. No. 3. The University of Bonn. No. 4. Industrial art in schools. No. 5. 
Maternal schools in France. No. 6. Technical instruction in France. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1883. Contents: No. 
1. Legal provisions respecting the examination and licensing of teachers. No. 2. Co- 
education of the sexes in the public schools of the United States. No. 3. Proceedings 
of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association at its 
meeting at Washington, February 20-22. No. 4. Recent school-law decisions. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1884. Contents: No. 
1. Meeting of the International Prison Congress at Rome, in October, 1884. No. 2. 
The teaching, practice, and literature of shorthand, by Julius Ensign Rockwell, stenog- 
rapher. No 3. Illiteracy in the United States in 1870 and 1880, with diagrams and 
observations, by Charles Warren, M. D. , with an appendix on national aid to education, 
by J. L. M. Curry, L.L. D., general agent of the Peabody Education Fund. No. 4. Pro- 
ceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association at 
its meeting at Washington, February 12-14, 1884. No. 5. Suggestions respecting the ed- 
ucational exhibit at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition. No. 6. Ru- 
ral schools : progress in the past; means of improvement in the future. No. 7. Aims and 
methods of the teaching of physics, by Prof. Charles K. WeaA, A. M., of the University 
of Michigan. 

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1885. Contents: No. 
1. City school systems in the United States, by John D. Philbrick, LL. D. 

Bulletins : A manual of the common native trees of the Northern United States, 1877, 
The Brussels congress, 1880. The Indian school at Carlisle Barracks, 1880. Industrial 
education in Europe, 1880. Vacation colonies for sickly school children, 1880. Progress 
of western education in China and Siam, 1880. Medical colleges in the United States, 
1 88C. Educational tours in France, 1880. Comparative statistics of elementary education 
i n fifty principal countries, 1881. Fifty years of freedom in Belgium, education in Malta, 
&c., i881. Library aids, 1881. Recognized medical colleges in the United States, 1881. 
The discipline of the school, 1881. Education and crime, 1881. Instruction in morals 
and civil government, 1882. Comparative statistics of elementary, secondary, and superior 

39 



40 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

education in sixty principal countries, 1882. National Pedagogic Congress of Spain, 1882. 
Natural science in secondary schools, 1882. High schools for girls in Sweden, 1882. 
Planting trees in school grounds, 1883. Comparative statistics of elementary, secondary, 
and superior education in sixty principal countries, sheet. The Bufalini prize, 1883. 
Education in Italy and Greece, 1883. Statistics regardiag national aid to education, 
1884. Preliminary circular respecting the exhibition of education at the World's In- 
dustrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, 1884. Building for the children in the South. 
Eeport of the director of the American school of classical studies at Athens, for the year 
1882-'83. Planting trees in school grounds and the celebration of Arbor Day. 

Miscellaneous : Free-school policy in connection with leading Western railways, 1872. A 
statement of the theory of education in the United States of America, as approved by many 
leading educators, 1874. The National Bureau of Education ; its history, work, and limita- 
tions, 1875. Educational conventions and anniversariesduringthesummer of 1876. The 
International Conference on Education, held in Philadelphia July 17 and 18, in connection 
vpith the international exhibition of 1876. Sketch of the Philadelphia Normal School for 
Girls, 1883. A historical sketch of the State Normal School at Albany, N. Y. ; and a his- 
tory of its graduates for forty years, 1884. Answers to inquiries about the U. S. Bureau 
of Education; its work and history, 1883. 

Building occupied hy the Bureau. — Plan of basement, showing laboratory, document 
rooms, &c. Plan of first floor, showing document and mail-room, room for revising and 
proof-reading, and rooms for tabulation of statistics, accessions to museum, and art edu- 
cation. Plan of second floor, showing rooms of commissioner, chief clerk, correspond- 
ence and files, special research, copyists, and abstracts. Plan of third iioor, library. 
Plan of fourth floor, museum. Photographs of exterior of building, rooms of coHamissioner, 
chief clerk, statistics, files and correspondence, and rooms in basement, library, and 
museum. 

Flans. — Eighteen plans showing statistical summary of institutions, ipstructors, and 
students. Fifteen plans showing the location of the institutions reporting to the Bureau 
of Education, except "city schools," "institutions for secondary instruction, " "indus- 
trial schools. ' ' One plan: Statistics of United States public schools, showing school pop- 
ulation, enrollment, average daily attendance, and proportion of male to female teachers. 
One plan showing ratio of students to teachers in the various schools, except "indiis- 
trial schools. " Five plans showing illiteracy: (1) Total illiteracy of persons ten years 
old and upwards; (2) illiteracy of white persons ten years old and upwards; (3) illit- 
eracy of colored persons ten years old and upwards; (4) illiteracy of white adults; (5) 
illiteracy of colored adults. 

Charts. — Charts showing illiteracy, patents, and postal receipts for 1880: (1) Number 
of illiterate adults per 100,000 of adult population; (2) the number of patents per 100,000 
of adult population; and (3) the number of dollars deficit or excess per 100,000 of adult 
population in the United States postal service. Chart showing the distribution of the 
Peabody fund. 

Models. — Models illustrating progress in school architecture : Log house, country school- 
house, village school-house, Deimison School, Washington, D. C. , with floor plans and 
transverse section. 
40 



OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIES. 
Hiram Price, succeeded by J. D. C. Atkins, Commissioner. 



INDIAN" INDUSTEIAL SCHOOL AT CARLISLE, PA. 
Exhibit A. 

Case 1. — Specimens of darning and patching by Indian girls from 9 to 13 years of age. 

Case 2. — A child's dress made by Nelly Aspenall, a Pawnee girl, aged 17 years. 

Case 3. — Specimens of pottery painting by Carlisle students, original designs. 

Case 4. — Specimens of joiner work by Amos Lone Hill, a Sioux, aged 20 years. 

Case 5. — Girl's uniform dress worn by the Carlisle students, made by Louise Corne- 
lius, Oneida, aged 16 years. 

Case 6. — Boy's uniform suit worn by Carlisle students, cut and made by Webster, Osage, 
aged 18 years, under instruction two and one-half years, working half day of each. 

Case 7. — ChUd's dress made by Eosa White Thunder, a Sioux girl, aged 17 years, 
under instruction one year. 

Case 8. — Small uniform suit cut and made by Abe Sommers, a Cheyenne, aged 18, 
under instruction two years, working half days. 

Case 9. — A pair of breast chains made by Frank Conroy, a Sioux, aged 19 years, worked 
at his trade half-time for one year. 

Case 10. — Specimens of welding and forging by Edgar Fire Thunder, a Sioux, aged 18, 
three years under instruction, working half-time. 

Case 11. — Contains pair of boots made by Van Horn, a Cheyenne, aged 20 years, wholly 
instructed at Carlisle, and now employed as shoemaker at the Government Indian School, 
Lawrence, Kansas. Pairs of girls' shoes by Luke Phillips, Nez Perc6, and Frank Engler, 
Cheyenne. 

Case 12. — Pillow sham made by Nancy Mcintosh, a Creek Indian girl, aged 17 years. 

Case 13. — Skirt made by Ida White Face, Apache, aged 17 years, at school ten months. 

Case 14. — Boys' shirts made by Emma.Hand, Sioux, and Sarah Sitting Bull, Arapaho 
girl. 

Exhibit B. 

No. 1. — A set of English coach harness, made by Kias, a Cheyenne, aged 20, under in- 
struction at Carlisle 4 years. 

No. 2. — Heavy wagon harness, regular government pattern, 200 double sets made for 
Indian Department yearly. 

No. 3. — Articles of tinware, made by Carlisle students, consisting of coffee boilers, 
buckets, pans, cups, etc. The school makes tinware for about sixty Indian agencies. 

No. 4. — Specimens of boys' and girls' shoes made and worn by Carlisle students. The 
school makes all the girls' shoes and a large part of the boys' shoes and boots, and repairs 
150 pairs per month. 

No. 5. — Specimens of Indian art in leather, by the harness-makers' apprentices in their 
odd moments. 

No. 6. — A carriage axle welded at one heat by Edgar Fire Thunder. Sioux, mounted 
by William Ayawat, Comanche. 

No. 7. — A panel door and table top by John Dixon, a Pueblo, aged 18. 

No. 8. — A footstool, made by John Menaul and Henry Kendall, Pueblo boys of 16 
years. 

41 



42 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Exhibit C. 

No. 1. — Specimens of map drawing by Carlisle students, from memory; also original 
drawings and copies. 

No. 2.— A set of photographs, illustrating the Carlisle school, its buildings and students: 
also some contrast pictures showing the changes produced by school-training; also pict- 
ures of Indian parents visiting the school contrasted with those of their children at 
school, giving possibilities lor the coming generation of Indians. 

No. 3. — Exhibit of school-room work, specimens of all grades from three and a half 
months in school to live years, embracing writing from copy, original composition, ex- 
amples iu arithmetic, questions in geography and history, specimens of monthly home 
letters, exercises in language, analysis and parsing, book-keeping, &c. 

No. 4.— Copy of the "Morning Star," an eight-page monthly, published at Carlisle In- 
dian School in the interest of Indian education and civilization. The type-setting and all 
the mechanical work of the paper are done by Indian apprentices. From 3,000 to 5,000 
copies are j)rinted monthly. 



ILLUSTRATION OF INDIAN PEOGEESS. 
Prepared by 

Miss Alice C. Fletcher. 

This exhibit sets forth the progr ess and present status reached by the Indians, by 
showing their past life and present condition. For the sake of clearness, one tribe, the 
Omahas, was selected to exemplify the general feature of primitive Indian life and pres- 
ent industrial progress. They have recently reached the stage of self-support upon land 
granted in severalty, and their history presented no scenes calculated to arouse unpleas- 
ant memories. The exhibit contained the following articles: 

No. 1.— Photograph of ancient sod dwelling. The chief in full dress approaching the 
lodge, followed by his wife, showing the manner in which man and wife walk together 
according to Indian custom. 

No. 2.—- Photograph of sod dwelling, giving a view of the long, projecting entrance. 
The chief lying down smoking, while his wife stands at the door talking with him. 

No. 3. — Photograph of sod dwelling and of the rack on which the braided ears of corn 
are hung up to dry, preparatory to storage for winter use. Two women seated in the 
foreground, one braiding the corn husks so that the corn can be hung up, and the other 
pounding thfe corn in a large wooden mortar with a long wooden pestle. 

No. 4. — Photograph of poles fastened to apony, showing how tents and household goods 
were transported when the tribe moved out on the hunt. 

No. 5.— Photograph showing the setting of the tent, stretching of the tent-cloth, 
women carrying wood, and the hunter returning from the chase. 

No. 6. — Photograph of the tent when set up, the Indian man in full regalia, and the wife 
seated at the tent door. 

No. 7. — Pen and ink drawing giving a bird's-eye view of the tribal circle, showing the 
division and location of the gentes, and the position of the sacred tents. 

No. 8. — Tracing of a plan of the reservation as it appeared in 1862, with the legend 
shovring the villages, individual and government breakings, and the one military road 
through the country. 

TVTo. 9. — Pen and ink drawing from the sketch made by an Indian of the village of the 
"make-believe whits men," as these progressive Indians were stigmatized by the rest of 
the tribe. 

No. 10.— Photograph showing the present mode of conveying corn by the wagon load 
to the grist-mill, marking j) great change since the day of braiding the corn husks, and 
pounding the maize in the mortar. 

No. 11. — Photograph setting forth the story of one man's labor and accomplishment 
in ten years, showing his home, out-buildings, and part of his farm. 

No. 12. — Photograph of a group of Ojuaha Indians with the agent and his assistants, 
as they appear to-day, one Indian in ancient costume to mark the contrast with the 
past. 

No. 13. — Photograph of the agent's house. 

No. 14. — Map showing the reservation as now held in severalty. 
No. 15.— Photograph of the mission building erected in 1858 by the Presbyterian Board 
of Foreign Missions. 
42 



OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFATES. 43 

^0. 16. — Photograpli of Omaha girls at the mission school, with the missionary corps. 

No. 17. — Photograph of the government school with the scholars and the teachers. 

No, 18. — Photograph of an Indian carpenter at work in his own shop. 

No. 19. — Photograph of 31 Omaha boys and girls placed at Carlisle School, Pennsyl- 
vania, in 1882. 

No. 20. — Photographs: First, of the two cottages built at Hampton Institute, Virginia, 
by two ladies interested in the experiment, suggested by the experience of Miss Fletcher 
among the Omahas, for the combined home and school training of young married couples; 
second, one of the cottages with the mother seated at the window and her little child 
standing at the door; third, interior of the cottage, showing the table with lamp and 
books and the general aspect of neatness and refinement. 

There were small exhibits in the Pacific Slope division of the Woman's Department 
from the Indian training schools at Forest Grove, Oreg., and Albuquerque, N. Mex.; 
and, in the exhibit of the American Missionary Association, from the normal training 
school at Santee Agency, Nebraska. 

43 



STATE SYSTEMS 



PLOEIDA. 



The exhibit from Florida was entirely from her common schools, from the primary 
school through the graded grammar schools and the high schools, and consisted of the 
work of the pupils written in response to questions submitted at the time at which the 
work was done, and embracing the worst as well as the best, the design being to make 
a truthful display of the actual status of her educational progress. 

The Florida Agricultural College and the Deaf-Mute Institute were of so recent organ- 
ization as to prevent an exhibit, even had it been thought wise to make one. 

In addition to the work of the common schools proper, two seminaries, one located at 
Tallahassee, the capital, for the west half of the State, and one at Gainesville for the 
east half of the State, each made an exhibit of their work. 

The schools represented are as follows: 

West Florida Seminary, academic course. — Examinations in spelling, grammar, geogra- 
phy, history, mathematics to trigonometry. Special work in surveying and commercial 
arithmetic and computation. 

East Florida Seminary, Gainesville. — Examinations in spelling, grammar, geography, 
mathematics to trigonometry, book-keeping, and special essays on subjects relevant to 
school study. 

Fast Jacksonville graded scJiool. — Written work in answer to questions submitted upon 
the course of studies arranged for that school, embracing the rudiments and advancing 
through the usual studies of a common school. 

Jacksonville graded grammar school, white. — Written work in accordance with the 
course of study adopted for schools of such grade, and map and ornamental drawing, 
together with composition. 

Jacksonville graded grammar school, colored. — The same as the above white school, with 
essays from the teachers relative to the work of the teacher. 

JDuval high school, Jacksonville. — Written work in accord with the course of study for 
that school and compositions by the pupils. 

Pine Level, Manatee County, school. — Written work, embracing a common school course, 
composition, map drawing, etc. 

Oakland graded school, colored. — ^Exhibit the same as the East Jacksonville school for 
the white children. 

Orlando, Orange County, puilic school. — ^Written work based upon questions submitted 
as in the case of the grammar schools, composition, map drawing, etc. 

St. Josephs Convent school, St. Augustine (this school is operated under the laws of the 
State for public schools). — ^Written work based upon a course of study similar to that 
arranged for the grammar schools, and compositions, map drawings, etc. 

Sanford, Orange County, public school. — Written work based upon questions submitted, 
embracing a grammar school course, composition, and map and ornamental drawing. 

In addition to the above there were several exhibits from schools of a similar character 
in the rural districts of MarioUj Duval, Putnam, and Volusia Counties. 

Large charts in print of the full course of study for the grammar schools and high schools 
of the State were also included in the exhibit. 

Several thousand pamphlets descriptive of the Florida school system, setting forth 
permanent and annual resources, number of school population, and essential points of 
school law, were provided for distribution. 
44 



STATE SYSTEMS ILLINOIS. 45 

ILLINOIS. 

CITY EXHIBITS. 

The school system of Illinois is well illustrated by an exhibit from the public schools 
of Aurora, Prof. W. B. Powell, superintendent. This exhibit gives a very excellent idea 
of the public school system in its most advanced state. 

An exhibit somewhat smaller in size, but excellent in quality, is made by the public 
schools of Peoria, Professor Dougherty, principal. 

The Voice and Hearing School for the Deaf at Englewood made a creditable display of 
work by pupils. 

ILLINOIS INDUSTEIAL UNIVEESITY. 

School of art and design. — Crayon. — Studies: Mask; head of Juno; Laocoon; arranged 
drapery; enlargement from copy; Thorwaldsen's Cupid. Time studies: Man's head, 
irom life; young lady, from life. 

Charcoal. — Landscapes. 

Water color. — Jar and drapery; Indian skull and buffalo robe; Psyche; Cupid; lilacs; 
oranges; lemons, etc.; brass kettle, and vegetables; bronze lamp; military belongings; 
group of Japanese objects; moonlight; sunset; autumn; summer. Time studies: Heads, 
vegetables, fruit, etc.; memorial window; mantel clock; octagon tile; dado for wood 
carving. 

Pen and pencil finish. — Designs: Chair; fireplace; wall cabinet; upright ii'on gate; up- 
right iron fence ; four designs from same elements. 

Oil color. — Silver vase, inlaid and enameled; cottage lamps; fan; tea set. 

Clay (terra cotta and plaster). — Eosette; finial; keystone emblem; State arms; three 
tiles; capital; Youth and Age; architectural ornaments; sketch (Learning and Labor); 
Painting, Music, and Sculpture; crocket (unfinished); copy from flat; horse and tiger; 
winged head from cast; acanthus leaf; two enlargements from casts, from nature. 

School of architecture. — Case 1. — Elementary woodwork, — ^First term, ISTos. 1 to 28, in- 
clusive. Second term, Nos. 1 to 10, inclusive. Third term, brass cutting, eight exam- 
ples. Fourth term (platform A), models of staircase; grand staircase; roof truss; truss 
bridge. 

School of mechanical engineering. — Case 2, — Elementary shop practice, consisting of 
numerous patterns and examples of lathe work, planer work, filing, and chipping. 

Case 3. — Advanced pattern work — complete set of patterns for an upright drill press; 
carved work, &c. 

Case 4. — Principles illustrated — shock models, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; equilateral cam; sun 
and planet combination; Watt's crank substitute; cut-off valve motion; slotted link 
motion; intermittent gearing; heart cam; hypocycloidal coupling; adj ustable link con- 
nection; Peausellier's straight-line motion; intermittent and variable bevel gearing; 
eccentric cam; chain gearing; twisted belt; windlass motion; Stephenson's link motion; 
slotted link motion; treadle motion; elliptic motion; teeth of spar gear. 

School of botany and horticulture. — Cases 5, 6, and 7. — Specimens of the woods of Illi- 
nois, with leaf, flower, and fruit of each as far as obtainable when the collection was pro- 
cured. 

School of agriculture. — Cases 8 and 9. — Samples of corn, wheat, rye, barley, &c. , grown 
in all parts of the State; arranged and labeled at the Industrial University. 

School of chemistry. — Case 10. — Analysis of farm products, including several specimens 
of corn; also wheat, oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, rice, beans, peas, potatoes, red 
clover, prairie hay, straw, sorghum, oil cake, &c., showing the number of grams of oil, 
ash, albuminoids, water, fiber, and starch, respectively, in 1,000 grams of each article 
enumerated. Also two hundred and nine jars and bottles containing chemicals from the 
laboratory of the Industrial University (students' work). 

Case 11. — Technological exhibits, embracing the following series: Flax — (1) flax tow 
from breaker; (2) sliver from breaking card; (3) sliver from finishing card; (4) yarn from 
spinning frame; (5) flax bagging. Hemp — (1) hemp stalk; (2) hemp tow from breaker; 
(3) hemp tow from breaker card; (4) hemp tow from finisher card; (5) sliver from first 
drawing card; (6) sliver from second drawing card; (7) yarn from roving frame; (8) yarn 
lirom spinning frame; (9) 3-ply hemp twine for self-binder. 

45 



46 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



IOWA. 

The educational system of Iowa includes common schools, graded and ungraded, high 
schools, one State normal school, one agricultural college, one State university, one col- 
lege for the blind, one college for deaf-mutes, and nearly fifty colleges and academies. 
In the exhibit, of which the catalogue is herewith appended, all these institutions have 
been more or less completely represented. As will be readily seen, by far the larger part 
of the exhibit came from the common schools, private institutions contributing least. 

The following is the list of exhibitors contributing, with a brief list of the articles 
contributed by such exhibitor: 

Achley public schools^. — Manuscript work in grammar and history from the seventh 
grade. Physiological drawings from the seventh grade. Drawings illustrating prob- 
lems in physics. Map drawings. 

Albia public schools^. — Manuscript work from various grades. Penmanship. Copy- 
books bound in volumes. Map drawings. 

Atlantic public schools^. — Manuscript work in arithemetic and history from the eighth 
grade. Manuscript work in language from the sixth grade. Manuscript work in arith- 
metic from the fourth and seventh grades. Penmsuiship from map drawing from the sixth 
grade. 

Banes, J. de, Dubuque. — Display-card of photographic work. 

Ballingall, P. G., Ottumwa. — Silk banner with Iowa coat of arms. 

Bell Plains public schools. — Manuscript woi'k of all grades from first to eleventh. 
Drawings from sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Map drawings from the same grades. 
Worsted maps of Iowa. Map weaving from first grade. Box of clay models. 

Blackburn, Miss S.,^ Vinton, Iowa. — Teachers' examination questions. Teachers' ex- 
amination manuscripts. Circulars showing the work of county normal institutes during 
a period of ten years. 

Burlington public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic, language, grammar, his- 
tory, geography, music, from all grades. Penmanship from all grades. Manuscript 
work in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, Latin, German, natural science, book-keeping, 
&c. , from the high school. 

Cass County public schools.^ — Drawings from the country schools. Map drawings from 
the graded schools of Marne. Map drawings from the country schools. 

Cedar Bapids public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from the 
first, second, and third grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, geography and gram- 
mar, from fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, grammar, 
and history from seventh grade. Manuscript work in political economy, English liter- 
ature, algebra, botany, physics, from the high school. 

Charles City public schools. — Manuscript work in arithmetic from all grades from third to 
eighth inclusive. Penmanship from third to eighth inclusive. Manuscript work in geog- 
raphy and language from the grades fourth to eighth inclusive. Manuscript work in his- 
tory from the eighth grade. Manusc:«pt work in physical geography, algebra, and word 
analysis from the ninth grade. Manuscript work in physics and word analysis Ironi the 
tenth grade. Manuscript work in physiology and geometry from the eleventh grade. 
Manuscript work in political economy, Latin, and English literature from the twelfth 
grade. Slate work, drawings, and pencil work from the primary grades. Map draw- 
ing from fifth and sixth grades. 

Clinton public schools.^ — Manuscript work from the first and third grades. Manuscript 
work in language and arithmetic from the fourth and fifth grades. Manuscript work 
in arithmetic and geography from sixth and seventh grades. Manuscript work in 
arithmetic, grammar, and history from the eighth grade. Manuscript worlc in English 
literature, geometry, algebra, physiology, modern history, German, and Latin, Ironi 
the high school. Charts of kindergarten work from the primary grades. Boxes of kin- 
dergarten material. Drawings from primary grades. Library blanks filled by pupils. 

Columbus Junction. — Manuscript work in arithmetic, grammar, geography, history, 
physiology, and algebra, from grammar grade. Manuscript work in grammar and 
geography from the intermediate grade. Map drawings from intermediate grades. 

Cornel! College. — Framed cut of the buildings and grounds. Photographs of iiresident 
and professors. Manuscript sketch of the institution. 

Creston public schools. — Manuscript work in language and arithnietic from the first and 

secon'd grades. Manuscript work in language and arithmetic from the third, fourth, 

■ fifth, and sixth grades. Manuscript work in history from the seventh and eighth grades. 

^All the work bound. ''All the work in portfolio. sjianuscript work all bound. 

46 



STATE SYSTEMS — IOWA. 47 

Drawings from the fourtli grade. Map drawings from the fifth, seventh, and eighth 
grades. Manuscript work in civil government and geometry from the high school. 
Charts, " Outlines of Grammar " from the high school. 

Davhiport public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, and geography 
from third to seventh grades, inclusive. Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, and history from the eighth and ninth grades. Manuscript work in zoology, 
geometry, and botany from the high school. Manuscript work in German from several 
grades and from the high school. Manuscript from the city training school. Miscella- 
neous manuscript work. Drawings from grades four to nine, inclusive, and from the 
high school. Slates from primary grades. Teachers' charts for instruction in primary 
grades. Color charts for instruction in primary grades. Box of colors corresponding to 
the item last mentioned. Charts for instruction in music. Charts for elementary work 
in uumbers. Program of daily exercises. 

Des Moines public schools} — Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, and geography 
from primary and grammar grades. Inventions in paper-cutting and paper-folding from 
primary grades. Original designs in paper-cutting from the fifth grade. Manuscript 
■work in history from the eighth grade. Herbaria from the high school. Map drawing 
irom the seventh and eighth grades. Slates from primary grades. Charts for primary 
instruction from the training school. Worsted maps of Iowa from primary grades. 
Worsted maps of Polk County, Iowa, from primary grades. Clay relief maps of Iowa 
Irom primary grades. 
Dubuque. — Chart of ornamental penmanship from Baylies' Commercial College. 
Eldora public schools. — Manuscript work in language and arithmetic from the grammar 
grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, history, and geography Irom the high schools. 
Book-keeping from the high school. Manuscript work in commercial arithmetic Irom 
various grades. Drawings illustrating physiology from the high school. 

Fort Madison public schools. — Penmanship third to eighth grades inclusive. Primary 
drawing. Map drawing. 

Grand Junction public schools. — Penmanship from the primary grades. Manuscript 
work in grammar from the grammar grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, ancient 
history, physical geography. United States history, from the high school. Drawings 
from the grammar grades and from the high school. 

Green County public schools. — Manuscript work from the country schools of Bristol 
Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Cedar Township. Map draw- 
ings from the country schools of Cedar Township. Miscellaneous work in manuscript 
from the country schools of Franklin Township. Map drawings from the country schools 
of Franklin Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Graiit Township. 
Map drawings from the country schools of Grant Township. Manuscript work from 
Hardin Township country schools. Manuscript work from Highland Township country 
schools. Manuscript work from the country schools of .Junction Township. Manuscript 
work from the country schools of Paton Township. Manuscript work from the country 
schools of Washington Township. Map drawings from the country schools of Washing- 
ton Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Willow Township. 
Haclcney, W. F. — Plans and elevation for a five-room school-house. 
Hardin County public schools. — Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, and history, 
from the country schools. Drawings from the country schools. Map drawings from the 
country schools. 

JIuiscamp, J. C. — An oil painting — fruit-piece. 

Iowa AijricuUural College. — Herbaria from the sophomore class of 1884. 
Iowa College for the Blind. — Manuscript work in geometry. Two volumes, "raided let- 
ter." Numerous samples of bead -work. Five brooms. One hair mattress. One husk 
mat. One piece rag carpet. Numerous pieces of fancy knitted work. One cane chair- 
bottom. Samples of thread lace. One doll and hammock. Maps (cloth) of Iowa and 
Louisiana. 

Iowa Falls public sthools.' — Manuscript work in geometry and i)hysiology from the 
high school. 

Iowa Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. — Two crayon portraits, enlarged from plioto- 
graphs. Four crayon art pieces. One pen-and-ink sketch. Eleven pairs boots and 
shoes. One walnutiof&ce-desk. 

Iowa State Normal School.^ — Manuscript work in English literature, geometr3% Engliwh 
analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and penmanship. Theses of graduating classes, 1878-'83. 
Notes of lecturer on didactics. Notes of work in botany. Notes of laboratory work in 
physics. Set of drawing-books. Herbaria. Set of relief maps made in putty. Charts 
of physiological drawings. Charts for primary teaching. Charts of drawings from 
various grades. 

lAU manuscript work bound. -All the work bound. 

■ ' ■ ■ 47 



48 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Jefferson public seho'ols. — Manuscript work from all grades and from the high school. 
Drawings illustrating problems in physics from the high school. Map drawings from 
the grammar grades and the high school. 

Jesup public schools.^ — Manuscript work in history. Map drawings. 

Kingsley public schools.' — Manuscript work, reading, arithmetic, geography, history, 
and civil government. 

Kossuth County public schools. — Map dravsdng from Greenwood Township. 

Le Claire public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language, &c., from fifth and sixth 
grades. 

Le Mars public schools. — Primary work in arithmetic and penmanship. Manuscript 
work in language and arithmetic, from grades second to fourth, inclusive. Manuscript 
work in geography, from the seventh grade. Manuscript work in German and political 
economy, from the high school. 

Lewis public schools. — Manuscript work in geography and history, from the eighth 
and ninth grades. 

Lyons public schools. — Manuscript work in botany and rhetoric, from the high school. 

Marble Bock public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language, from the 
second, third, sixth, and eighth grades. Manuscript work in geography, from the fourth 
grade. Manuscript work in grammarandalgebra, from the fifth grade. Manuscript work 
in history, English grammar, and arithmetic, from the seventh grade. Map drawings 
from the grammar grades. 

Marengo public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language and arithmetic, from fifth, 
sixth, and seventh grades. Manuscript work in history, from the eighth grade. Manu- 
script work in rhetoric, botany, Latin, and German, from the high school grades. 

Marshall County public schools. ' — Manuscript work in geography, arithmetic, language, 
physiology, and history, from district No. 1, Timber Creek Township; dravsdngs from the 
same school ; map drawings from the same school. 

Marshalltown public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language, from grades second to 
seventh, inclusive. 

McGregor public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic, geography, and history, 
from the grammar grades. Eeport of the public schools for the term ending December 
21, 1883. 

Monroe public schools. — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from the first 
and second grades. Manuscript worlc in geometry and English literature from the high 
school. 

Nora Springs public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language and arithmetic from the 
sixth grade. 

Norris, R. W. — Herbaria, repesenting the Iowa flora. 

Oskaloosa public schools.^ — Manuscript work in all branches, representing one day's 
work in all grades from first to twelfth inclusive. Map drawings, a series of memory 
maps of continents. Drawing-books illustrating the work of all grades. Copies of the 
High School Register, a monthly journal published by pupils of the high school. Ten 
copies ' ' Course of Study for Oskaloosa Public Schools. " School blanks of various kinds 
showing forms of reports, diplomas, etc. 

Ottumwa public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from first and 
second grades. Manuscript work in music and language from the third and fourth 
grades. Manuscript work in music, arithmetic, history, and language from the fifth 
grade. Manuscript work in music, language; and geography from the sixth grade. 
Manuscript work in arithmetic, geography, and language from the seventh grade. 
Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from the eighth grade. Manuscript work 
in history, English literature, Latin, geometry, physics, and botany from the high school. 
Drawing I'rom all grades above the second. 

Plack, W. L. — Architectural designs for school -houses (three). 

Pocahontas public schools. — Manuscript work from the primary and grammar grades. 
Map drawing from the primary and grammar grades. 

Bockford public schools. — Manuscript work in arithmetic from the first, second, third, 
and fourth grades. Manuscript work in physical geography and arithmetic from the 
fifth grade. Manuscript work in arithmetic, physiology, history, and language from 
seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth grades. Oil painting, by Anna Lyon, high school. 

Sanborn, W. W. — Architectural designs for school-houses (five). (Buildings erected 
in Clinton, Sabula, and elsewhere.) 

Scranton public schools. — Manuscript work from the primary grades. Manuscript work 
from the intermediate grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, history, and penman- 
ship from the high school. 

1 All work bound. 

48 



STATE SYSTEMS IOWA. 49 

Searsborouffh public schools} — Manuscript work in arithmetic, gram-mar, physiology, 
and history from the eighth grade. Manuscript work in geography from the eighth 
grade. Map drawing from the eighth grade. 

Sfieldon public schools. — Manuscript work in geography, physiology, and arithmetic 
from the grammar grades. 

Shenandoah public schools} — Manuscript work in language from first, second, third, and 
fourth grades. Manuscript work in penmanship from the fifth gxade. Manuscript work 
in grammar from the sixth and seventh grades. Manuscript work in history, geometry, 
and penmanship from the high school. Map drawing from the second, seventh, and 
eighth grades. Course of study. 

Shimek, B. — A collection of the land and fresh- water mollusks of Iowa. 

Shoup, George K, Dubuque — Crayon sketches and oil paintings. 

Sidney public schools. — Manuscript work in geography, language, arithmetic, and his- 
tory from grammar grades. Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, geography, and 
penmanship from the intermediate grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, physiology, 
grammar, Latin, algebra, and physical geography from the high school. 

Sioux City public scAooZs.— Manuscript work from the primary grades. Set of copy- 
books from the intermediate grades. Drawings from intermediate grades and from the 
grammar schools. Drawings from the high school. Map drawing from intermediate 
grades. 

Spirit Lake public schools. — Manuscript work and map drawing. 

Spring field public schools. — Manuscript work from various grades. Map drawipg from 
various grades. 

Springville public schools. — Drawings from the grammar grades. Map drawing from the 
grammar grades. 

State Department. — Four glass charts displaying (1) Organization and growth of the 
county normal institutes for a period of ten years; (2) a graphic representation of the 
relation of the school population to the entire population, school population to enroll- 
ment, enrollment to average attendance, daily attendance to daily absence; (3) the 
school statistics of the State from 1848; (4) the organization of the Iowa State school 
system. 

Six linen charts illustrating graphically the increase in the number of teachers em- 
ployed, in school population, in number of schools, in permanent school fund, in valua- 
tion of school property, in total annual expenditure for school purposes. 

Blank teachers' certificates of four grades. Blank high school diploma. Blank State 
certificate. Sample lithographs from Des Moines. 

A bound set of Iowa school reports. A bound set of Iowa school laws and decisions. 
The report of the censuses of Iowa, 1835-'80. Bound volumes of various school jour- 
nals. Bound volumes of miscellaneous State documents. One volume of blanks for re- 
ports of district secretaries. One volume of blanks for reports of county superintend- 
ents. One volume of blanks for reports of district treasurers. 

A school-house map of the State, showing number and distribution of school-houses. 
Photographs of public school buildings and colleges throughout the State. 

State University of Iowa. — One illustrative paleontological cabinet. Laboratory note- 
books in biology, botany, conchology, and paleontology. Theses in zoology, botany, 
and civil engineering. Five photographs of drawings, illustrations for a work on pale- 
ontologj^ Sets of drawings illustrating three terms' work in instrumental drawing. 
Drawings illustrating first and second terms' work in free-hand drawing. A set of topo- 
graphical maps. Drawings in India ink and water colors. Box of mounted micro- 
scopic slides. 

Steamboat Bock. — Charts of kindergarten work. Charts of primary drawing. Charts 
of physiological drawings. Charts of various work from the grammar grades. Map 
drawings. 

Stich, John 31. , Clinton. — A set of crayon sketches and drawings. 

Tama County public schools. — Manuscript work in language from the ungraded schools 
of Oneida Township. Manuscript work in language from Gladbrook graded schools and 
high school. Drawings from the country schools of Columbia Township. Map draw- 
ings from Howard, Carroll, Lincoln, Crystal, Highland, York, and Columbia Town- 
ships. Worsted maps of Tama County and of the State. 

Union public schools. — Manuscript work in language from the intermediate grades. 
Manuscript work in arithmetic, language, physiology, and history from the grammar 
grades. Drawings from the grammar grades. 

Waterloo public schools, East Side. — Photographs of free-hand drawings. Photographs 
of school buildings. Program of daily exercises. Floor plans of school buildings. 
Map drawings. West Side. — Penmanship from the fourth grade. Manuscript work in 

( ^AU work bound. 

7950 COT 4 49 



50 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

grammar and arithmetic from the seventh grade. Manuscript work in history from the 
eighth grade. Manuscript work in algebra, history, geometry, analysis, and physical 
geography from the high school . Map drawing from the primary grades. 

'West Liberty public schools. — Manuscript work in grammar, arithmetic, composition, 
and physiology. Dissected maps illustrating anatomy. Map drawing. 
Witter, F. M. — A collection of the land and fresh- water mollusks of Iowa. 

-^he following Iowa authors contributed to the State's exhibit: Jerome Allen, T. H. 
Benton, C. E. Bessey, Finley Burke. W. E. Crosby, A. N. Currier, W. R. Fisher, W. N. 
Friesner, C. H. Gurney, J. B. Harris, J. D. Hornby, W. N. Hull, J. H. Jackson, O. J. 
Laylander, J. Macy, G. F. Magoun, Marvin and Morrisey, T. H. McBride, Emlin Mc- 
Clain, W. McClain, J. L. McCriary, J. N. Ross, Wm. Salter, A. J. Stevens, P. W. Sud- 
low, B. F. Tillinghast, G. Wedgewood, C. A. White, D. S. Wright. 



LOUISIANA. 

STATE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT (INCLUDING NEW ORLEANS). 

Alexandria. — 13 writing books, 3 sets of composition, 1 set each of grammar, arith- 
metic, history, and geography, 1 portfolio of maps. 

Clinton Academy, East Feliciana Parish. — Nine pencil drawings, 3 water colors, clay 
models, specimens of composition. 

3Iansfleld Female College, De Soto Parish. — 67 writing books, 7 drawing books, portfolio 
of work in drawing and music, volume of i^encil drawings, 13 pencil drawings, 9 oil- 
paintings, 4 paintings on porcelain, 4 packages of examination papers in grammar, 2 
packages of examination papers in Latin, 1 package each in algebra, spelling, trigonome- 
try, geometry, and physiology. 

Monroe. — Portfolio of pencil drawing and map drawing, 2 portfolios of pencil draw- 
ing and arithmetic, 2 volumes examination papers in algebra, 3 volumes examination 
papers in iDenmanship, 2 volumes examination papers in algebra. 

New Iberia (parish). — Portfolio of sewing-work and embroidery. 

JSleio Orleans. — The Boys' High School exhibited 10 framed astronomical drawings, 
3 framed philosophical drawings, 6 framed balance sheets, 2 framed specimens of short- 
hand, 2 framed specimens of ornamental penmanship, 3 framed maps, framed letter to 
students in shorthand, 1 bound volume each examination papers in Latin, mental phi- 
losophy, geometry, penmanship. 

The Girls' High School furnished 6 framed botanical drawings, 3 astronomical draw- 
ings, 13 framed charcoal drawings, 2 pencil-drawings, 1 set geometrical drawings, 22 
mounted botanical specimens, 2 bound volumes examination papers in botany, 1 each in 
arithmetic, astronomy, physics, and comitosition. 

The grammar school exhibit consisted of 3 framed water-color paintings; 55 framed 
maps; 26 maps, not framed; 9 framed samples of ink drawing; 5 framed specimens of 
penmanship; 3 framed copies of teachers' certificates and diplomas; framed written 
statement of Louisiana industries; 3 framed mottoes; framed photograph of school 
building and scholars; framed drawing of "Castle Brun " ; 72 sets of examination 
papers in arithmetic; 32 sets examination papers in grammar; 58 sets examination 
papers in penmanship; 31 sets examination papers in composition ; 33 portfolios of ruaps; 
6 volumes examination papers in composition, arithmethic, and penmanship; specimen 
of work in etymology; 668 writing books; 100 specimens of slate work; Hill's Map of- 
History. 

Chestnut Primary School exhibited 24 specimens kindergarten work; 13 specimens of 
designs; 13 specimens of white ink drawing; 12 specimens of map drawings. 

A bound volume containing plan of McDonogh Schools, Nos. 1 to 20, was also ex- 
hibited. 

Opelousas. — Two volumes of penmanship composition. 

St. Charles (parish). — Specimens of penmanship and composition. 

St. James (parish). — Specimens of penmanship composition. 

Shreveport. — Portfolio miscellaneous school work. 

Southern Art Union, New Orleans. — Seven crayon drawings; 13 studies in oil. 

Southern University. — Three framed maps; 16 samples of slate work in penmanship and 
arithmetic; volume of maps; bound volume examination papers in preparatory depart- 
ment; bound volume examination papers in high school department. 

State Superintendents Office, Hon. Warren Easton, superintendent. — Two copies of re- 
port for 1882-'83, of State superintendent; bound volume of school laws, 

50 * 



I 

STATE SYSTEMS MICHIGAN MINNESOTA. 51 

MICHIGAN. 

The educational exhibit from Michigan consisted principally of work from all grades 
of the Grand Rapids public schools, charts representing the studies pursued in the State 
Universitj'^, photographs of charitably and reformatory institutions, and a forestry col- 
lection from the State Agricultural College. 

MINNESOTA. 

His Excellency Lucius F. Hubbakb, 

President of Board of Collective Exhibits for State of Minnesota. 
Hon. Oliver Gibbs, jr., 

U. S. Commissioner for Minnesota. 
Hon. D. L. KiEHLE, 

Superintendent of Minnesota Educational Exhibit. 
Supt. Wm. F. Phelps, 
Pres. Ikwin Shepaed, 
Prof Wm. W. Payne, 

Committee of Installation. 



letter of transmittal of the superintendent of the MINNESOTA EXHIBIT. 

St. Paul, Minn., Ifarc/t 1,1885. 

Sir: I have the honor herewith to submit a report of the material constituting the 
Educational Exhibit of Minnesota at New Orleans, La., together with a brief sketch of 
the organization of our school system. 

I desire to recognize the cordial spirit in which the educators of the State have re- 
sponded to our call and have co-operated in presenting a comprehensive display of the 
work of the State in all grades from the kindergarten to the university. 

The State is under special obligations to the Committee of Installation, who have 
spared neither time nor labor in aiding to perfect plans for the display of our exhibit 
and in completing its careful installation. 

Very respectfuMy submitted. 

D. L. KIEHLE, 

Swpt. Educational Exhibit, Minnesota. 
Hon. John Eaton, 

U. S. Commissioner of Education, 

Washington, D. C. 



BRIEF SKETCH OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF MINNESOTA. 

I. national educational endowment. 

On the 19th of February, 1851, it was enacted by the Senate and House of Represent- 
atives in Congress assembled, "That the governors and legislative assemblies of the 
Territories of Oregon and Minnesota be, and they are hereby, authorized to make such 
laws and needful regulations as they shall deem most expedient to protect from injury 
and waste, sections 16 and 36 in said Territories, reserved in each township for the sup- 
port of schools therein." 

51 



f 

52 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

And it was further enacted, " That the Secretary of the Interior be, and he is hereby, 
authorized and directed to set apart and reserve from sale out of any of the public lands 
within the Territory of Minnesota to which the Indian title has been or may be extin- 
guished, and not otherwise appropriated, a quantity of land not exceeding two entire 
townships, for the use and support of the University of said Territory, and for no other 
purpose whatever, to be located by legal subdivisions of not less than one entire section." 

When Minnesota was by her population entitled to admission into the Union, Congress 
in an act of February 26, 1857, authorizing her to form a State government, made the 
following provision: 

"That sections numbered 16 and 36 in every township of public lands in said State 
shall be granted to said State for the use of schools." 

' ' That 72 sections of land shall be set apart and reserved for the use and support of the 
State University, to be selected by the governor of said State, subject to the approval of 
the General Land Office, and be appropriated and applied in such manner as the legisla- 
ture of said State may prescribe, for the purpose aforesaid, but for no other purpose." 

But still further and still better: on the 2d of July, 1862, Congress passed an act 
"donating lands to the several States and Territories which may provide colleges for the 
benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts." 

This act is limited to States not in rebellion, and donates 30,000 acres for each Senator 
or Representative in Congress to which the States are entitled by the apportionment of 
the census of 1860. Section 4 of this act provides that all moneys derived from the sales 
of these lands, directly or indirectly, shall be invested in stocks yielding not less than 
5 per cent, upon the par value of such stocks. " That the money so invested shall con- 
stitute a perpetual fund, the capital of which shall remain forever undiminished, and 
the interest thereof shall be inviolably appropriated by each State which may claim the 
benefit of the act, to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college 
where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies 
and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agri- 
culture and the mechanical arts, in such manner as the legislature of the State may re- 
spectively determine, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the in- 
dustrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." 

The act is further detailed, both as to the time of building and the use of the fund, 
and when States neglect to comply with the provisions, the amount received by them 
shall be paid back to the United States. The recipients shall make an annual report as 
to the progress and experiments made, with their costs and results, and all necessary and 
useful statistics connected with the institutions, and transmit one copy free to all other 
colleges under the act, and one to the Secretary of the Interior. ^ 

Under this act Minnesota was entitled to select 150,000 acres of land to aid in teach- 
ing the branches named in said act, in the State University, making the endowment 
fund of the Government of the United States to the State of Minnesota for ediicational 
purposes as follows: 

1. For common schools, in acres 3,000,000 

2. The University of Minnesota 208,360 

Total 3,208,360 

Of the "Agricultural College" grant, amounting to 208,360 acres, 94,439 acres have 
been selected, and 72,700 acres under the two university grants, making 167,147 acres 
realized for university purposes out of the entire grant. 

The permanent school fund derived from the national domain by the State of Minne- 
sota, at a reasonable estimate, can not vary materially from the following: 

1. Common schools, in acres, 3,000,000; value ^ $18,000,000 

2. University grants, in all, in acres, 223,000; value 1,115,000 

5^ 



STATE SYSTEMS MINNESOTA. 5.^ 

Out of these government appropriations of 3,223,000 acres maybe realized, an annual 
revenue for schools and university: 

1. For common schools $1, 000, 000 

2. For university instruction '. 60, 000 

II. PEOVISION MADE BY THE STATE. 

The State constitution confirms in all respects the requirements of the Congressional 
grant. It reafl&rms the importance of a provision for popular education; it provides for 
the sale of school lands, the safe investment of the income, the distribution of interest 
received from the school fund, and requires the legislature to provide by taxation or other- 
wise a suflicient amount to "secure a thorough and efiBLcient system of public schools in 
each township in the State." 

The organization of the university was confirmed by the State constitution, and the 
Congressional land grants were'severally passed to that corporation. The system of com- 
mon schools was formally articulated with the university by statute, approved in 1881, 
appropriating $20,000 for the encouragement of higher education in high schools. This 
statute appoints a State high school board consisting of the governor of the State, the 
superintendent of public instruction, and the president of the university, which has su- 
pervision of all high schools operating under this law. Each school fulfilling the condi- 
tions of the law receives |400 annually to be used for the support and improvement of 
the high school. 

PEOFESSIONAL IKSTITUTES. 

Three normal schools have been established, viz: at Winona, 1857; at Mankato, 1865, 
and at Saint Cloud, 1869. 

The following summary presents in more orderly manner the organization and support 
of our system of public instruction: 

THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 

The system of education which is now supported by the State is comprehended in the 
following: 

(1) The schools. ♦ 

(2) The supervision of instruction. 

(3) The supply and improv ement of instruction. 

(4) The financial support of education. 

The leading features and facts of the system according to the above arrangement are 
as follows: 

I. THE SCHOOLS. ' 

( 1 ) Common schools. — Organized and numbered as subdivisions of the county by the county 

commissioners. 
Courses of study include common English branches. 
Terms of schools not less than four months each year. 
Teachers must be qualified by holding a certificate of the first, second or third grade, 

issued by county sup*intendents upon personal examination. 
Free to all residents of the district between the ages of five and twenty-one years. 
Oflficers: director, treasurer, and clerk. Term of service three years. 
Present number, 4,802. 

(2) Independent and special d^/siWcfe.— Organized under general statute as independent, or 

under special act as special; generally adopted by cities and towns. 
Courses of study, as directed by board of education. 
Teachers to be qualified by certificate of examining board. 

53 



54 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Free to all residents of the district between the ages of five and twenty-one years. 
Officers, board of education, consisting of five members: term, three years. 
Present number, 100. 

(3) State high schools. — Organized as a department of the schools of the independent 
and special district. 

Course of study, three years, prescribed by the State high school board; prepares for 
the State University. Final examinations are taken upon the completion of subjects on 
questions prepared by the State board. Certificate of passing in any subject is accepted 
in lieu of an entrance examination in that subject at the State University, and to the 
professional course of the State normal schools. 

Teachers must hold the certificate of State high school board. 

Eeports of condition to be made to the board each term. 

Present number, 56. 

(4) State University. — Organization, by special charter, 1868. 

Officers: Board of regents, consisting of the governor, ex officio, and superintendent of 
public instruction, ex officio, and president of the university, ex officio, and seven persons 
appointed by the governor; term, three years. 
Departments: 

Collegiate Department. 
College of Science, Literature, and the Arts. 
College of Mechanic Arts. 
College of Agriculture. 
College of Medicine.^ 
Geological Survey. 
Tuition free in all departments ; first two literary, others professional and technical. 
Course of study in literary departments, classical, scientific, and modern. 

II. SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION. 

(1) Superintendent of Public Instruction. — Appointed by the governor, confirmed by the 
senate; term, two years. 

Duties: general supervision (vide boards of control of the several departments and 
institutions); reports to legislature biennially. Salary, |2,500 per annum. 

(2) County superintendents of schools. — Elected by the people; term, two years. 
Duties: examination of teachers, visitation of schools, providing for institutes and 

teachers' meetings; reporting annually to superintendent of public instruction. 
Minimum salary, $10 for each organized district. 
Present number, 75. 

(3) Superintendents and examiners of independent and special districts. — Appointed ; term 
and salary determined by the board of education. 

Duties: examination of teachers and general supervision. 

(4) State high school hoard. — Organized by statute. Officers: the governor, president; 
the superintendent of public instruction, secretary; and the president of the State Uni- 
versity, examiner. 

Duties: to accept high schools to supervision, to visit and inspect, to prepare ques- 
tions for, and to conduct final examinations, to exaAine teachers of State high . 
schools, to Tippropriate $400 to schools complying with law. 

Annual appropriation, $23,000. 

^ The faculty of this is for examination. No instrhetion offered. 
54 



STATfi SYSTEMS MINNESOTA. 55 

in. THE SUPPLY AND IMPROVEMENT OF INSTEUCTOKS. 

(1) State normal schools. — At Winona; organized, 1859; at Mankato, 1865; at St. Cloud, 

1869. 

Courses of study: Uniform, elementary course, three years; advanced course, four 
years; academic, professional in theory and history of education, with practice 
teaching in model school. 

Officers: Board of directors, consisting of superintendent of public instruction, sec- 
retary ex officio, one resident director at each school, treasurer, and three mem- 
bers at large; all appointed by the governor; term, three years. 

Free to all pledging to teach in the State two years. 

Present number of graduates, 1,044. 

Present enrollment, 672. 

(2) State institutes. — Directed by superintendent of public instruction. 

Instruction by three permanent conductors from the normal schools, the county 

superintendent, and assistants by special appointment. 
Number: One every year for each county, usually one week in length. Free to all 

teachers. 

IV. FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF SCHOOLS. 

(1) Permanent funds. — {a} General school fund, $6,246,321.15. 

Two sections in each township set apart by Congress to be sold at not less than $5 
per acre; sales to be invested and interest apportioned in March and October to 
districts upon school enrollment. 

Present annual revenue, $363,046. 

Annual apportionment per scholar, $1.72. 

Lands unsold, 2,093,478 acres. 
(6) University fund, $663,630.25. 

Present annual revenue $30,000. 

(2) State annual appropriations. — State University, $35,000; normal schools, $48,000; 

high schools, $400 each, to the amount of $23,000; State institutes, $6,000. 
One-mill tax, to be returned to the school districts in the amounts paid by each. 
Present amount, $316,900.79. 

(3) Special district tax. — In common school districts, voted at annual or special meeting; 

in independent and special districts, voted by the board of education. Present 
amount, $1,513,288.44. 

CATALOGUE OF EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS. 

Albert Lea city schools, E. Chilcoat, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers. 

Brovm's School and Six Oaks. — Pupils' work in composition. Pupils' work in repro- 
duction. 

Cambridge village schools. — 1 volume of public school examination papers. 

Chatfleld village schools, J. F. Giles, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers 
by high school. 

Carleton College, Norihfield, James W. Strong, D. D., president. 

[This institution was organized in 1867. The course of study is both preparatoi-y and collegiate — 
classical, literary, seientitte, English, and musical. It has a corps of sixteen professors, a productive 
endowment fund of nearly §100,000, six buildings, and a campus of thirty-five acres. The coljege 
supports an extensive public Time Service for railway and city uses, and is no^v organizing a Weather 
Service for the State, and also a State Magnetic Survey.] 

One volume college catalogue. 10 charts of comets. 1 view Saint Paul Cliamber of Com- 
merce, with time ball. 1 view Saint Paul, showing city time service. 1 map Minnesota, 
showing State weather service. 1 map, shovsdng time system of Northwest. 9 volumes 
Herbaria, from Biological Department. 4 volumes of field work iu elementary survey- 
ing. 1 volume of computation, lunar eclipses. 1 thesis for degree ^f A. M. 1 volume 

56 



56 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

of IT. S. Signal Station reports. 2 volumes of class work in trigonometry. 2 volumes 
of examination papers. 3 volumes of " Siderial Messenger." 1 Howard clock, No. 285. 
9 P. H. Dudley clocks. 2 time balls in actual operation. 2 relays. 6 sounders. 3 
switches. 15 photographs: college buildings and apparatus, in frames. 1 photograph: 
Ladies' Hall. 1 G pieces painting in oil and water colors. 6 pieces crayon. 1 piece sketch- 
ing in pencil. 7 colored plates college buildings. 2 volumes of examination papers. 1 
volume of college catalogues. 10 volumes of notes from Biological Department. 1 large 
botanical map. 10 large physiological charts. 5 large birds and animals. 

Curtiss' Business College, Minneapolis. — 1 set Curtiss' writing charts. 

Duluth city seJiools, Wm. H. Stultz, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers, 
public schools. 2 volumes examination papers, high school. 1 photograph public school 
buildings. 

Detroit village schools, B. L. Bennett, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. 

Dodge Center village schools, J. M. Eichardson, principal. — 1 volume of esamination 
papei-s. ' ~ 

Eyota village schools. — 9 maps. Pupils' work in geography. Pupils' work in perfor- 
ating. Kindergarten work. Pupils' work in composition, grammar, spelling, arithme- 
tic, history, physiology, drawing, reproduction. 

Farmington city schools, C. H. Welch, principal. — 1 Photograph school building. 

Fergus Falls city schools, B. M. Eeynolds, superintendent. — 1 volume examination pa- 
pers. High school. 

Glencoe village schools, E. Y. W. Brokaw, superintendent. — Grammar school. 2 vol- 
umes of examination papers. 

Hamline University, SaintPcMl, Eev. Geo. H. Bridgman, D. D. , president. — 3photographs 
university building. 1 photograph laboratory. 1 photograph apparatus room. 

Eastingscity schools, J. H. Lewis, superintendent. — High school. Surveying : 50 plats 
of field work by pupils in mensuration, with solutions; 50 plats of field work by pupils 
in triangulation, with solutions. Botany : 4 herbaria by class of '84. 1 volume of ex- 
amination papers from all grades. 9 geographical maps. 41 primary slate work in 
reading, writing, drawing, and numbers. 

Hennepin County {county schools), C. W. Smith, superintendent. — 1 volume of exams 
inatign papers. Pupils' work in map drawing and industrial drawing. 12 photograph- 
school buildings. 1 model of log school-building in 1852. 1 model of frame school- 
building in 1885. 1 large plate-glass tablet showingplans of organization, enrollment, 
etc. 

Hutchinson village schools, H. L. Merrill, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. 

Kindergarten, Saint Paul, Miss Alice Boyden, teacher. — 6 framed mounts of the work of 
children from 3 J to 8 years of age, viz: 1 chart of sewing in colors; fundamentalforms 
and forms of life. 1 chart of weaving in colors; fundamental forms and inventions. 1 
chart of paper-folding in primary and secondary colors. 1 chart of interlacing with 
slats; dictations and inventions. 1 chart of pricking; outline forms of life. 1 chart of 
parquetry; dictations employing squares. 

Lake City schools, Wm. Moore, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers. 

Litchfield city schools, Angus Haines, principal. — 2 volumes of examination papers. 1 
photograph of school building. 

Lanesboro city schools, K. W. Buell, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. 

Maniorville village schools, L. Bliss, principf^l. — 1 volume of examination papers. 

Mankato city schools, E. E. Denfeld, suj>erintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers, 
high school. 1 photograph of school building. 

Medford village schools. — Pupils' work in arithmetic. Examinations in history, in 
geography, in physiology, algebra, and language. 

Jhinneapolis city schools, O. V. Tousley, superintendent. — 5 charts crayon sketches, il- 
lustrating physiology and botany. 8 photographs of buildings and interiors. 1 large 
picture of high school building and two architects' plans of interior of high school. 1 
large tablet containing photographs of buildings and history of schools. 39 charts and 
folios in pencil and crayon drawings. 1 patented desk and chair. 1 volume of exam- 
ination papers of high school. 1 volume of specimens in writing. 1 volume of ' ' ques- 
tions " submitted to teachers and pupilsin 1883-'84. 1 volumeof public-school reports. 
1 volume of business forms, blanks used in public schools. 

Moorhead city schools, F. S. Hotaling, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers 
from public schools. 1 cabinet containing 24 double slates. Work of primary pupils 
in spelling, numbers, language, penmanship and drawing. 1 volume of maps furnished 
by fifth and sixth grades. Maps drawn freehand from copy. 1 map of New England, on 
rollers; work of seventh-year pupils, freehand. 

0/mstcad County (country) schools, F. L. Cook, superintendent. — District No. 4 — Exer- 
cises prepared by pupils with the hektograph, examination papers, pupils' work in com- 
position; No. 7— Examination papers; No. 9— Work of pupils in reading, spelling, rhet- 
56 



STATE SYSTEMS MINNESOTA. 57 

oric, essays, also examiDation papers; No. 10 — Pupils' work in composition, examina- 
tion papers; No. 19 — Examination papers; No. 22 — Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 
24 — Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 28 — Examination papers; No. 37 — Pupils' work 
in map drawing; No. 47 — Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 49 — Pupils' work in map 
drawing; No. 52 — Examination papers; No. 54 — Examination papers; No. 56 — Speci- 
men examination papers prepared with lithogram; No. 58 — Examination papers; No. 
60 — Pupils' work in composition; No. 62 — Examination papers; No. 72 — Pupils' work 
in composition, pupils' work in reproduction, examination papers; No. 74 — Pupils' 
work in map drawing; No. 75 — Pupils' work in map drawing, pupils' work in compo- 
sition, specimens of drawings, examination papers; No. 86 — Specimens of perforating, 
work in map drawing, work in botany; No. 87 — Pupils' work in writing and map draw- 
ing; No. 88 — Pupils' work in geography, map drawing, composition; No. 93 — Pupils' 
work in map drawing, original designs, drawings from nature; No. 96 — Pupils' work 
in map drawing; No. 97 — Pupils' work in reproduction, examination papers; No. 103 — 
Examination papers, work in map drawing; Nos. 100, 115, 121, 130, 132 — Examination 
papers; No. 124 — Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 134 — Pupils' work in map draw- 
ing. 

Oronoco village schools. — Pupils' work in composition. Pupils' work in perforating. 
Examination papers and maps. 

Flainview village schools, M. A. Robinson, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. 

Pleasant Grove schools. — Pupils' wprk in composition, drawing, arithmetic, grammar. 
Examination papers. 

Parr, Superintendent S. S. — 3 volumes "Minnesota Journal of Education," 1881-'84. 

Payne, Professor W. W. — 5 volume's of "Minnesota Teacher," Vols. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6. 

Phelps, Superintendent William F. — 2 volumes of "Teacher's Handbook"; 1 volume of 
Short Course in Astronomy. 

Bed Wing city schools, O. Whitman, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers; 
54 mounted freehand drawings, representation and design; 1 photograph high school 
building. 

Redwood Falls, F. V. Hubbard, principal. — 1 photograph of school building. 

Rochester city schools, S. S. Parr, superintendent. — Drawings from natural foliage and 
flowers, accompanied by objects. Eelief maps in putty of continents, Mexico and United 
States. Peg work illustrating primary numbers. Slate work from youngest pupils. 
Drawings from copy. Work in arithmetic from B grammar-grade. Photographs of 
school buildings. 

Rushford city schools, W. J. Schmitz, principal. — Primary, intermediate, high school. 
Pupils' work in map-drawing, geography, botany, composition. 1 volume of examination 
papers. 

Shepard, Principal E. B. — 1 folding seat and desk. 

Stillwater city schools, V. G. Curtis, superintendent. — ^Home-made apparatus, made in 
the workshop of the high school. 

Mechanics — Simple lever; compound lever; inclined plane and binding screw; screw; 
wedge, in two sections, hinged. 

Force and motion — ^Whirling motion; resultant table; reflection of motion apparatus; 
apparatus showing effect of gravity on a moving body. 

Centre of gravity — Mechanical paradox; leaning tower; loaded wheel; square and tri- 
angular blocks; Blondin figure, balanced; witch figure, loaded; plumb line; two balls 
of unecjual size and weight connected by a rod, pierced at ceaiter of gravity. 

Hydraulics — Force pump (glass); common pump (glass); tantalus cup; water- wheelsy 
overshot, undershot, and breast wheel; model of Barker's mill. 

Heat — Pyrometers; ball and ring to show expansion of metals; compound bar, brass 
and iron. 

Acoustics — Revolving disk apparatus. 

Gravitation — Pendulum apparatus. 

Voltaic electricity — Contracting helix; Grenet battery; galvanometer; horseshoe elec- 
tro-magnet; horizontal coil; Oersted's law apparatus; magic circle. 

Astronomical — Illustrationof the solar system, illustratingplanetaryorbitsand motions. 
Inclinations of the axis of the sun, earth, and Mars. Parallelism of the earth's axis. Mo- 
tions of the earth. Succession of day and night. Change of seasons. The moon's revo- 
lution in its orbit and on its axis. Nodes of the moon's orbit. The phases of the moon. 
The path of the moon round the sun. Eclipses of the sun and moon. Nodical and synodi- 
cal revolution of the moon. Inferior and superior planets. Phases of the planets. Transit 
of a planet. Theretrogrademotion of planets. Conjunction, opposition, quadrature, and 
elongation of planets. The zodiac and the cometary orbits. 

Bound volumes — One volume of examination papers in each of the following subjects: 
Music, literature, geometry, and current topics. 

Saint Paul city schools, B. F. "Wright, superintendent. — Photographs of school build- 
ings. Penmanship — two sets mounted slates, showing writing of pupils from lowest pri- 

57 



68 EDtfCATlONAL EXHiBtTS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

irlary grade. Twelve large frames, showing the writing of pupils from 8 to 15 years of 
ftge. Mounted drawings from each grade in the school, tsolids modeled in clay by pri- 
mary pupils. Models in paper, card board, wood, stone, clay, etc., by pupils from their 
own working drawings. High school work in projection — building, construction, ma- 
chine drawing, mechanical perspective, groups of models in outline, in charcoal and in 
crayon. Crayon copies of fruit from nature and from casts. 

Siiuk Center village schools, W. F. Eocheleau, superintendent. — 1 volume of examiua- 
tiou papers from High School. 1 photograph of public school building. 

Saint Cloud city schools, A. P. Thombs, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination pa- 
pers. Union school. 

Searing, Edward, president State Normal School, Mankota. — 4 volumes Wisconsin 
School Report, 1874, '75, '76, '77. 1 volume Virgil's iEneid. 

State Department of Public Instruction. — 1 album Minnesota educators. 7 volumes report 
of superintendent public instruction, 1875-'84. 1 volume of Minnesota reports. 1 sta- 
tistical chart. 

State Normal School, Winona, Irwin Shepard, president. 

[This school was established in 1858. Has buildings and appliances valued at $175,000, and an an- 
nual appropriation from the State of 1820,000. The departments and courses are as follows : Normal 
Department— an advanced course of 4 years, an elementary course of 3 years, a professional course of 
1 year. Training Department— a model school of 9 grades, a kindergarten, a kindergarten training 

class.] 

Industrial drawings: Fifteen framed mounts of original drawings; 10 framed mounts 
of object drawing; 10 framed mounts of copying drawing; 3 framed mounts in colored 
designs; a series of wall charts drawn and colored by pupils; 1 large chart of plant forms; 

1 large chart of lower forms of animal life; 1 large "chart of insects injurious to vegeta- 
tion; 10 small charts of leading types in comparative physiology; 25 iramed charts of 
botanical specimens, designed to show the principal characteristics of indigenous trees 
and shrubs by the following: (a) Cross sections of small trees and of large shrubs, [b] the 
bark of the trunk and branches, (c) the leaves and flowers, (d) the fruit and cross sec- 
tions of the same, (e) specimens of the wood, polished, showing the natural grain and 
color, and indicating its economic value. 

Kindergarten work: Twenty-four framed mounts of the work of children from four to 
eight years of age; 8 bound volumes of children's work; 4 bound volumes of pupil 
teachers' work; a collection of models in clay by children and pupil teachers; specimens 
of children's work in (a) sewing, (b) weaving, (c) parquetry, (d) paper folding, (e) in- 
terlacing, (f) cutting and pasting, (g) pricking. A collection of colored interior and ex- 
terior views of building and rooms. Four volumes of examination papers. 

State Normal School, Mankato, Edward Searing, president — 

[Thisschool was established as the second State normal school in 1865. Its buildings and equip- 
ment are valued at $90,000. It is supported by an annual appropriation of $16,000. Its educational 
facilities are complete in a normal, professional, and academic course, and practice department in 
the model school— uniform with the other normal schools of the State.] 

Pnpils' work in Grecian and Egyptian ornamentation; pupils' work in map drawing; 

2 large pastel paintings; 2 frames containing class memorials; 1 frame containing 12 
views of school building and interior of rooms; 5 volumes of examination papers; 5 
sheets original designs; 1 water-color painting of building and grounds; 1 pen and ink 
drawing of building with proposed addition; 1 large map showing standard time. 

Slate Normal School, Saint Cloud, Thomas J. Gray, president. 

[This school was opened in 1869, and has buildings worth $50,000 and a home for young ladies 
worth $25,000. It is supported by an annual appropriation from the State of $15,000 and gives tuition 
free to all pledging themselves to teach two years in the State. The departments of study are as fol- 
lows : I, elementary course of three years. II, advanced course of three years. Ill, a special pro- 
fessional course of one or more years.] 

13 photographs of State Normal School building. 23 maps. Pupils' work in geogra- 
phy. 2 large charts for teaclung botany, mounted specimens. 2 charts. Class work 
in physiology. Pupils' work in Latin, 1 portfolio. Pupils' work in English, 1 portfolio. 

3 volumes examination papers. 1 panoramic set historical charts of civil war. 1 port- 
iblio charts for vocal drill. 4 charts on the training of teachers — a systematic outline 
of the art of teaching. 2 charts in arithmetical method. 3 notation boards. 3 charts 
showing the manner of preparation and teaching of a lesson by a member of the training 
class. 2 charts illustrating steps in Grube's method of primary number work. 1 port- 
folio of historical charts. 3 charts showing fractional division and relations. 

State Institution for Deaf-Mutes, Faribault, J. L. Noyes, superintendent. 

[This institution was established by an act of the legislature in 1858, and organized by a Board of 
Commissioners in 1863. The buildings were erected by the State, and ample provision is now made 
for educating all deaf children of the State in common school branches. Instruction in some useful 
trade is also provided, as coopering, boot and shoe making, tailoring, printing, and dress making.] 

2 cases needle and fanqy work by pupils. 2 suits boys' and youths' clothes by pupils. 
1 rug made from pieces of old carpet by pupils. 4 crayon drawings by pupils. 2 pencil 



STATE SYSTEMS— NEBRASKA. 59 

drawings by deaf-mute teacher. 1 pair sewed French calf boots, hand-made, by pupils. 

1 pair French kip boots, hand-made, by pupils. 1 pair sewed calf shoes, hand-made, 
by pupils. 1 pair sewed pebble goat button shoes, hand-made, by pupils. 7 photo- 
graphs of school buildings. 1 bound volume reports Minnesota School for Deaf. 1 
bound volume copy book, work of pupils. 1 set "Mute's Companion," volumes 3-9, a 
paper issued by the pupils. 2 school-room picture charts by deaf-mute teacher. 2 vol- 
umes "Historical Sketch," by Superintendent J. L. Noyes. 1 volume Third Biennial 
Report and Proceedings of Conference. 

Siate School for the Blind. — J. J. Dow, superintendent. — 2 j)hotographs of buildings; 

2 tidies made by. pupils; I piece of needle- work for ornamentation of mantel; 1 bead 
basket. 

Si. Peler city school, L. C. Lord, superintendent. — 2 volumes of examination papers. 
St. John^s University, Collegeville, Rt. Rev. Alexius Edelbrock, o. s. B., president. 

[This institution was incorporated by an act of the legislature in the year 1S57. It is under the 
care of the Benedictine Order, and is self-supporting. One source of revenue consists of large farms 
carried on exclusively by members of the order. It has a corps of 33 professors, and over 200 stu- 
dents are enrolled. From 30 to 40 students annually receive board, clothing, and tuition gratui- 
tously. The departments of study are (I.) Theological ; (II.) Philosophical; (III.) Classical; (IV.) 
Commercial; (V.) Scientific; (VI. ") Medical.] 

Photographs of buildings ; photographs of faculty. 
The Bishop Seahury Mission, Faribault. — 

[A corporation of the EpiscoiDal Church, comprising three institutions: (I.) TheSeabui-y Divinity 
School, Kev. S. D. Hoskins, warden, has a generous endowment, and gives a course of three 
years in theology ; (II.) Shattuck School, Rev. James Dobbin, rector, a preparatory training 
school for boys and young- men, with a military department ; (III.) St. Mary's Hall,Et. Rev. H. B. 
Whipple, Bishop of Minnesota, rector, a boarding school for young ladies.] 

1 case 14 photographs. 

The University of 3Iinnesoia, Cyrus Northrop, president. 

[The University of Minnesota is a part of the public educational system of th-e State. AVas estab- 
lished in 1867 and is open to both sexes, with tuition free. A grant from Congress of 178,086 acres oi 
land is the source of the permanent University fund, which now amounts to $663,630.2.5.. Following 
are the departments: (I.) Collegi.ate Departnient ; (II.) College of Science, L\terature, and Arts; 
(III.) The College of Mechanic Arts; (IV.) The College of Agriculture ; (V.) The College of Law; 
(VI.) The College of Medicine. The University has charge of the Geological and Natural History 
Survey of the State.] 

College of Mechanic Arts — Plans and photographs of buildings ; 1 case 8 plates iso- 
metric cabinet and perspective drawings; 1 case tests of material; 1 case 21 plates in- 
dustrial drawings; 1 case 16 plates engineering drawings; 1 case 15 plates descriptive 
geometry; 1 case tools used in wood work; 1 case tools used in forge work; 1 case exer- 
cises in forge work ; 1 case exercises in wood work ; 1 book of notes for course in roof and 
bridge trusses; 1 book of notes for course in stereotomy; 1 bopk of working drawings in 
forge work ; 1 photograph of university building; 1 book of specimen records from testing 
laboratory; 1 large chart giving courses of study in civil and mechanical engineering; 1 
large drawing showing grounds of university ; 1 photograph of engineering apparatus; 1 
case of tools used in vise work; 1 case of exercises in vise work. 

Other departments — 1 photograph of university farm building; 12 photographs of in- 
terior of rooms in agricultural college; 1 plan of agricultural college and plant house; 
2 herbaria; 1 large synchromatic chart of Greek biography, literature, and art; 1 history 
of the University of Minnesota; 2 volumes of examination papers; 1 large chart of Eng- 
lish literature from the time of Widrith to the present, arranged on the linguistic 
basis. 

Wino7ia city sehools,Wm. F. Phelps, M. A., superintendent. — 5 volumes of pupils' 
written work in all grades from 1st year to high school; 2 sets of plans of school rooms 
of the several grades; 1 large framed group colored views of school buildings and of the 
city of Winona; 4 cases children's work in designs, constructions, &c., with different ma- 
terials used in lowest grade; collection card mounts, showing specimens of writing 
from all grades; collection card mounts, showing grade work in drawing, free hand, in- 
ventive, crayon, perspective, &c., all grades; 2 sets reading charts, with supports, show- 
ing appliances used in first-year grade. 

NEBRASKA. , 

STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 

A State superintendent of public instruction, elected by the people for 2 years, has 
general charge of the public schools, while a board of regents of the State university and 
a normal school board have control of the interests indicated by their titles. There is 

59 



60 EDUCATIOXAL KXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

also a board composed of various State officers for the management of school lands and 
fands. 

Local school officers are county superintendents of public schools, elected by the people 
for 2 years, and district boards of 3 trustees, elected for 3 years. Districts having more 
than 150 youth of school age may, if a majority of voters so decide, elect boards of 6 
trustees. Women 21 years old vrho are residents of the district and owners of property 
or having children to educate may vote in district meetings. 

The public schools are free to all residents 5 to 21 years of age, and they must be 
taught at least 9 months of each year in districts having more than 200 pupils, 6 months 
in those having 75 to 200, and 3 months in those with less than 75. The funds for their 
support are derived from the income of a State common school fund consisting of money, 
stocks, bonds, &c. ; of such percentage as may be granted by Congress on the sale of 
lands in the State; of moneys arising from the sale or leasing of school lands; of the 
proceeds of all lands granted to the State, unless for other purposes distinctly stated; and 
of the proceeds of escheats and forfeitures. In addition to the income of this fund there 
is for public schools a State school tax of notmoi'e than lo- mills on the dollar of taxable 
property, and taxes are voted by districts, which may not exceed 25 mills on the dollar. 
The income of the public schools is also augmented by various fines, licenses, &c. The 
State funds are apportioned by the State superintendent to the counties in proportion to 
school population, and by county superintendents to districts, three-fourths of the amount 
in proportion to the school population therein, the remaining one-fourth equally to the 
districts. Teachers must hold certificates of qualification and before receiving full pay 
njust make monthly reports to the district director. The director reports annually to 
the county superintendent, the latter to the State superintendent, and he to the gov- 
ernor. Thesystem of education includes publichigh schools, teachers' institutes, aState 
normal school, a State university, and a reformatory for children. Instruction in all 
schools supported or aided by public funds must be non-sectarian. 

EXHIBIT. 

Beatrice public schools. — Examination manuscript work from first to eighth grade. 

Columbus public schools. — Examination work from third grade. 

Crab Orchard school. — Specimens of pen work. 

Crete public schools. — History of Crete Public Schools, by E. Healy. 

Deaf and Dumb Institute, Omaha, Nehr. — Crayon portrait, specimens of lace work, 
embroidery, sewing, and crocheting; specimens of mechanical and carpenter work. 

Fairbury public schools. — Specimens of manuscript work, principally sixth grade; spec- 
imens of map drawing by pupils. 

Falls City public schools. — Examination papers of high school, and grammar and primary 
schools. 

Grand Island public schools. — Examination manuscript work by high school and inter- 
mediate grades; slate work by primary and second grades. 

Hall County. — Manuscript work from Chapman, Wood Eiver, and district schools of 
Hall County. 

Hastings public schools. — High school — Examination papers in geometry, history, civil 
government, algebra, physiology, and physical geography. 

Grammar department — Examination papers in reading, penmanship, grammar, geog- 
raphy, orthography, arithmetic, and United States history. 

Intermediate department — Examination papers in reading, writing, arithmetic, spell- 
ing, geography, and language; specimens of map drawing. 

Humboldt public schools. — Examination manuscript work from first to tenth grade. 

Institute for the Blind, Nebraska City. — Specimens of hand-work, consisting of crochet- 
ing, bead- work, knitting, and broom-making; manuscript work in spelling. 

Kearney public schools. — Manuscript from high school and intermediate grades. 

Nebraska City public schools. — Manuscript work from high school and intermediate 
grades, map drawing and mechanical drawing, condensed history of Nebraska City pub- 
lic schools. 
60 



STATE SYSTEMS NEW HAMPSHIRE. 61 

Nebraska State Normal School. — Mounted zoological and botanical specimens and mi- 
croscopic drawings; analysis of air in school building, with chemicals to test same; ex- 
periments by classes in physics ; models of crystals; specimens of taxidermy; map draw- 
ings (outline from memory), map drawings (time limited), map drawings (time unlim- 
ited) ; manuscript work in language, in school economy, in history, and in rhetoric. 

Omaha puhlie schools. — Miss Lucia A. Rogers, special teacher. Exhibition of written 
music by pupils. 

Tenth Street Industrial School — Julia Daeman and Katie Homerwik, crocheting; 
Katie Coffey, Edith Stewart, Josie Zebodack, and Lulu Hunt, sewing; Mary "Walker 
and Annie Kramer, hemstitched handkerchief by each. 

Bed Cloud public schools. — Examination work from high school and lower grades. 

Sacred Heart Academy, Omaha. — Course of study, and photograph of building. 

Saint Catherine's Academy, Omaha. — Specimens of drawing and painting. 

University of Nebrxska, Lincoln. — Original demonstration in geometry by . Work 

on "Critique of Designs," by Prof. L. E. Hicks. Work on botany, by Prof C. E. Bes- 
sey . ' 'Amerikas Skonliteratur, " by H. Edgren. ' ' Magic of the Middle Ages, ' ' by Vic- 
tor Rydberg. "Nala Sagan,," by . " Schakuntala, " by . "Sanskrit 

Formlara," by H. Edgren. "Frithiof's Saga" (Tegner), from L. A. Sherman. Work 
on biology, by Arabell M. Kimball. "The Modem Genesis," from Fannie J. Ebiight, 
Tecumseh. 

West Point public schools. — Manuscript work of high school and grammai department. 

Yutan public schools. — Examination work in physiology. 

Photograplis of public school buildings. — Ashland, Alexandria, Belvidere, District No. 15 
(Buffalo County), Beatrice, Crete (5), Chester, Davenport, Exeter, Fremont (5), Friend, 
Falls City, Fairbury, Genoa, Grand Island, Hastings, Hebron, Hubbell, Hall County, 
Kearney, McCook, Nebraska City (7), Norfolk, North Platte, Nemaha County, Osceola, 
Pawnee City, Red Cloud, Saint Paul, Shelton, Steele City, Sutton, Thayer County 
(10), Tecumseh, Wahoo, Wilber. , 

Miscellaneous. — Photograph of Creighton College, Omaha. History of Steele City 
School, by Miss M. A. Melville. Seven drawings from life, by Thomas Rogers Kim- 
ball, Omaha. ' ' Nebraska and the Northwest, ' ' from T. H. Brooks, Tecumseh. History 
and reports of county superintendents. Photograph of Normal School and Business Col- 
lege at Fremont, Nebr. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Concord. — Three bound volumes of examination papers from the high school, including 
English, mathematics, Latin, and Greek. Drawings, freehand and mechanical, from 
the grammar and intermediate grades. Portfolio of drawings from all the schools. Photo- 
graphs of the school buildings. Specimens of work in direction and invention from the 
kindergarten. • 

Franklin. — Large bound volume containing photographsof school buildings (including 
both interior and exterior views). The course of study. Specimens of drawing, pen- 
manship, and original compositions. 

Manchester. — Three volumes of drawings from the pripaary, grammar, and high school 
departments. Portfolio of plans of school buildings. Framed pencil, ink, and crayon 
drawings. Portfolio of mechanical drawings. Framed photographs of public and school 
buildings. Chart of public school system. 

Nashua. — Framed photographs of school buildings. Thirty-four chemical preparations 
in glass by high school scholars. Frame on which to display them. 

Poriairumth. — Specimens of penmanship selected from the various grades. 

61 



62 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE ^EW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



]S"EW JEESEY. 

PUBLIC SCHOOL EXHIBITS. 

The following table is a summary of the amount and character of the work exhibited 
from the public schools of New Jersey: 



^Number of specimens of pupils' •work in — 



Counties and cities exhibiting. 



T 












T. 




^ 














o 


;5 




_c 




a 










3 






•s 


ia 


S 




3 


g 


a 


S 


5 


a 


a 


"3 


g 


§ 


5 


^ 


^ 



5 9 



5 » 



Atlantic County 

Bergen County 

Burlington County 

Camden County 

Camden , 

Gloucester , 

Cape May County , 

Cumberland County „ 

Bridgeton ; , 

Millville 

Essex County 

Newark 

Orange 

Gloucester County 

Hudson County 

Hoboken 

Jersey City 

Hunterdon County 

fiercer County 

Trenton .' 

Middlesex County 

Xew Brunswick 

Monmouth County 

Morris County 

Morristown Borough and Boon- 
ton 

Ocean County. 

Passaic County 

Paterson 

Passaic 

Salem County 

Salem „ 

Somerset County 

Sussex County 

Union County 

Plauifield 

Elizabeth 

Rahway 

Warren County 




m 



STATE SYSTEMS NEW JERSEY. 63 

The entire collection of regular work contributed by the public schools fills 16,193 
blanks, and represents the work of fully 30,000 pupils. Out of the 3,687 teachers in the 
public schools, 3,450 furnished work. The work was bound into volumes, in the follow- 
ing proportions: 

Atlantic County, 12; Bergen County, 20; Burlington County, 26; Camden County (in- 
cluing Camden, 4), 16; Cape May Countj"^, 6; Cumberland County (including Bridgeton, 
3), 12; Essex County (including Newark, 10, Orauge, 4), 32; Gloucester County, 9; 
Hudson County (including Hoboken, 8, Jersey City, 17), 36; Hunterdon County, 10; 
Mercer County (including Trenton, 8), 16; Middlesex County (including New Bruns- 
wick, 4), 11; Monmouth County, 23; Morris County, 16; Ocean County, 4; Passaic 
County (including Paterson, 13, Passaic, 5), 20; Salem County (including Salem, 3), 
11; Somerset County, 7; Sullivan County (Millville), 1; Sussex County, 12; Union 
County (including Plainfield, 2, Kahway, 2, Elizabeth, 4), 21; Warren County (includ- 
ing Phillipsburg, 4), 14; State normal and model school, 4; private schools, 12. 

INDIVIDUAL EXHIBITS. 

Staie normal a nd model f<c/iools. — Number of specimens of pupils' work : Mathematics, 44 ; 
grammar, 7; composition, 8; spelling, 4; penmanship, 14; primary work, 9; miscella- 
neous drawing, 10; map drawing, 82; miscellaneous, 27. Total, 205. 

State Normal School. — Work prepared by the pupils in the Institution: Four herbaria of 
local plants; two books of drawings showing the different stages of growth of several 
plants from the seed; three books of plant description; one set of works in book-keep- 
ing ; one book containingspecimens in penmanship; onecaseof minerals, such as each pupil 
receives at graduation; one case of chemicals prepared by the pupils; one case of insects 
l^repared by the class; one set of geometrical forms made by pupils. 

Slate School for Deuf-3Iide>i.- -16 specimens of work and a history of the institution. 

Farnum Preparatory School, Beverly. — 68 specimens of pupils' work in miscellaneous 
branches, mathematics, grammar, drawings, and maps. 

Academy of the Sacred Heart, Jersey City. — 61 specimens in mathematics, grammar, 
composition, spelling, penmanship, drawing, map drawing, and primary branches. 

Martha^ s Institute, Hoboken. — 23 specimens of pupils' work in mathematics, grammar, 
composition, penmanship, drawing, primary and miscellaneous subjects. 

The Kcwark Public High School. — 25 large mounted drawings, 15 unmounted drawings, 
2 graphic scrap-books. 

Public school, Summit. — 40 pieces of kindergarten work. 

Patermn Public School No. 6. — 22 pieces of kindergarten work, 32 books of kindergarten 
drawings, 24 specimens of kindergarten sewing. 

Paterson Public School No. 4. — 1 set of geometrical solids of polished wood, 6 sets of 
wood ornaments fastened on card board, 2 maps sawed out of wood, 38 pieces of kinder- 
garten work. 

Carhtadl public school. — 1 framed piece of kindergarten work, 15 pieces of kindergar- 
ten work in drawing, sewing, plaiting, etc. 

V. L. Bavcy^s School, district No. 36, Essex County. — 11 pieces of philosophical appa- 
ratus, consisting of hydrostatic bellows, with rubber hose; Archimedes's screw; Bar- 
ker's mill; pulleys; inertia apparatus: inclined plane; water-wheels; Ruhmkorff 's coil; 
compound lever; endless .screw; and acrobats of pith (work done by boys 14 to 17 years 
of age). 

Institute of the Holy Anrjels, Hackensack. — Fifty specimens of pupils' work in mathe- 
matics, grammar, composition, spelling, penmanship, primary and miscellaneous branches. 

West Jersey Academy, Bridgeton. — Eighteen specimens of pupils' work in mathematics, 
composition, spelling, penmanship, and miscellaneous subjects. 

iJepfford School, Woodbury. — One hundred and twentj^-one specimens of pupils' work 
in mathematics, grammar, drawing, and miscellaneous subjects. 

Ilasbrouck InMilvle, Jersey City — One hundred and thirty-three specimens of pupils' 
work in mathematics, grammar, composition, spelling, penmanship, drawing, and mis- 
cellaneous subjects; also five large framed drawings from bas-relief casts. 

C. A. Gross, teacher, Landisville, Atlantic County. — An herbarium containing 101 spe- 
cies of plants collected by himself in the sandy region near the Atlantic coast. 

<S". R. 3Iorse, county superintendent for Atlantic County. — A collection of marine algse, 
mounted and named, gathered by himself on the New Jersey coa.st. 

./. 3T. Green, of Long Branch. — A large frame containing photographs of the public 
school buildings, and drawings executed by the pupils; also nine books of pupils' work, 
numbering 720 specimens in the various branches taught in the schools. This exhibit 
contained 650 photographs of school buildings, showing exterior and interior views. 

63 



64 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

^OHIO. 

LETTER OF TRANSMISSION. 

Dear Sir: The following catalogue of the education exhibit of Ohio at the World's 
Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans is submitted for your con- 
sideration. 

Very respectfully, 

LE ROY D. BROWN. 
To the Hon. John Eaton, 

Commissioner of Education for the United States of America. 



CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 

REMARKS EXPLANATORY OF THE CATAXOGUE. 

The remarks here prefixed are deemed necessary to a clear understanding of the cata- 
logue. 

The several classes of school districts in Ohio are classified as follows: 

City districts of the first class, applying to cities of ten thousand or more inhabitants; 
city districts of the second class, applying to cities of less than ten thousand inhabitants; 
village districts, applying to incorporated villages; township districts and special dis- 
tricts. The divisions of the territory of the township for separate schools are termed 
subdistricts. 

The grades of the graded or union schools maybe defined as follows: (1) Elementary 
or grammar schools, embracing eight school years. These schools are generally subdi- 
vided into primary and grammar grades — the first embracing the first four years; the 
second, the second four years. (2) High schools. These in the cities and large towns 
have a four-years' course of study; but in some of the smaller towns and villages the 
course is but a three-years' one. In the city high schools instruction in another language 
than English is almost universally given. In some of them instruction in two languages 
is given ; in others in three languages, and in a few in four languages. These languages 
are Latin, Greek, German, and French. German or French is frequently taken as an 
elective for Latin. Greek is principally restricted to students expecting to take a col- 
lege course. The study of grammar and geography usually begins, in the graded schools, 
with the third school year, in a short "preliminary oral course, these subjects being entered 
upon systematically at the beginning of the fourth year. Reading, drawing, music, slate 
writing, and arithmetic begin with the first year, pen- writing with the second. Accord- 
ing to the evidence furnished by the examination papers in the exhibit, English gram- 
mar and language-lessons differ little from each other. 

Throughout this catalogue years in school and grades in school are used synonymously; 
that is, first grade means the same as first year, &c. 

Under the head of papers in arithmetic are included work in the solution of problems, 
in both mental and written arithmetic, and answers to questions in rules and principles. 

United States history is generally taught in the highest grammar grade only. 

A full statement setting forth the rules and conditions under which the work of pu- 
pils was done, and the relative portion selected for exhibition, accompanies each set of 
papers. 

The photographs of school buildings marked in the catalogue thus *, were, through 
the kindness of Hon. John C. B^efifer, secretary of the Ohio commission, transferred to 



STATE SYSTEMS OHIO. 65 

the educational exhibit from the general State exhibit, for which they had been col- 
lected. 

The population of cities and towns is according to census of 1880. 

CITY EXHIBITS. 

Bellevue {population 1,432). — Volume of penmanship containing specimens from all 
grades of schools, high, grammar, and primary. Papers in German and geometry. 

Belpre {population 901). — Examination papers: 1 volume from high school, containing 
papers in geometry; 1 geological chart, by Will H. Patton, of the high school; 1 photo- 
graph' of school building. 

Bbiffton {population 1,290). — Papers (unbound) representing the workof the several 
grades of tlie high school and the grammar and primary schools; 1 photograph of the 
school building; 1 photograph of the interior of a school room with pupils seated therein. 

Chillicoihe {population 10,988). — Examination papers: 2 volumes from the high school, 
containing papers in Latin, general history, rhetoric, English composition, English liter- 
ature, physical geography, physiology, chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, and as- 
tronomy; 1 volume of penmanship, containing specimens from the Iburth grade up 
through the high school grades; 5 volumes of grammar-school work, containing papers 
in grammar, geography. United States history, language, and arithmetic; 1 volume Ger- 
man, reaching from fourth to twelfth year, inclusive; 1 volume of memory majjs, from 
pupils of the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades, drawn in the presence of the teacher. In 
ail, 10 volumes of manuscript. 

Ten copies of the Annual Ueport of the Board of Education. 

Cincinnati {population 255,130). — 1. Examination papers: 1 volume from the normal 
school, containing papers on methods of teaching number, reading, and penmanship; 
methods of giving lessons on familiar things, memory gems, and elocution; essays on the 
science and art of education and on school management, and essays on the principles of 
psychology applied to education. 

Two volumes from Woodward High School, containing papers in Latin, Greek, French, 
German, English composition, English literature, general history, chemistry, physics, 
zoology, geology, algebra, geometry, astronomy and book-keeping. Two volumes from 
Hughes High School, containing papers in Latin, Greek, French, German. English com- 
position, English literature, general historj^, chemistry, physics, zoology, algebra, astron- 
<omy, and book-keeping: One volume from colored high school and intermediate grades. 
High school papers on subjects same as those of Woodward and Hughes High Schools. 

Three volumes from first intermediate school;^ 1 volume from second intermediate 
school; 2 volumes from third intermediate school; 2 volumes from fourth intermediate 
school. These volumes contain papers in spelling, composition, grammar, geography, 
>German, and penmanship. 

One volume from first district;^ 1 volume from second district; 1 volume from third 
district; 1 volume from fourth district; 1 volume from fifth district; 1 volume from 
•sixth district; one volume from seventh district; 2 volumes from eighth district; 1 
■volume from ninth district; 1 volume from tenth district; 2 volumes from eleventh dis- 
trict; 1 volume from twelfth district; 1 volume from thirteenth district; 1 volume from 
fourteenth district; 1 volume from fifteenth district; 1 volume from sixteenth district; 
1 volume from seventeenth district; 2 volumes from eighteenth district; 1 volume from 
nineteenth district; 1 volume from twentieth district; 4 volumes from twenty-first dis- 
trict; 1 volume from twenty-second district; 1 volume from twenty-third district; 2 
volumes from twenty-fourth district; 2 volumes Irom twenty-fifth district; 1 volume 
from twenty-sixth clistrict; 1 volume from twenty- seventh district; 1 volume from 
twenty-eighth district; 1 volume from colored school district; 1 volume from Morning- 
ton School. These volumes cnntain papers in spelling, language, geography, grammar, 
arithmetic, penmanship, and German. 

One volume of compositions from third to eighth grade, inclusive; 1 volume of literary 
gems from same grades; 1 volume of slate work from fourteenth district. 

From all the schools, .5:i volumes. 

2. Drawings (in eight large portfolios): 1 portfolio from normal .''chool and Woodward 
High School, containing 101 drawings. Of these the normal school contributed 1 draw- 
ing of human head; 4 drawings (colored) of foliage; 28 ornamental dej^igns; 5 ornamental 
(colored) designs; 2 maps; 2 drawings (colored) of animals; 1 painting of animal; 
total, 88. The contribution of the Woodward High School consisted of 9 drawings of 
the human head; 4 drawings of animals; 7 mechanical drawings; 5 drawings from the 
solid; 23 ornamental designs; 12 ornamental designs in color; total 63. 

^The intermediate schools embrace pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. 
2The district schools embrace pupils of the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth grades. 

7950 COT 5 65 



66 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Three portfolios from sixth, seventh, and eighth grades (intermediate schools) contained 
428 drawings. The first portfolio contained 152 ornamental designs and 29 geometrical 
drawings; the second portfolio, 103 Ibliage and ornamental designs and 3 from the 
round; the third portfolio, 127 ornamental designs, 11 geometrical drawings, 1 drawing 
from the solid, and 2 designs in color. One portfolio, from fifth grade, containing 444 orna- 
mental designs from the flat (copies enlarged) , and original designs formed from a sin- 
gle given element. The 342 drawings from the fourth grade were copies from the flat 
(many of the copies enlarged) and original designs formed from a single element. The 
third grade drawings, 321 in number, were copies from the flat (some of them enlarged). 
The second-grade drawings were of two kinds — memory drawings (one whole class), of 
which there were 27, and 341 copies from the flat; in all, 368. The iirst-grade drawings 
consisted of 45 drawings on paper (one whole class). 

Total number of drawings from district schools, 1,520; from the intermediate schools, 
428; from the normal and high schools, 101; total from all the schools, 2,049. 

3. Miscellaneous: Four dozen slates from the district schools, illustrative of the order 
followed in placing arithmetical and other work on slates in the several grades of those 
schools. Nearly a complete set of the Cincinnati school reports. Two dozen copies of 
the school report for 1884. Photographs of the following school buildings (nine in num- 
ber) : Woodward and Hughes High Schools, first intermediate, third district, seventh dis- 
trict, fourteenth district, eighteenth district, twenty-second district, twenty-eighth dis- 
trict. One interior view of the public library. One chart of the public-school build- 
ings, with the number of rooms in each. 

Through the exertions of Dr. John B. Peaslee, city superintendent of schools, volumes 
and pamphlets by Cincinnati authors have been collected and placed in the exhibit, as 
follows: Bound volumes, 218; pamphlets, 44. 

CircleviUe {population 6,046). — Examination papers: One volume from the high school 
and eighth grade; high-school papers in Latin, rhetoric, English composition, physical 
geography, physics, chemistry, civil government, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and as- 
tronomy; 1 volume from fifth, sixth, and seventh grades; 1 volume from third and 
fourth grades, colored school; 1 volume from second, third, fourth, and fifth grades. 
The volumes from the primary and grammar grades contain papers in spelling, defini- 
tion of words, grammar, composition, geography. United States history, and arithmetic. 
One volume of penmanship from fourth to twelfth grades, inclusive. Total, 5 volumes. 
Three photographs of school buildings — Colored school, Everts School, and high school. 

Cleveland [population 160,146.) — One set of school reports; '-^6 photographs of school 
buildings — Central High School, West High School, Saint Clair, Walton, Dunham, and 
Fowler; *1 photograph of Adelbert College. 

Columbus [population 51,665). — 1. Examination papers: 3 volumes from high school, 
containing essays and orations given at commencement, and papers in English grammar, 
rhetoric, general history, Latin grammar, chemistry, physics, algebra, and geometry; 
10 volumes from fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, containing papers in spelling, 
language, grammar. United States history, geography, physical geography, elementary 
physics, and German (translation of German into English and English into German); 
4 photographs of school buildings — High School, Sullivant, Garfield, and Mound Street; 
8 photographs of interiors of building — 2 rooms with their pupils. All these photo- 
graphs in one large frame. 8 volumes of bound school reports. 

2. Drawing: The following admirable logical catalogue of the drawings from the Co- 
lumbus schools was prepared by Professor W. S. Goodnough, superintendent of that 
branch of instruction, and is given in his own words: 

Drawings. — These drawings, 389 in number, are arranged in three horizontal rows, 
the upper consisting of work in construction, or the kind of drawing necessary for the 
construction of objects. In the middle ro>v is representation, or drawing from objects, 
showing them as they appear. The lower row shows decoration, or original designs. A 
printed notice hung with the work explains the nature of the exhibit and the conditions 
under which it was arranged. From it we learn that everything exhibited is regular 
class work, none having been done with reference to exhibition. We also learn that 
drawing, as taught in the Columbus schools and as rejiresented in this exhibit, is arranged 
under three general heads, each including several subjects, as follows: 

Construction. — 1, Geometric terms; 2, Plans and elevations of simple objects; 3, Geo- 
metrical problems worked with instruments; 4, Working drawings of objects to scale, 
showing plans, elevations, sections, details; 5, Architectural drawing; 6, Machine draw- 
ing- 
Representation. — 1, Geometrical lines and forms; 2, Drawings from simple flat objects, 
or showing but one face of slide; 3, Single objects drawn from solids in outline; 4, Groups 
of objects in outline; 5, Foliage from nature and plaster casts in outline; 6, Instrumental 
perspective; 7, Light and shade from models and casts; 8, Color. Flowers from copy and 
from nature. 
66 



STATE SYSTEMS OHIO. 67 

Decoration. — 1, Variation of simple i'orms; 2, Repetition, horizontally or vertically, 
forming borders: 3, Repetition for surface decoration; 4. Conventionalization of ualural 
forms for designs; 5, Designs in geometric forms, conventionalized foliage used; 6, Applied 
design Jn pencil for various manufactured articles; 7, Botanical analysis for design in 
color; 8, Applied design in color lor printed or woven labrics, wood, stone, metal, pot- 
tery, etc. 

These three divisions coTiimence in an elementary manner in the lowest grade, and 
are carried along in three parallel lines throui2;h ali grades, with a greater degree of de- 
velopment in each. Drawings are exhibited in all 1 he various subjects mentioned above. 
No work, however, is shown from the lowest, or D primary, grade, as the pupils of that 
grade work entirely on slates, and it was not deemed expedient to show their work. 

On the south side of the north wall of the Ohio exhibit, high- school work will be found. 

On the north side of the next wall south, primai-y grade work is shown, and con- 
sists entirely of pages cut Irom the drawing-books in use during the year, mounted 
on cardboard. Two hundred and fifty-eight pupils are represented. The first vertical 
row is irom C primary, or second year, and shows three sheets containing twenty-four 
drawings. The second vertical row is from B primary, or third year, and shows iwenty- 
four drawings. The third rovv is from A primary, or Iburtli year, and shows the same 
amount of work. 

Though all the work is arranged in three horizontal rows — construction, representa- 
tion, decoration — the distinction between the three lines of study becomes more apparent 
in this grade (A primary) and those above, where it becomes further developed than in 
the primary grades. 

The fourth and fifth rows show work from the D grammar, or 5th year, and consists 
of 42 drawings. 

The next two rows aie from the C grammar, or (5th year, 36 drawings. 

The eighth, ninth, and tenth rows show 44 drawings from the B grammar, or 7th 
year. 

The last three rows are from the A grammar, or 8th year, and represent 54 pupils. 

The constructive drawing shown, except geometrical problems, is from objects. 

The re]3resentation is principally from objects, and always so where shown on a 
blank page. The decoration is all original. 

On the other wall, showing high school work, the drawings, 131 in all, are ar- 
ranged by classes, commencing at the right, as follows : 

First, second, junior, and senior. Here the three divisions are fully developed and 
represented. On the line of construction drawing, beginning at the right, are sis 
drawings — elementary projection and simple machine details. All are drawn to scale, 
from objects. Next to the left are four drawings of furniture, drawn to scale, from 
objects, from measurements and rough free-hand sketches made by the pupils. 

Next are 24 architectural drawings, rough free-hand sketches, some being original 
designs. They show plans, elevations, sections, inside and outside details, and per- 
spectives, in ink lines or colored. 

In the middle row, or rei)re8entation, are 6 instrumental prrspective drawings. 
Next are 22 drawings from geometric models and vases in outline, several of them 
being groups. Then come 13 pieces shaded with th.s stump and charcoal or sauce, 
from copy, models, or casts. On the lower row, at the righl, are 30 original designs 
in pencil, for surface decoration, as an oilcloth, tile pattern, etc. Next are 18 designs 
in monochrome, for borders, centers, etc. Then 6 designs in color for various pur- 
poses, as wall paper, wood carving, book covers, etc. Finally, two sheets of botanical 
analysis, in color, for design, showing a painting of a plant, and also the various 
parts conventionalized and arranged for designing, with an original design made 
from the given forms. 

Drawing in the Columbus schools is a required study in all grades, no scholar being 
excused, except for some physical disability and upon the presentation of a certificate 
to that effect from a practicing physician. 

The average time given to drawing is one hour and a half per week, and in the 
primary and grammar grades the regular teachers do all the teaching, under the 
supervision and instruction of the superintendent of drawing. 

In the high school the teaching is done by a special teacher of drawing and the 
snperintendent of drawing. In the normal school the teaching is done by the super- 
intendent of drawing. 

Drawing books. — On the shelf under the drawings in the exhibit will be found 
one finished drawing book of each number used in the primary and grammar grades. 
In the high school blank books or paper are used. 

Models. — A set of four models will be seen, constructed of wood and glued together. 
These were made by one pupil, in the lowest grammar grade, from his own drawings. 
In this and the grade above pupils are encouraged, for home optional work, to con- 
struct the objects which they draw in their study of construction drawing. They 
may be made of wood, framed, glued, nailed, or screwed together, or solid; of tin 

67 



68 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

soldered together; of paper or cardboard, pasted or sewed; of clay; or of a uy material 
that may be chosen. The only requirement is that certain objects be made of a given 
size from the pupil's own drawings. This work is not yet fully develoY)ed. 

Dayton (population, 38,677). — Night schools for industrial drawing: Architectural 
drawings, ^3; mechanical drawings, 17; total, 40; these drawings were displayed on 
wall space ; 3 pljotographs of school bnildiugs : seventh district, eleventh district, 
twelfth di.strict; 1 interior view of twelfth district building; 1 copy annual report, 1883. 

Felicitfi (population, 1,047). — One photograph of school building. 

GalUpolis (population, 4,400). — Examination papers: 1 volume from high school, 
containing papers in English grammar, Latin, German, physical geography, geogra- 
phy, physics, botany, arithmetic, algebra, and astronomy ; 3 volumes from primary and 
grammar grades, containing papers in spelling, definition of words, grammar. United 
States history, geography (with illustrative maps), and arithmetic ; in all four vol- 
umes; 34 books of map drawiug from sixth grade; I copy of Annual School Report. 

jHami/^oft (population, 12,12^). — Examination papers: 3 volumes from high school 
containing papers in English composition, English literature, Latin, German, ancient 
history, physics, physiology, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry ; 1 volume from 
grammar grades and 5 volumes from grammar and primary grades ; in these 6 volnmes 
are papers in grammar, geography (beginning in third grade), English language, 
United States history, spelling (from second up to highest grade), and German ; 1 
volnme of drawings from sixth, seventh, and eighth grades ; 1 volume of maps drawn 
from memory. In all, 11 volumes. 

Lebanon (population, 2,703).— 1 photograph of school building. 

Jl/ano/iesfer (population, 1,455). — Examination papers: 1 volume from high school 
and grammar grades, containing papers in grammar, composition, geography, natural 
philosophy, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; specimens of drawings; 2 photo- 
graphs of school buildings. 

Aeiv Philadelphia (population, 3,070). — Examination papets (unbound), representing 
the work in the high school, and in the different grades of the grammar and the 
primary schools ; 1 photograph of a school building. 

Northwestern Normal School, Ada (population, l,7(i3). — 1 lithograph of building; 1 
chart, survey of South Ada Ditch, by Chas. A. Aubert ; 1 plat of race course, by J. 
L. Newhause ; 1 plat of Ada Fair Ground. 

Norwalk (population, 5,704). — 2 photographs of high school building. 

Obeiiin (population, 3,242). — Examination papers: 1 volume from high school and 
eighth-grade pupils, containing papers in English grammar. United States history, 
Latin, and Greek ; 1 volnme ftom sixth and seventh grades, containing papers in 
English grammar, geography, maps, and arithmetic. 

Oxford (population, l,74-i). — Examination papers : 1 volume from high school, gram- 
mar, and primary grades, containing papers in English grammar, English literature, 
geography, and arithmetic. Penmansliip from second grade up through the hign 
school. 

Painesrille (population, 2,463). — *'l photograph of female seminary ; *1 photograph 
of Lake Erie Seminary. 

Porismoidh (population, 11,321). — Examination papers: 1 volume from high-school, 
containing papers in English literature, English history, rhetoric, Latin, mental sci- 
ence, physics, anatomy and physiology, geology, algebra, and trigonometry ; 1 vol- 
ume from grammar and primary grades, containing papers in English grammar, 
comi)Osition, United States history, geography, arithmetic, German (from sixth grade 
and upward); *2 photographic views of Union street building. 

Smithville (population, 546). — * 1 engraving of high school building. 

<S/>r!«^/(>M (population, 20,730). — 1. Examination papers: 1 volume from high school, 
containing papers in Latin, German, psychology, physics, physiology, algebra, and 
trigonometry; 4 volumes from grammar and primary grades, containing papers in 
spelling, grammar, geography, and United States history; 8 volumes English pen- 
manship, from first to eighth grade, inclusive; 1 volume German penmanship, from 
first to eighth grade, inclusive ; total, 14 volumes. 

2. Drawings (displayed ou wall space): High school, 44 decorative designs, 17 dec- 
orative designs in color; grammar and primaiy grades, from second to eighth grades, 
inclusive, 77 copies and decorative designs, 5 copies and decorative design iu color; 
total number of drawings, 143. 

3. Specimens of scroll-sawing (from fifth, sixth, and seventh gradts), 21. 

4. Specimens of all kinds of blanks, including registers, etc., used in the Spring- 
field schools. 

Steuhenville (population, 12,093). — *6 photographs of school buildings: north build- 
ing, south building, second ward, sixth ward, sixth ward (rolling-mill school), and 
eighth ward. 

Troy (population, 3,803). — High school : chart, working section of railroad, by R. F. 
Walker. 

Warren (population, 4,428). — * 1 photograph of high school building. 

68 



STATE SYSTEMS OHIO. 69 

Wellsville (population, 3,377).—! photograph of school buildiug. 

West Milton. — Papers (imbound) from the several grades of the schools. 

Xenia (population, 7,026).— Examination papers: 2 volumes from the high school 
for white youth ; 1 vdlume from the high school for colored youth, each volume con- 
taining papers in Latin, German, physics, science of government, and algebra; 4 vol- 
umes of grammar and primary grades (from third to eighth inclusive), containing pa- 
pers in spelling, definition of vrords, music, geography. United States history, and 
arithmetic ; 2 volumes from colored schools, containing papers in same subjects as 
above, except music; 1 volume of compositions from all grades of the palmary and 
grammar schools, except from pupils of the first year; total, 10 volumes; i photo- 
graph of high school building. 

Zaleski (population, 1,175).— 1 volume, containing papers in spelling (with diacritical 
marks), composition, grammar, U. S. history, general history, physical geography, 
arithmetic, algebra, and penmanship; 1 photograph of school building. 

Miscellaneotis.^l photograph of buildiug for country school, erected in Noble 
county, 1853 ; 1 photograph of school building in District No. 6, Greene county ; 1 
photograph of school building in District No. 12, Greene county; 1 large framed 
specimen of penmanship from L. Detweiler, teacher of writing in the public schools 
of Hillsboro'. Portraits of eminent educators : 1 photograph of W. D. Henkle, 1 pho- 
tograph of Horace Mann : 1 photograph of G. W. Hosmer, formerly president of An- 
tioch College ; 1 photograph of H. H. Barney, formerly State commissioner of common 
schools; 1 crayon portrait of D. A. Long, president of Antioch College; 1 engraved 
portrait of W. H. McGutfey; 1 engraved portrait of Joseph Eay; photograph of the 
faculty of Antioch College'(group) ; 1 photograph of Dr. John Hancock ; 1 photograph; 
1 large chart giving average expense per pupil for tuition and the number of schools in 
each county of the State for the year ending August 31, 1884 ; 1 large chart setting 
forth the school system of the State ; 1 large chart giving the school statistics of the 
State; 100 copies (bound) of the school laws of Ohio; 100 copies of the commis- 
sioner's report for 1883 ; 3 bound volumes of the Educational Monthly. 

COLLEGE EXHIBIT. 

This exhibit was prepared and set up by Professor A. H. Tuttle, of the Ohio State 
University, and gives statistics and other valuable information from 16 colleges, be- 
sides photographic views of buildings and surrounding scenery, from most of the 
institutions presented. In this way, with the addition of charts, was presented an 
approximately complete history and the present condition of the higher education 
of the State- something, it is believed, not attempted in any other exhibit in the 
Exposition. Upon the value of such a presentation it is not necessary to enlarge. 

Adelbert College, of Western Reserve University {Cleveland).— Statiatics; 1 photo- 
graphic view of building; 10 interior views. 

Antioch College (Yellow Springs).— StatistiGS ; 2 photographs of buildings; 2 photo- 
graphs of scenery ; 2 photographs of classes of stiidents. 

Baldivin University (Berea). — Statistics. 

Buchtel College (^/croi).— Statistics; *1 photograph of building; * 1 engraving of 
same. 

University of Cincinnati {Cincinnati). — Statistics. 

Denison University {Granville).— Statistics; 2 photographs of buildings. 

Hiram College (Hiram). — Statistics. 

Kenyon College (Gam&ier).— Statistics; 8 photographs of buildings; 3 photographs 
of scenery. 

Marietta College ( if ari^«<x).— Statistics ; 4 photographs of buildings ; 8 photographic 
interior views. 

Oberlin College (Oberlin).— Statistics; 5 photographs of buildings; 1 photographic 
view of the interior of the chapfel, with students assembled therein. 

Ohio State University (Columbus). — Statistics; 4 photographs of buildings; 8 photo- 
graphic interior views ; 9 drawings from students of mining department ; 1 large 
drawing of furnace ; 3 drawings from students' engineer department ; 1 case students' 
work (iron and wood), mechanical department. 

Ohio University (Athens). — Statistics. 

Ohio Wesleyan University (Delaware).— Statistics; 2 photographs of buildings ; 3 pho- 
tographic interior views ; 1 photograph of the famous sulphur spring. 

Otterbein University (Westerville).— Statistics; 4 photographs of buildings ; *1 litho- 
graph of main building; 2 photographic interior views. 
Wittenberg College (Springfield). — Statistics. 

University of Wooster ( booster).- Statistics ; 1 large chart in colors showing the rela- 
tive standing of the counties of the State as to the number of youth attending college ; 
1 printed chart giving consolidated statistics of colleges ; 1 colored chart showing the 
relative nimibcrs of youth attending college within and without the State; 1 colored 
chart showing ratio of college atteudance to population of college age (16-21). 

69 



70 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

SUMMARY. 
City and town exhibits.^ 

Number of cities aad towns represented in the exhibit 30 

Number of cities and towns which presented examination papers from pupils.. 18 

Number of cities and towns which presented work of pupils in drawing 6 

Number of cities and towns exhibiting photographs of school buildings 20 

Whole number volumes of examination papers (bound) 130 

Whole number volumes of examination papers (unbound) 3, 133 

Volume of slate work 1 

Volumes of drawing not enumerated in the exhibit of drawings (Hamilton). . . 2 

Drawing books exhibited (Gallipolis) 34 

Slates containing work of pupils 48 

Number of drawings exhibited on wall space ; 572 

Number of drawings exhibited in portfolios (Cincinnati) 2, 049 

Total number of drawings exhibited 2,621 

Specimens of scroll-sawing by pupils (Springfield) 21 

Number of charts ( work of pupils) 6 

Number of photographs of school buildings 53 

Number of photographs of interiors 10 

Interior of public library (Cincinnati) 1 

Number volumes of school reports 58 

Volumes of the school laws of Ohio 100 

Volumes of the Commissioner's Report for 1883 100 

Bound volumes by Cincinnati authors 218 

Pamphlets by the same 44 

• College exhibit. 

Number of colleges represented 16 

Number of colleges presenting statistics 16 

Number of photographs of buildings 34 

Number of photographs of interiors 30 

Number of photographs of scenery 7 

Photographs of classes of students 2 

Engraving of building 1 

Number of drawings by students . . v 13 

Number of statistical charts 4 

Students' work in iron and in wood (case) ' 1 

It is to be regretted that a more extended State exhibit could not have been gath- 
ered together. It was hoped by thi Commissioner that all the large cities at least 
would be generously represented ; although the cities which did respond to the in- 
vitation to contribute have sent in an amount and quality of work highly honorable 
to their several systems of schools, it will be seen by glancing over the above cata- 
logue that his hopes have not been fully realized. It is especially to be regretted that 
the country schools and the schools of the State institutions — the reform schools, both 
for girls and bojs, the schools for the blind, for the deaf and dumb, and for the feeble- 
minded — are not represented. These State institutions are deservedly regarded as 
among the best in the country, and could have shown work in many directions that 
would have attracted the favorable attention of educators and the general public. 
A large part of the deficiencies named has arisen from a lack of time sufficient for so 
large an undertaking as a complete exposition of the workings of a State school 
system must necessarily be. But after all deductions have been made, it is believed 
that a careful study of the Ohio exhibit as it now stands will give a fair notion of the 
educational work doing in that great central State, at an annual expenditv^re of 
nearly ten millions of dollars. 

I take this opportunity to acknowledge my indebtedness especially to Dr. John 
Hancock and to Prof. Albert H. Tuttle for the very valuable services which they, as 
assistant commissioners of education for Ohio, rendered in the collection and arrange- 
ment of the Ohio school exhibit for the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial 
Exposition at New Orleans. 

I have the honor to be, very re8i)ectfully, ^.^ ROY D BROWN 

State Commissioner of Common Schools for Ohio, 

In Charge of Ohio Education Exhibit. 

' Exclusive of portraits of eminent educators and charts relating to the school system of the State. 
70 



STATE SYSTEMS RHODE ISLAND TENNESSEE. 71 

RHODE ISLAND. 
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Rhode Island educational facilities include the following ; College (Brown Univer- 
sity) ; academies ; public schools, comprising State normal school, high schools, gram- 
mar schools, intermediate schools, primary schools, kindergarten, ungraded schools, 
evening schools, school of design, school for the deaf, home and school for dependent 
children, free public libraries, Froebel school and kindergarten. These various in- 
stitutions were represented at the Ne"^ Orleans Exposition as follows: 

The college (Brown University) by photographs of the grounds and various buildings. 

The academies by photographs of the grounds, buildings, and school rooms of the 
Friends' Boarding School of Providence. 

The public schools by (1) map of State showing location of public schools; (2) chart 
showing public school system; (3) chart giving statistics of public schools; (4) pho- 
tographs and drawings of public schools of Providence ; (5) history of public educa- 
tion in Rhode Island from 1636 to 1876: (6) Rhode Island school reports from 1870 to 
1883, inclusiA^e ; (X) copies of blanks and forms used in connection with public in- 
struction ; and (8) exhibits (a) from Providence public schools, of bound volumes 
of examination papers in the various studies of the different grades of schools, from 
primary to high, inclusive; cards showing samples of penmanship, samples of map 
drawing and designing ; show-case containing specimens of minerals, woods, etc., used 
as aids in instruction ; specimens of business and other letters, and school reports ; (6) 
from Pawtucket public schools, of bound volumes of examination papers in the various 
studiesof the various grades, and slates showing samples of free-hand drawing and de- 
signing in primary giade ; and (c) from Newport public schools, of bound volumes of 
examination jjapers, samples of designing, and, in the primary grade, of modeling in 
clay, and school reports. 

I he school of design, by samples of elementary and advanced free-hand drawing and 
painting ; free-hand light and shade ; elementary and applied design ; elementary and 
advanced mechanical drawing : water-color time sketches. 

Froebel school and kindergarten (Mrs. C. M. N. Alden's), by photographs of the chil- 
dren and school- rooms, by samples of modeling in clay, of wood-carving and of brass- 
hammering, of penmanship, of designing, of drawing, and of composition. 

TENNESSEE. 

Howell graded schools, Clarksville. — 4 volumes examination papers. 

Columbia Athenaium, Columbia. — Set of Murdoch's charts for the cultivation of the 
voice. 6 oil paintings. 6 water colors. 2 paintings on porcelain. Crayon drawing. 
7 ink drawings. 20 India ink sketches. Photographs of institution. 

Tennessee Female College, Franklin. — 6 framed oil paintings. 3 paintings on porce- 
lain. Crayon drawing of institution. 2 samples fancy work. 8 pasteboard models of 
geometrical figures. Framed likeness in needlework. 6 samples painting on china. 
2 volumes examination papers. Herbarium. 18 exercise books. 10 colored drawings 
of solar spectrum. 4 colored geometrical drawings. 11 colored astronomical draw- 
ings. 

Fiiblic school, Friends' Station.— Volume containing statement of institution, with 
specimens of work. 

Howard Female College, Gallatin. — Logic in Ten Chapters, by A. M. Burny, prin- 
cipal. 6 volumes examination papers. 

Jackson. — 13 framed photographs of teachers, pupils, and buildings. 18 packages 
of examination papers in arithmetic, grammar, geography, history, spelling, algebra, 
physiology, composition, and bookkeeping. 

City scfiools, Knoxville. — 6 bound volumes of examination papers. 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville. — 2 photographs of institution. Colored drawing. 

City schools, Nashville. — 13 photographs of public school buildings. 

Fisk University, Nashville. — 2 framed photographs of institution. 

Goodman's Business College, Nashville. — Framed specimen of pen work. 

Montgomery Bell Academy, Nashville. — 3 anatomical charts. Map of great pyramid. 
5 maps of United States at different periods. Map of South America. Framed photo- 
graph of faculty and students. 3 bound volumes examination papers in arithmetic, 
grammar, geography, spelling, physiology, natural philosophy, rhetoric, hist-ory, alge- 
bra, geometry, English literature, Latin, and Greek. 1 bound volume each of Greek 

71 



72 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

and Latin exercises, geometrical exercises, bistorical maps; written exercises m 
arithmetic, algebra, and history, and written exercises in grammar. 

Nashville College Jor Young Ladies, Nashville. — 20 bound volumes of examination 
papers containing the following number of papers in each branch of study: Geogra- 
phy 54, history 98, rhetoric 85, iienmacship 12, political science 48, mythology 2, 
mathematics 200, English language and literature 330, ethics 14, Christian evidences 
29. elocution 15, natural sciences 217, metaphysics 161, modern languages 50, ancient 
languages 77, music 76. 20 pasteboard models of geometrical figures. 2 schemes of 
composition, theory of penmanship based upon the scale of thirds. 2 maps of ancient 
Eome. 2 maps of Italy. 5 plans of college buildings. The following in frames : Table 
showing growth of institution ; statement of facilities ; historical data ; contenirs of 
exhibit ; topical outline of work in political economy. 

Foole Institute, Nashville.^Framed photograph of building. 

Roger Williams University, Nashville. — 2 bound volumes of examination papers in 
arithmetic, grammar, geography, penmanship, algebra, physiology, mental science,, 
geometry, astronomy, civil government, German, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. 

St. Cecilia's Academy, Nashville. — 7 bound volumes examination papers in grammar, 
history, mathematics, drawing, penmanship, bookkeeping. Samples of work in book- 
keeping. Colored drawing of institution. Show-case containing eight specimens of 
fancy work. Framed statement of institution. 

FanderMU University, Nashville. — Framed topographical map. Framed statement 
of work of institution. Bound volume of register of University. Bound volume, 
''Dedication and Inauguration." 2 volumes examination papers. 

School of Engineering ( Vanderbilt University). — Statement of institution. 24 speci- 
mens of mechanical drawing. 

W. E. Ward's Seminary, Nashville, — Photograph of building. 12 framed oil paint- 
ings ; crayon drawing. Framed statement of growth of institution in twenty years. 
Portfolio containing statements of organization, equipments, and range of work of in- 
stitution, with statements of work in belles lettres, science, mathematics, English 
composition, languages, music, and calisthenics. 

Watkins Seminary (near Nashville).- Photograph of institution. 

Beechcroft School for Girls, Spring Hill. — Volume examination papers. 

Feabody High School, Trenton. — 10 packages of recitation papers. 



VIEGINIA. 

The educational exhibit of Virginia consisted of nine classes : county maps ; city 
maps; general maps ; promiscuous drawings ; essays, compositions, etc.; copies; mis- 
cellaneous papers, diagrams, literature, charts, monthly examinations, etc.; office 
exhibits; photographs. 

Class A contained maps of the following counties : Alexandria, Alleghany, Augusta, 
Bath, Bedford, Brunswick, Campbell, Carroll, Charlotte, Craig, Culpepper, Danville 
(district), Dinwiddle, Elizabeth City, Fairfax, Fanqnier, Fluvanna, Frederick, Gooch- 
land, Grayson, Greenville, Halifax, Hanover, Henrico, Henry, James City, King 
George, Lee, Madison, Mecklenburg, Nansemond, New Kent, Northampton, Northum- 
berland, Nottoway, Orange, Patrick, Pittsylvania, Powhatan, Prince Edward, Prince 
George, Princess Anne, Pulaski, Eichmond, Eoanoke, Eockbridge, Eockingham, and 
Stafford. 

Class B, maps of Alexandria, Ashland, Fredericksburg, Lynchburg, Manchester, 
Norfolk, Petersburg, and Eichmond. 

Class C, general maps from Accomac County, 4; Augusta, 7; Danville, 19; Dinwid- 
dle, 2; Elizabeth City, 1; Fauquier, 5; Frederick, 18; Henry, 13; M.anchester, 29; 
Mecklenb^^rg, 1; Norfolk, 12; Nottoway, 11; Petersburg, 57 ; Pittsylvania, 12; Eich- 
mond, 330 ; Eoanoke, 1 ; Eockingham, 50 ; Eockbridge, 26; and Staunton, 25. 

Class D, under the general name of promiscuous drawings, contained the follow- 
ing exhibits : Augusta, old log school house ; Charlotte, school house ; Clarke, 3 
school houses ; Dinwiddle, log school house ; Elizabeth City, log school house (ex- 
terior and interior) ; Fluvanna, 3 school houses ; Grayson, 2 school houses ; Hanover, 
school houses (old and new); Manchester, school houses (white and colored); Mil- 
ler Manual Labor School, diagram of mill machinery, side and end view of derrick, 
steam-engine, plan of building, Clark and Knight engine, jack-screw, grounds of the 
school, screw; Petersburg, 9 school buildings; Eockingham, crayon drawings, 12 
miscellaneous drawings. 

Class E included the following essays, compositions, and other documents : Alex- 
andria, history of schools; Augusta, 3 compositions; Danville, history of schools; 
Dinwiddle, 25 compositions ; Fredericksburg, history of city ; Lynchburg, 25 compo- 
sitions, diagram ; Mecklenburg, 3 compositions, history of institute ; Norfolk city, 3 
72 - ' . 



STATE SYSTEMS WEST VIRGINIA WISCONSIN. 73 

drawings, 8 compositions ; Nottoway, 8 essays ; Petersburg, 91 specimens of penman- 
ship, 21 compositions ; Pittsylvania, 12 essays, names, with derivation, of countries; 
Koanoke, compositions, academy news ; Rockingham, Latin and French ex-ercises, 
compositions, grammatic diagram, essays ; Staunton, compositions. 

Class F consisted of 4 copies from Fredericksburg and 2iJ from Staunton. 

Class G consisted of a diagram of the Moore Street Industrial School. Pendleton 
cards and drawing maps, and three diagrams of government, from Richmond ; and 
literature charts, monthly examinations, hair work and needle work from Rocking- 
ham. 

Class H (from the office of the superintendent of public instruction) includes the 
following material : 1 volume of original annual reports from county and c»>iy super- 
intendents ; 12 specimens of annual reports as issued from the office ; 3 bound volumes 
of annual reports ; 1 bound volume of reports of Richmond city school board ; 2 vol- 
umes of report from Alexandria ; 1 bound volume of Virginia school law ; 1 bound 
volume of samples of blanks from central office ; original questions for examination 
of teachers; original report of census of teachers (bound) ; Lynchburg school reports; 

2 volumes Lynchburg school regulations; rules and regulations of Alexandria city 
schools ; 7 copies " Ordinance, -Rules and Regulations," Lynchburg ; 2 copies ordinance 
and annual school report, Fredericksburg ; course of study of public schools, Danville; 

3 copies outline of course of study in the public schools of Richmond ; fourteenth 
annual report of schools of Richmond ; 3 copies of Petersburg city school reporb. 

Class I contains photographs of school houses, of Virginia Normal and Collegiate 
Institute, Washington and Lee University, etc. 



WEST VIEGIMA. 

Benwood. — Bound volume of examination papers. 

Wheeling. — 10 bound volumes examination papers, primary department. 10 bound 
volumes examination papers, grammar department. State report of schools, 1881-'82. 
Volume of blank teachers' certificates. Volume of blank orders. Blank register. 
Blank coanty report. Blank sheriff's settlement for school money. Pamphlet of school 
laws, State of West Virginia. Finding list. Wheeling Public Library. 



WISCONSII^. 

CITY EXHIBITS. 

Milwaukee. — Banners showing statistics. 28 views of school buildings. City nor- 
mal school building. 4 frames containing pupils' work in drawing. 89 volumes, 
pupils' work, including kindergarten work. Examination papers in district schools ; 
also complete sets, showing full course of instruction in high school. These exhibits 
include the work of whole classes. 

Lacrosse. — 46 volumes examination papers, and other work of pupils. 

Madison. — 7 thick volumes of pupils' work, examination papers. 

Janesville. — 8 volumes of pupils' work, examination papers. 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL EXHIBITS. 

Oshkosh. — 6 large volumes examination papers and school work. 
Whitewater. — 4 large volumes examination papers and school work. 
Plattville. — 4 large volumes examination papers and school work. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Work of pupils in the blind and deaf and dumb institutes. Reports of schools and 
State institutions. Catalogues of historical society and of colleges. 

Banner, single piece of silk, 6 by 9 feet, containing statistical information relating to 
the schools of the State. Set of 8 charts, outlining school system. 2 sets geological 
reports and 2 volumes geological charts. 36 geological charts on frames. 

73 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 



ALBANY. N. Y. 



Bound volumes of pupils' work.—l volniiic penmanship specimens, schools 11, 21, 
and 24; 1 volume Innpnago exorcises, soIiooIh 11 and 24; 1 volume language exer- 
cises, hcIiooIh 2 and 14; 1 volume aritlhm<^iic <ixorciHe,s, schools 12 and 15; 1 volume 
geo}j;rai)hy and history cxerciHcs, stihools (5 and 21 ; 2 volumes drawings, schools gen- 
erally ; ;? volumes test, (^xercistvs, liigli siihool. 

Framed pictures. — li) drawings ; 1 perspective of high school ; 4 floor plans of high 
school ; I ])erspective of school No. 2; 1 perspective and floor plans of school No. 2. 

A relief map of Albany county in i)hist«u'. 

ALEXANDRIA, VA. 

Fraiued photograph of the Washington school building, exhibited by John P.Clark, 
of Alexandria, Va. 

ATLANTA, GA. 

School work: From boys' high school, 1 volume ; girl's high school, 1 volume ; Cal- 
houn-street school, 2 voluitu>a; Walker-street scOiool, 1 volume; Ivy-street school, 1 
volume; Fair-street school, 1 volume; Cn^w-strcMit sciliool, 1 volume ; Marietta-street 
school, I volume; Iloustou-stn^et (colored) school, 2 volumes; Mitchell-street (col- 
ored) school, 1 volume; Snnuuerllill (col<»e<l) school, 1 volume. Photograph of Prof. 
W. F. Slaton, sul)orint(Mld(^nt. Map of Europe. 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

Exhibit of drawing under the direction of Prof. Herman Hanstem: 64 charcoal 
drawings; Gf) industrial drawings; 12 water colors; 2 ink sketches; 12 pen drawings; 
120 samples of home work by grades IV and V ; 82 siimplcs of wood construction, grade 
Vll ; 47 samples of pa^x^r constru(;tion by gni.de Vll ; 24 pencil drawings, grade IV; 
:W) p(Mic.il drawings, gra,d(* V; 48 pencil drawings, grade VI ; 48 i)enci] drawings, grade 
VII ; (■)() pencil drawings, grade VIII; 'A bound volumes drawing books of grades IV, 
V, and VI; illustratious of p(»rspecl,ive. 

DENVEE, COLO. 

6 photographs and plans of school buildings. 

LEAVENWORTH, KANS. 

7 vohimes representing work in sixth and seventh grades, and in the courses of th« 
high school in English and Latin, history and science, and mathematics. 

OAK PARK, COOK COUNTY, ILL. 

60 framed drawings from grades III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII. 

PORTLAND, OREG. 

Picture of high school building and architect's plans of floors of high school build- 
ing. Photograii)hs of six other school buildings. Two charts showing school attend- 
ance for ten years. Map of city of Portland showing location of school buildings. 20 
free-hiind crayon drawings by 'pni)ils of the high school. 288 mechanical drawings 
distributed as lollows: High school, M; Park school, 12; Central school, 60 ; Har- 
rison school, 54; North school, 66; Couch school, 12; Failing school, SO. 6 memory- 
maps drawn by pupils of the Couch school. 
74 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS — WASHINGTON, D. C. 75 



WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Office of Supkrintendent of Public Schools, 

WaahitKjton, T). C, Deccmbtr 12, 1884. 
In arranging for this exhibit no tim« was allowed for special prei)arutiori ofjinpils' 
work, and it therefore represents for the most part the regular cxerciHCH of the 
schools. Much of it has been selected with the view of showing iiHfthods of instruc- 
tion rather than finished results. 

J. Ormoni> Wilson, 

Superintendent. 

catalogue of kxhibits. 

First fjrade. — (1) Regular daily work of pupils on slates, .50 specimens; (2) ';la.y 
models of geometric forms, .50 specimens. 

Second grade. — ('.i) Regular daily work of pupils on slates, GO specimens; (4) clay 
models of geometric forms, 100 specimens; (.5) 1 volume of copylKjoks. 

Third grade. — (6) 1 volume pennianshi)> diill exercises; (7) 1 vi^lume of copy 
books; (8) I volume of drawing-books ; (0) 1 volume of samplers; (10) 1 volume of 
cornp'isitions ; (11) specimens of map drawings. 

Fourth grade. — (12) 1 volume jtenmanship drill exercises; (13) 1 volume of copy 
books; (14) 1 volume of drawing-books ; (ir>j I volume of compositions ; (10) 1 vol- 
ume of samplers; (17) si»ecimeus of map-drawing; (18) 10 specimens putty relief 
maps. 

Fifth grade. — (19) I volume penmanship drill exercises; (20) 1 volume of copy- 
books; (21) 1 volume of drawing-books; (22) 1 volume of samplers; (2:5) 1 volume of 
compositions; (24; 1 volume of svritten examination works; (25) 12 specimens relief 
maps; (20) specimens of map-drawing. 

Sixth grade. — (27) 1 volume of penman.sbip drill exercises; (28) 1 volume of coi>y- 
books; (29) 1 volume of drawing-books; ('.W) 1 volume of compositions; (31) 1 vol- 
ume of samxders; (32) 1 volume of written examiuaiion work; (33) 15 sijecimens 
relief maps; (34) specimens of map-drawing. 

Serenth grade.— C-ib) 1 volume of penmanship drill exercises ; (30) 1 volume of copy- 
books; (.37) 1 volume of drawing-i>>)okH; (38) 1 volume of compositions; (39) 1 vol- 
ume of samxders; (40) 1 volume of written examination work; (41) 15 specimens 
putty relief mafis ; (42) specimens of map-drawing. 

Eighth grade.— {4?>) 1 volume of penmanship drill exercises; (44) 1 volume of copy- 
books; (45) 1 volume of drawing-books; (46) 1 volume of compositions; (47) 2 vol- 
umes of samplers; (48) 1 volume of written examination work; (49) 1 volume of 
spelling exercise Vjooks; (.50) specimens of map-drawing. 

Miscellaneous. — (51) 1 volume of catalogues of school libraries; {h'Z) 1 volume of 
reports of teachers on school liljiaries; (53) lease philosophical apparatus used in 
sixth and seventh grades; (.54) 1 case specimens of free-hand drawings from third, 
fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades and the high school; (55) school 
library case, with representative library; (50) photographs of school ]>uildings — 
Ouid, Franklin, Peabody, Henry, Gales, Analostan, Arnidon ; (.57) jihotographs of 
scbool rooms in the Aualostan; (58) model of tbe Analostan school building. 

High school, Edward 8. Paul, principal. — (a) Photograjthic views: (1) High school 
building; (2) drill hall; (3) room for drawing ; (4) jihysics lecture room ; (5) l)otan- 
ical laboratory ; (6) chemical laboratory ; (7) library; (8) the " High School Caxlets " 
(two views). 

(6) One complete set of high-school text-books. 

(c) Bound volume containing ('1) catalogue 1884-'85; (2) circulars, 1884-'8.5 ; (3) 
syllabi of courses and studies; (4) examination questions, 1883-'84 ; (5) blank forms. 

(d) Eight bound volumes containing (1) (examination ]japers Irom regular annual 
examination, 188.^'84 ; (2) examination papers from regular quarterly examination, 
1884-'85. 

(e) Three bound volumes containing copies of essays written by papils, regularly 
in course, during the year 1883-'84, and the Ist quarter of l884-'85. 

(/) Drawings made by pupils, regularly in course during the year 1883-'84. (Ex- 
hibited on wall.) 

(g) Explanatory statements of the organization and methods of work of the several 
departments of study, each accompanied by specimens of class-room exercises done 
by pupils, and transcripts from pupils' note books. Bound volumes as follows: Busi- 
ness training, 1 vol.; botany and zoology, 2 vols., 1 portfolio; chemistry and 
physics, 1 vol. ; English, 1 vol. ; German and French, 1 vol. ; Latin and Greek, 1 voL ; 
history and political science, 1 vol. and 1 portfolio ; mathematics, 1 vol. 

75 



76 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Normal school. — Lucilla E. Smith, principal. Clay models representing work done 
in class by children of first grade : 

No. 1, two spheres ; No. 2, two apples ; No. 3, four cnbes ; No. 4, three cylinders ; No. 
5, two four-sided prisms ; No. 6, two cones ; No. 7, two four-sided pyramids ; No. 8, one 
truncated pyramid ; No. 9, two pears. 

Plane geometric forms cut in thick Manilla paper, to be used by children after mod- 
eling in clay ; No. 10, set of circles ; No. 11, set of ellipses ; No. 12, set of ovals ; No. 13, 
set of squares ; No. 14, set of oblongs ; No. 15, set of triangles ; No. 16, set of rhombs ; 
No. 17, set of rhomboids. 
No. 18. Oue set of plane forms as prepared by children in first grade. 
No. 19. Twenty-five sets of inch squares to be arranged by children in patterns, 
either original or like given samples. Objects of, first, busy work ; second, training 
in form ; third, skill in doing.' 

No. 20. One set of paper foldings numbered to indicate the order in which they may 
be made by children of second grade, object being to review forms and teach geomet- 
ric construction of ornament. 

Nos. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28. Elements of design, to be used by children upon their 
desks for repeating around a center or for making borders. 

No. 29. One box of stained glass, to be wet and used upon window-pane in color- 
teaching. ^ 

Nos, 30, 31,32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37. Mounted samples of paper, silk, and woolen goods 
for teaching color. 
No. 38. Knots of worsted for teachiug tints and shades. 

No. 39. Oue box of wooden cubes, to be handled by children in learning number. 
No. 40. One box of penny shells for number lessons. 
No. 41. Three sets of bags for passing objects in number teaching. 
No. 42. One set of small boxes containing various objects, to be used by children in 
learning number. 

No. 43. One box seed cards, illustrating some of the principles of appealing to the 
eye. 

No. 44. One box of number drawings, to make varied repetition in number lessons 
and to aid children in recognizing number at sight. 
No. 45. One box of cards for teaching children to read numbers. 
No. 46. One bos of cards showing the way in which children arrange splints upon 
their desks in learning Koman numerals. 
No. 47. One set of ruled slips by which children learn cloth measure. 
No. 48. One set of children's papers showing method of writing numbers. 
No. 49. One chart of mounted number cards. 
No. 50. One box tins, to be used by children in trading. 
No. 51. Apparatus for teaching children to tell time. 
Nos. 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, .57, 58, 59, 60, 61. Hnnd-made number charts. 
No. 62. One hundred species of spring llora (mounted). 
No. 63. Catalogue of plants. 

No. 64. Chart of typical forms for use in plant lessons (second grade). 
No. 65. One hundred and forty-five mounted specimen leaves of standard shapes 
for comparison with forms on chart No. 64. 
No. 66. Box of mounted leaves, to be used as models for drawing in any grade. 
Nos. 67, 68, 69, 70. Hand-made charts for use in teaching natural history and lan- 
guage in second grade. 

No. 71, 72, 73. Cases of insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and radiates, for use in teach- 
ing natural history and language in third grade. 

Nos. 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81. Hand-made charts. Animal charts for use in teach- 
ing natural history and language in third grade. 
No. 82. Mounted slips showing how an object may be studied by drawing. 
No. 83. Mounted studies of crustaceans and radiates. 
No. 84. First lessons in zoology, by E. Morse. 

For lessons to train the reason and give facts about minerals : No. 85, one box mica ; 
No. 86, one box sulphur; No. 87, one box flint; No. 88, one box magnetite; No. 89, 
one box halite ; No. 90, one box chalk ; No. 91, one box quartz ; No. 92, one box hema- 
tite ; No. 93, one box graphite ; No. 94, one box gypsum ; No. 95, one box galenite ; 
No. 96, one box feldspar ; No. 97, one box hornblende ; No. 98, one box limonite ; No. 99, 
one box pyrite ; No. 100, one box calcite ; No. 101, metals — zinc, iron, lead, and copper. 
No. 102. First lessons on minerals, by Ellen Eichards. 

Balls which may be held in the hand for illustrating primary geography : No. 103, of 

softwood, which may be wound to illustrate meridians, and may have objects pinned 

upon it to illustrate points ; No. 104, of clay, upon which lines may be drawn with chalk. 

No. 105. One copy Meteorological Record, kept by pupils of Washington normal 

school, with notes by Prof. Cleveland Abbe. 

No. 106. One box picture cards for sentence making ; No. 107, One box of linea 
tracings for sentence making. 
76 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS WASHINGTON, D. C. 



77 



Drawing representing work done by entire class : No. 108, portfolio coutaining draw- 
ings of plant forms from nature; No. 109, portfolio of object drawings; No. 110, 
portfolio containing illustrations of objects based on geometric forms, to be used as 
biackboaiHi copies in connection wilh the teaching of geometric forms in lower grades ; 
No. Ill, portfolio of drawings illustrating principles of design ; No. 112, portfolio of 
object drawing ; drawings representing a collection of forms that may be used in 
lower grades for object drawings; No. 113, examples of geometric construction of or- 
Damenr, forms to be folded and cut by children of lower grades. 

No. 114. One book made up of pages cut from pupils' note books. 

No. 115. A collection of written teaching exercises prepared by pupils of normal 
school. 

No. 116. One portfolio of tracing, to be used in blackboard illustrations. 

Nos. 117, llri, 119, 120. Interior views of Normal School rooms, Washington, D. C. 

Physical apparatus. — Made and exhibited by pupils of the public schools of 
Washington : 

School 1, Grade 7, Division 4 ; S. E. Wise, teacher. — Four cells for current electricity ; 
cell and switch; cell, switch, and magnetic needle; cell and home-made receiver; 
cell, reverser, and electric motor; key and receiver; wheel and treadle; glass con- 
denser, delivery tube and siphon ; rubber tubing, 2 flasks, lamp, etc. ; brass rod, can- 
dles, glass jar; iron rod, nails, sealing-wax, and lamp ; stretched string, or bridge; 
string telephone; wire telephone; iron triangle and telephone box ; bow, penny, and 
goblet; Cartesian diver; 8uck< r and brick. 

School 1, Grade 7, Division 1 ; William Quinby, teacher. — Specimens of some of the 
apparatus used in teaching physics. Most of the apparatus was made by scholars. 

a. Sound. — (1) Transmission: flow of marbles (Fig. 7) ; paper tube (Fig. y) ; watch 
and (Fig. 9) pointer; string gong (Fig. 10); telephone (Fig. 11). (2) Vibration of 
sounding bodies : Bell and boot buttons (Fig. 12) ; goblet and boot buttons (Fig. 13). 
(3) Miscellaneous: Wheel and card (Fig. 14); siren (Fig. 15) ; goblet and water 
(Fig. 16) ; stretched string (Fig, 17); principle of the vocal chords (Fig. 18). 

b. Atmosphere. — (1) Impenetrability : Test tube, cork, and water (Fig. 19). (2) At- 
mospheric pressure : Cartesian diver (Fig. 20); goblet, paper, and water (Fig. 21) ; 
goblet and water (Fig. 22); bottle and egg (Fig. 23); tube and cotton (Fig. 24); 
pump (Fig. 25) ; siphon (Fig. 26) ; vase of Tantalus (Fig. 27) ; Barker's mill (Fig. 28). 

c. Heat. — (1) Sulphuric acid (Fig. 29); shot in a bottle (Fig. 30). (2) Conduction: 
Brass and iron rulers (Fig. 31) ; paper box and water (Fig. 32) ; brass tube and string 
(Fig. 33). (3) Convection: Flowers of sulphur or bran and water (i-ig. 29); paper 
spiral ("Fig, 34); box and chimney (Fig. 35). (4) Expansion: Air pyrometer (Fig. 36); 
metal pyromeier (Fig. 37) ; knitting needle and prop (Fig. 38) ; test tube and drop of 
ink (Fig. 39); test tube partly tilled with air (Fig. 40); steam pop-guu (Fig. 41). 
(5) Miscellaneous: Bottle and test tube to show vaporization (Fig. 42); cheap dis- 
tilling apparatus (Fig. 43). 




Fig. 7. 




Fig. 8. 



Fir,. !i. 



77 



78 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 




Fig. ]0. 




Fjg. 11. 




KIG. IK. 




78 



Fir. u. 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS WASHINGTON, D. C. 79 




i-i=. 




Fig. 16. 




Fig. 17. 




Fig. 18. 



79 



80 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 






'£lG. 19. 1-lG. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



Fig. 22. 



Fig. 23. 



Fig. 24. 



n »= 




Fig. 25. 



Fig. 27. 





Fig. 26. 



Fig. 28. 





80 Fig. 29. 



Fig. 30. 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS WASHINGTON, D. C. 81 



m 



3 ^ 







Fig. 31. 




Illllllllllllllll '1 UN' ■'inTTTiiT?: 






7950 COT 6 



Fig. 33. 



81 



82 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 




•Fig. 34. 



Fig. 35. 




82 



Fig. 37. 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS WASHINGTON, D. C. 



83 




Fig. 38. Fio. 39. 



Fio. 40. 




Fig. 41. 




Fig. 42. 



83 



84 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 




Fm. 4.'). 

Special exhibit of drawinrj — Forty Kclcftpd uppcimons of drawings, illiistrating the 
piitiic, criiuNfi of (liawiiiff iii (lie gnuli-d and liigh schools of Washingtou; arrauged by 
Mr.M. S. E. Fiillor, 

WEST DENVER, COLORADO 

6 photographs and drawingw of school biiilditigH. 

WILKES BARRE, PENNSYLVANIA. 
Population of the city in HtjO, '2:i,:m; in ldS4, estimated, :50,955. 

TIIIUD DISTRICT I'UBLIC SCHOOL EXHIBITS. 

!• — Bound voliiines of t^xiiiiiiiialion w<irk in file various snhjccts cnlled for in the 
"Couioe of study," «xci-.|)t,iiig iijiidiiig, and from all t h«' i)U|)i)H of any one room. The 
pajxTM for December, lH6:i, Mar.h, lh84, and the finals of June, o'u any iiarticular 
suliject. are bound (jooHnculi vidy for catdi pupil. 

II-~Spicinnins, wall and iiortfolio, of drawings: Copy, map drawing, blackboard 
desi^^ning, geometrical and piMNpcctive, two clanscH : (a) spi-cimens made bt.tweea 
Dec.innber, lri8.{, and ,Inn<-, ^^4 ; (/;) Kpecimcns incpared since October for tin- exhibit. 

III.— (a) Photograph, plain, spi'citicationa, and cost- f conwtrnction of (.'entral High 
School, erected lH81. (/>) Same for Conynghani Graded Siho(»l, erected lb74. (c) 
Some phofojrrophs of old building. 

IV". — SampIftH of nroinorimi pantirs, rewards of merit, monthly reports, manual of 
schools, report for lHrt:VrtJ. lilaiikN, etc. 

V. — Vocal Music: plan, IxioUh used, etc. 

BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. 
Winthrop Grammar School. — Specimens of sewing work. 
84 



miscellanp:ous exhibits. 

TEXT-BOOKS. 

JOHX ALLYN, BOSTON, MASS. 

Ea-sj Latin Stories; First Latin Exercises; First Latin Exerci.s*; Book; First Latin 
Writer; Seconrl Latin Writer; First Latin Book; Cicero De Senectute; Cicero De 
Amicitia; Macleane's Horace; Macleane's Juvenal; Demosthenes De Corona; Iliad 
of Homer, Books I- VI. 

AMERICAN SCHOOL BOOK COMPANY, ST. LOUIS, MO. 

Holtze's First Lessons in Physics; First Les-sons in Physiology. 

D. APPLETON & CO., NEW YORK CITY. 

Ayjpleton's Readers, 5 books, Normal First Reader, Normal Second Reader, Normal 
Third Reader, Normal Third Reader Sapjdement: Normal Music Manual ; Sonj^ Wave: 
Wavelet; Appleton's Geographies, elementary and hi;(her; Johounot's Natural 
Hi.story Reader; Johonnot's Geograxthical Reader; Shepherd's Historical Reader; 
Quackeubos's Language Lessons; Northend's Memory Gems: Northend's Choice 
Thoughts; Northend's Gems of Thought; 4 Stickney's Child's Book of Language; 
Stickney's Manual to Child's Book of Language; 4 Stickney's Letters and Lessons: 
Stickney's Letters and Lessons, Manual ; Quackenbos's American History. 

LeConte's Compendium of (reology ; Clarke's Chemistry ; Tracy's Anatomy ; Holder's 
Zoology; Yonmans's First Botany: Youmans's Second Botany; Morse's First Book in 
Zoology; Sully's Psychology ; Trowbridge's Physics; Youmans's Chemistry. 

'■'j Kriisi's Kindergarten Cards; 4 Kriisi's Synthetic Drawing; 4 Krilai's Analytic 
Drawing; 4 Kriisi's Perspective Drawing; Kriisi's Analytical Manual ; Kriisi's Syn- 
thetical Manual, new edition. 

Harkness's Standard Latin Grammar; Harkness's Csesar, Salnst, and Cicero; 
Harkness's First Year in Latin ; Harkness's Cicero ; Harkness's Caesar ; Harkne-ss's 
Sallust ; Frieze's Virgil, with notes; Frieze's Virgil, complete; Frieze's Virgil, 12 
books ; Frieze's Virgil, G books ; Lindsay's Cornelius Nepos ; Hadley's Greek Grammar, 
new ed. ; Boise's Xenophon's Anabasis; Boise's First Three Books Xenophon's Anab- 
asis; Boise's Five Books Xenophon's Anabasis; Gaillard's French Orthoepy ; Gaillard's 
French Orthoepy and Grammar ; Gaillard's Modern French Method; Gaillard's French 
Vocabulary; Dreyspring's Method: Roemer's Cours de Lecture, 2 volumes; set Ap- 
pleton's Lead Pencil Course, ?> numbers; set Appleton's Short Course Tracing, 2 
numbers ; set Appleton's Short Course, 7 numbers ; set Apjdeton's Grammar Cocrse, 
7 numbers ; set Model Copy-Books, 7 numbers ; set Moriel Copy-Books, 3 numbers ; 
Lincoln's Ovid, with vocaVidilary ; .Johnson's First Three Books of Ovid; set BaUard's 
FMeces to Speak, h parts. 

A. L. BANCROFT & CO., SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 

Bancroft's Readers, .5 books; Child's Bookkeeping; Rattan's California Flora; Hop- 
kins's American Ideas; Hackett's Pure English; .Stone's Arithmetic; Harton's Pen 
Guides (2 boxes in set) ; Connor's Penmanship ; Bancroft's Manual for Charts. 

A. S. BARNES & CO., NEW YORK CITY. 

National Readers, Nos. I-V : Monteith's Popular Science Reader ; Practical 
Lessons in English ; Watson's Graphic Speller ; McNally's System of Geography ; 
Monteith's Independent Course in Geography, elementary ; Monteith's Independent 

85 



86 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION, 

Course in Geography, comprehensive ; Elementary Arithmetic ; Complete Arit?hme- 
tic ; National Arithmetic ; Elementary Algebra ; Barnes's Popular Hisiory ; History 
of England, Lancaster; Barnes's General History; A Brief History of the United 
States ; A Brief History of Greece ; A Brief History of France ; Battle Maps and 
Charts of the American Revolution, Carrington; Elementary Treatise on Mechanics, 
Peck ; Analytical Geometry, Peck ; A Text-Book of Civil Government ; A Text-Book of 
Light-line Shorthand. 

Object Lessons in Botany, Wood; Botanist and Florist, Wood; Class Book of 
Botany, Wood; Illustrated Plant Record, Wood; A Temperance Physiology, Hunt; 
Steele's Fourteen Weeks' in Physiology, Fourteen Weeks in Chemistry, Fourteen 
Weeks in Astronomy, Popular Astronomy, Fourteen Weeks in Physics ; Elements of 
Morals; Elementary Music Reader, Books I-III ; Mineral Record. 

First German Book; Second German Book; An Elementary Grammar of the Ger- 
man Language ; Le Questionnaire ; Grammaire Frangaise ; First French Book ; Second 
French Book. 

E. H. BUTLER & CO., PHILADELPHIA. 

Bingham's English Grammar, Latin Grammar, Latin Reader, Caesar; Butler's Ele- 
ments of Chemistry ; Butler's First Reader, Second Reader, Third Reader, Fourth 
Reader, Fifth Reader, Geographical Question Book ; Butler's Pictorial History of the 
United States ; Butler's Elements of Plane Geometry ; Goodrich's American Child's 
Pictorial History of the United States, Pictorial History of the United States, Picto- 
rial History of England, Pictorial History of Rome, Pictorial History of Greece, Pic- 
torial History of France, Parley's Common School History of the World ; Graded 
Problems in Arithmetic and Mensuration ; Lyon's American Elocutionist ; Mayhew's 
Practical Bookkeeping ; Mitchell's First Lessons in Geography, New Primary Geog- 
raphy, New Intermediate Geography, New School Geography and Atlas, Physical 
Geography, New A.ncient Geography, Key to Outline Maps (separately). Ancient 
Geography and Atlas, Biblical Geography ; New American Primary Speller, Pronounc- 
ing Speller; New American Arithmetic (Part 1), Arithmetic (Part 2), Arithmetic (Part 
3), Practical Arithmetic (comprising Parts 2 aud 3) ; New American Etymology ; Ox- 
ford's Junior Speaker, Senior Speaker; Scholar's Companion, revised; Smith's Eng- 
lish Grammar (new edition) ; Tenney's Geology. 

J. H. BUTLER, PHILADELPHIA. 

2 copies each of the following books: Worcester's New Primary Speller, New- 
Pronouncing Speller ; Franklin Primary Arithmetic, Elementary Arithmetic and Key, 
Written Arithmetic and Key, Elementary Algebra and Key; Seaver and Walton's 
Mental Arithmetic, Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables ; Adams's Advanced Speller; 
Scudder's History of the United States. 

CASSELL & CO., LONDON, PARIS, AND NEW YORK. 

Adams's Dictionary ; Brewer's Dictionary ; French Dictionary ; German Dictionary ; 
Latin Dictionary; Encyclo. Dictionary, Vols. 1-6; Morley's First Sketch of English 
Literature; Young Folks' History of England; Marlborough French Grammar; 
Marlborough German Grammar; Textile Fabrics; Steel and Iron; Woolens and 
Worsted ; Practical Mechanics ; Cutting Tools ; Hand-railing ; Applied Mechauics ; 
Drawing for Bricklayers; Building Construction; Drawing for Cabinet-makers; 
Drawing for Carpenters ; Gothic Stonework ; Linear Drawing ; Drawing for Machin- 
ists ; Drawing for Metal-Plate Workers ; Model Drawing ; Projection ; Practical Per- 
spective ; Drawing for Stone-Masons ; Systematic Drawing. 

COWPERTHWAIT & CO., PHILADELPHIA. 

Monroe's New Readers, No. I-V ; Monroe's First Steps in Spelling, Practical Si>el- 
ler; How to Write, Powell; Apgar's Geographical Drawing-Book; Warren's New 
Primary Geography, Brief Course in Geography, Common School Geography, New 
Physical Geography ; Elementary Moral Lessons ; How to Talk, Powell ; The Child's 
History of the United States, Goodrich; Vocal and Physical Training, Monroe. 

ELDREDGE & BROTHER, PHILADFLPHIA. 

Houston's Elements of Physical Geography ; Supine's Handbook of Civil Govern- 
ment; Mills's Physiology, Hygiene, and Narcotics: Stiuui's First Latin Book; Chase's 
Latin Graumiar. 
86 



MISCELLANEOUS TEXT-BOOKS. 87 



GINX, HEATH & CO., BOSTON. 



English Literature. — Arnold, Manual of English Literature (historical and critical) ; 
Carpenter, Introduction to Anglo-Saxon (grammar and reader) ; Harrison & Sharp, 
Bedwulf (text and glossary), Classical English Reader (with explanatory and critical 
foot-notes); Thorn, Two Shakespeare Examinations; Lambert, Memory Gems (for 
primary, intermediate, and advanced classes); Yonge, Scott's Quentin Durward (clas- 
sics for children). 

English Grammar.— Gilmove, Outlines of the Art of Exi)res3iou ; Whitney & Knox, 
Elementary Lessons in English, Part I — "How to Speak and Write Correctly"; Knox, 
Teacher's Edition of above, with plans for oral lessons ; Whitney, Essentials of Eng- 
lish Grammar (for high schools). 

Latin. — Allen & Greenough, Latin Grammar (revised edition, 1877), Caesar (4 
books, with vocabulary), Cicero (13 orations, or 8 orations with vocabulary), Ovid 
(with vocabulary) ; Allen, Latin Primer (for very young students), New Latin Method 
(with additional exercises by William Deutsch), Introduction to Latin Composition 
(new edition), Remnants of Early Latin (chiefly inscriptions) ; Blackburn, Latin 
Grammar and Exercises (in one volume) ; Crowell & Richardson, Brief History of 
Roman Literature (Bender) ; Greenough, Bucolics and Six Books of Virgil's iEneid 
(with vocabulary) ; Halsey, Etymology of Latin and Greek (with English derivatives) ; 
Keep, Essential Uses of tlie Moods in Greek and Latin ; King, Latin Pronunciation 
(Roman, continental, and English methods) ; Leighton, Latin Lessons (rewritten, 
simplified, and carefully graded in 1877); Tetlow, Inductive Latin Lessons (exercises 
taken from Cajsar); Tomlinson, Manual for the Study of Latin Grammar (paper); 
Junior Student's Latin-English and English-Latin Lexicon (sheep) ; Whiton, Six 
Weeks' Preparation for Reading Cassar. 

Greek. — Allen, Medea of Euripides; D'Ooge, Sophocles's Antigone; Flagg, Hellenic 
Orations of Demosthenes ; Goodwin, Gi'eek, Grammar (syntax based on tbe author's 
Moods and Tenses); Greek Moods and Tenses (the sixth edition) ; Goodwin & White, 
Anabasis (4 boo'iis, with full notes and references) ; Keep, Essential Uses of the 
Moods in Greek and Latin ; Leightou, Greek Lessons (exercises from the first book of 
Anabasis) ; Liddell & Scott, Greek-English Lexicon (abridged) ; Seymour, Selected 
Odes of Pindar ; Tarbell, Philippics of Demosthenes (from the Ziirich edition of the 
text) ; White, First Lessons in Greek (exercises from the first 4 books of Anabasis). 

Mathematics. — Byerly, Differential Calculus, Integral Calculus ; Halsted, Metrical 
Geometry (an elementary treatise on mensuration) ; Hardy, Elements of Quaternions; 
Hill, Geometry for Beginnei-s ; Wentworth, Elements of Algebra, Complete Algebra, 
Plane and Solid Geometry, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical 
Trigonometry and Surveying and Navigation, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry and 
Surveying, with tables ;• Wentworth & Hill, Five-Place Logarithmic and Trigono- 
metric Tables (seven tables), Five-Place Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 
(complete edition), Practical Arithmetic, Examination Manuals : (I) Arithmetic, 
(II) Algebra, Exercise Manual : (II) Algebra ;* Wheeler, Plane and Spherical Trig- 
onometry and Tables ; Seelye, Hickok's Empirical Psychology, Moral Science. 

Modern Languages. — Boisen, Preparatory Book of German Prose t; Deutsch, German 
Reader, Colloquial Exercises ; Hodges, Course in Scientific German ; Kna^ip, Grammar 
of the Modern Spanish Language, Modern Spanish Readings (witli notes and vocabu- 
lary), Modern French Readings (for a year's study) ; Sheldon, Short German Grammar 
(for high schools and colleges). 

Science. — Gage, Elements of Physics ; Shaler, Primer of Geology. 

Geographies, etc. — Globe Hand-Book (120 pages, furnished free with globe) ; Hall, 
Our World (No. 1), Our World (No. 2). 

Music. — Caswell & Ryan, Time and Tune Book, Book I. 

The National Music Course. — Eichberg, Fifth, or High School Music Reader, Girl's 
High School Music Reader, Supplement to High School Music Reader; Mason, Pri- 
mary, or First Music Reader (adapted to rote singing). Second Music Reader (only 
major scale in nine keys used). Third Music Reader (songs based on the triads and 
chords taught in the charts). Intermediate Music Reader (second and third readers 
bound together). The Teacher's Manual, National Hymn and .Tune Book (for female 
voices and for mixed voices), Independent Music Reader (for upper classes in gram- 
mar school). Independent Reader and Hymn and Tune Book (mixed voices) combined; 
Sharland, Fourth Music Reader (for advanced grades of grammar schools) abridged. 

Miscellaneous. — Lanman, Sanskrit Reader (with vocabulary and notes) ; March, A-B- 
C Book (based on the phonic method); Monoyer, Sight Test for Schools (mounted); 
Stevens, Yale Examination Papers (including Sheffield Scientific School); Whitaker, 
Wood-working Tools ; How to Use Them. 

* The last two may be had in one volume. tifotes and text may be had separate. 

87 



88 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 
IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., ISTEW YORK CITY. 

Swinton's Readers (Numbers I-V); Swinton's lutroductory Geography, Grammar 
School Geography (six numbers), Complete Course in Geography; Scribner's Geo- 
graphical Reader and Primer ; The Literary Reader ; Kerl's Language Lessons ; Kerl's 
Shorter Course in English Grammar; Kerl's Common School Grammar; Kerl's Com- 
prehensive English Grammar ; Swinton's New Word Analysis; Common School Dic- 
tionary of the English Language, Webster; Two dozen copies Spencerian Writing 
Books; The New Bryant and Stratton High School Bookkeeping ; Fish's Arithmetic 
(Numbers 1 and 2) ; Robinson's Complete Arithmetic ; Guyot's Physical Geography ; 
How Plants Grow, Gray ; Gray's Lessons in Botany ; Gray's New Manual of Botany ; 
Gray's School and Field Book of Botany ; Gray's Botanical Text-Book ; Outlines of 
the World's History, Swinton; First Lessons in Our Country's History, Swinton ; A 
Condensed School History of the United States; Elementary Manual of Chemistry; 
New Text-Book of Chemistry ; New Text-Book of Physics; A Short Course in Civil 
Government; The Geological Story Briefly Told ; Manual of Geology, Dana; Com- 
plete Course with the German Language ; Practical French Course ; Elements of 
Zoology, Tenney ; A Descriptive Atlas of the United States. 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., PHILADELPHIA. 

Full set of Worcester's Dictionaries; Set of Readers, Willson, Numbers I-V; Pri- 
mary Analytical Arithmetic ; Intermediate Analytical Arithmetic ; Higher Analyti- 
cal Arithmetic ; Common School Arithmetic ; Lippincott's Pronouncing Biographical 
Dictionary; New Elementary Algebra; Astronomy for Schools and General Readers; 
Lessons in Chemistry, Greene. 

MACMILLAN & CO., NEW YOBK AND LONDON. 

Guest's Lectures ; Huxley's Physiology; Lockyer's Astronomy; Geikie's Physical 
Geography; Mrs. Fawcett's Political Economy ; Jevons's Logic; Stewart's Physics; 
Thompson's Electricity; Masson's French Dictionary; Morris's English Grammar; 
Tanner's Agricultural Practice ; Ward's Poets, 4 volumes, student's edition ; set Globe 
Readings; Huxley's Physiography ; Huxley and Martin's Biology ; TaitonHeat; Tait 
on Light; Calderwood's Moral Philosophy; Foster and Langley's Physiology ; Faw- 
cett's Manual of Political Economy ; Todhunter's Euclid, Algebra for Beginners, Col- 
lege Algebra, Plane Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Deferential Calculus, Integral Cal- 
culus ; Roscoe's Chemistry ; Calderwood on Teaching ; Fitch on Teaching. 

JOHN MUKPHY, BALTIMORE AND NEW YORK. 

Lessons in English Literature. 

THOMAS NELSON & SONS, NEW YORK CITY. 

World at Home Readers (I to VI) ; Morrison's Grammar; English Language ; Royal 
Drawing Books ; Royal History of England and Scotland ; Collier's British History, 
Great Events, Senior Class Book, Advanced Class Book, Outlines of History, British 
Empire, Junior Class Book, English Literature ; Bryce's First and Second Latin and 
Greek Books, Elementary Latin Grammar ; Blaikie's Bible History ; Chemistry of 
Common Things ; Principles of Agriculture; Elementary Mechanics; Science of Home 
Life, 2 vols. ; Model Notes of Lessons ; Moral Subjects ; Scott's Reader. 

PORTER & COAXES, PHILADELPHIA. 

Set Normal Readers (Numbers I-V) ; Primary Spelling Book, Buckwalter ; Compre-. 
hensive Spelling Book, Buckwalter; Set Raub's Arithmetics; Lessons in English; 
Practical English Grammar. 

POTTER, AINSWORTH & CO., NEW YORK CITY. 

First Book in Natural Philosophy; First Book in Physiology; First Book in As- 
tronomy ; Astronomy for Schools and Academies; Payson, Dunton & Scribner's Single 
Entry Bookkeeping, Double Entry Bookkeeping, Manual of Penmanship; complete 
set of Payson, Dunton & Scribner's Penmanship (12 numbers) ; Handbook of National 
System of Pennmanship ; Industrial Drawing, Bartholomew (Numbers I and 2) ; set of 
Bartholomew's System of Industrial Drawing (18 numbers) ; How to Teach Bar- 
tholomew's System of Drawing ; set of six composition books ; blank books for book- 



RAND, MCNALLY & CO., CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. 

Indexed Atlas of the World. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXHIBITS SCHOOL APPARATUS. 89 

GEO. SHERWOOD & CO., CHICAGO. 

Set Model Readers; Model History; Civil Government of Illinois ; Civil Govern- 
ment of Michigan ; Sewall's Botany; Rhetoric Made Racy; Haynie's Analysis; set 
Writing Spellers ; Class Register, No. 1 ; SherTvood's Register; Walker's Register, No. 
1 ; Business Reader ; Students Reader, parts ; Little Folks' Model Arithmetic; Model 
Elementary Arithmetic ; Model Complete Arithmetic : dozen circulars of each kind. 

TAINTOR BROTHERS, MERRILL & CO., NEW YORK. 

Franklin Readers; Campbell's Concise School History of the United States. 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., CINCINNATI. 

Revised First Reader, Second Reader, Third Reader, Fourth Reader, Fifth Reader, 
Sixth Reader; Ray's Plain and Solid Geometry, Geometry and Trigonometry, Analyti- 
cal Geometry, Astronomy, Surveying and Navigation, Differential and Integral Cal- 
culus; Hepburn's Rhetoric ; Eclectic Primary History ; Eclectic United States His- 
tory ; Thalheimer's England, General History, Ancient History, Modern and Mediaeval 
History. 

SCHOOL APPAEATUS. 

[NoTB.— For physical and chemical apparatus, see p. 127.] 
D. APPLETON & CO., NEW YORK. 

Reading charts, with stands; writing charts, with stands; music charts, with 
stands and manual; Cornell's outline maps; Henslow's botanical charts; Linton's 
historical charts. 

A. L. BANCROFT & CO., SAN FRANCISCO, CAX. 

Bancroft's charts of geography, geographical definition, history, and physiology; 
Finch's arithmetical chart ; Montgomery's revolving chart. 

E. H. BUTLER & CO., PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Reading charts, 36 numbers, with color chart, chart of form, and time chart ; chart 
primer ; Mitchell's outline maps, with key. 

BUFFALO SCHOOL FURNITURE COMPANY, BUFFALO, N. Y. 

New paragon desks, full set, double and single; 1 single- back seat; 2 double-back 
seats ; 1 single box desk ; 1 single study front desk ; 1 tablet settee ; 2 dozen kinder- 
garten chairs ; large kindergarten table ; 6 small kindergarten tables. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

Cubes, weights, and measures illustrating metric system ; relative globe, relative 
time globe, relief globe, blackboard globe, and ordinary terrestrial globes, large and 
small ; relief maps of Italy and Switzerland ; large framed maps of Eastern and West- 
em Hemispheres and Canada ; set of drawing models ; set of Boyd's object lessons ; 
Smith's map of the United States ; 4 Warman's school charts ; 6 pictures of Swiss 
scenery. 

COWPERTHWAIT & CO., PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Set of Monroe's vocal gymnastic charts, including Bell's Visible Speech ; set of Mon- 
roe's reading charts. 

DETROIT RADIATOR CO., DETROIT, MICH. 

School radiator. 

S. T. ENOS. ETNA, ILL. 

"Educational Device," framed. 



90 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

GINN, HEATH & CO., BOSTON, MASS. 

Mason's musical charts ; terrestrial globe (12-iuch). 

LOUISA J. KIRKWOOD, NEW YOllK CITY. 

School sewing-box, containing a supply of needles, thread, thimbles, scissors, pins, 
«mery, cushions, and thimble-bags, 400 basted sewing sample patches, arranged in 
eight graded lessons. 

NEW YORK CUAYON COMPANY. 

Plain white chalk crayons ; enameled white chalk crayons (dustless) ; enameled 
colored chalk crayons (dustless) ; Conklin's blackboard erasers ; boxes pastel crayons, 
No. 2 ; boxes pastel crayons. No. 1 ; soapstone slate pencils ; wire-bound slates ; pen- 
cil-holding slates ; Lehigh slates. 

NEW YORK SILICATE BOOK SLATE CO. 

Holly blackboard; daisy blackboard; young artist blackboard; No. 1 easel and 
blackboard ; No. 2 easel and blackboard ; No. 3 roll and blackboard ; (pocket) book 
slate, with interleaves; (quartz) book slate, without interleaves, popular school size; 
(crystal) book slate, without interleaves, large size; (silica) book slate, same as No, 
14 ; (quartz) book«slate, with interleaves; (stone) book slate, with interleaves, medium 
size ; (mineral ) book slate, with interleaves, largest size ; daily class report for teach- 
ers' use, ruled for daily recitation marks of 50 pupils. 

For office use. — (Silex) book slate, iudelibly ruled dollar columns and horizontal lines, 
medium size; (flint) book slate, iudelibly ruled dollar columns and horizontal lines, 
large size; daily memoranda for vest pocket, interleaves; forget-me-not ladies' shop- 
ping book, interleaves; every-day book slate, interleaves, caJendar if desired; min- 
ute book slate, extra interleaves ; gem book slate, interleaves ; journal book slate, j)lain 
title, extra interleaves, horizontal ruling ; merchants' book slate, extra interleaves. 

Fo7' desk or office use. — (Agate) book slate ; centennial book slate, ruled interleaves; 
(diamond) book slate, with interleaves; (glass) book slate, indelibly ruled dollar col- 
umns and horizontal lines; conductors' book slate, black cloth cover, opening at end, 
short. 

PARMENTER CRAYON CO., WALTHAM, MASS. 

Crayons in ten colors, tastefully arranged upon a revolving cylinder within a show 
case. 

PEOPLE'S PUBLISHING CO., CHICAGO, ILL. 

The People's Illustrated and Descriptive Family Atlas. 

RAND, MCNALLY & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. 

Seven maps iu case. 

CHAS. SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK CITY. 

Set Trouvelot astronomical charts. 

8ETH THOMAS CLOCK CO., THOMASTON, CONN. 

Two clocks, one each for library and kindergarten. 

GEO. SHILLING, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Six engineering instruments with case for them, as follows: 

The Engineer's Transit has two horizontal plates, moving freely upon each other. 
The upper or vernier plate is of larger diameter than the lower plate or circle, and 
has at the circumference a rectangular downward projection, within which the circle 
is closely fitted to exclude dust, grit, etc., from the divisions of the circle and the ver- 
niers, which are on the lower side of the vernier plate. Apertures are cut and fitted 
with porcelain shades in the vernier plate directly above the verniers, revealing the 
same and an equal space of the circle around which they travel. At the edges of the 
90 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL APPARATUS. 91 

apertures recesses are cut, into which pieces of plate glass are closely fitted, affording 
protection to the circle and verniers, and also excluding dust, moisture, etc. On 
top of the vernier plate is a compass central to the vertical axis; the needle is 4^ 
inches long, and is provided with a lifter to release it from the pin when the instrument 
is not in use. The vertical axis consists of two parts, the internal and the external ; 
the internal axis is connected with the vernier plate and the external axis with the 
circle. The external axis is also fitted into a shank, at the upper end of which is a 
circular plate which is 5" in diameter (called the upper parallel plate), containing the 
four leveling screws, placed opposite each other at equal distances apart. To the 
lower end of the shank a segment of a hall is attached, which works in a socket-plate 
held against the under side of the lower parallel plate. This plate has a large circu- 
lar opening in the middle, which permits the socket-plate that secures the whole in- 
strument to the lower parallel plate to be shifted for position ; thus, for instance, when 
an engineer desires to locate the transit over a given point, he can do so by means of 
this shifting device, without changing the position of the tripod legs. The clamp for 
the horizontal circle embraces the external center immediately above its fitting in the 
shank, and is connected with the upjjer parallel plate by means of the tangent or 
pushing-screw, opposite to and in line with which is a spring-box containing a piston 
worked by a strong spiral spring, imparting a counter motion. Hence, by tightening 
the clamp, the whole instrument can be moved any small quantity of space by turn- 
ing the pushing-screw. In like manner the clamp for the vernier plate embraces the 
external axis immediately below the horizontal circle, and is connected with the ver- 
nier plate by means of a German-silver tangent screw, thus freeing the circle from 
all incumbrance. 

The transit has two cylindrical spirit-levels mounted at right angles to each other, 
one on the vernier plate, the other on one of the standards. 

At the top of the standards V-shaped bearings are cut to receive the pivots of the 
telescojje axis. One of the bearings is adjustable and can be raised or lowered by means 
of two capstan-headed screws opposite each other, the purpose of which is to bring 
the telescope axis into the horizontal plane, thus securing a motion of the telescope 
parallel to the vertical axis of the instrument. The telescope may be held in any posi- 
tion around its axis by a clamp, the collar of which embraces one end of the telescope 
axis, and when clamped will hold the telescope in a rigid position, which can then be 
controlled by means of the tangent screw connecting the clamp with the standard. 
At the opposite end of the axis is mounted the vertical circle (.5'' in diameter) having 
a silver ring let into its rim for the purpose of receiving the divisions. The vertical 
circle is divided to read to 20 minutes and the vernier to read to 30 seconds. The tele- 
scope has an attached level 6" long mounted on the under side, this level having hori- 
zontal and vertical adjustments for the purpose of bringing it into parallelism with 
the line of collimation of the telescope. 

The eye-piece, instead of focusing upon the diaphragm by a simple slide or by rack 
and pinion, is made to move in a straight line in and out by a milled rotating collar 
carrying a female screw, which engages with pins upon the eye-piece, giving a slow 
motion withjout shake, enabling the adjustment for different eyes to be made quickly 
and easily, and once made to be retained without liability to disarrangement. This 
arrangement for focusing the terrestrial eye-piece on the cross-wires is used on all 
telescopes having a direct eye-piece. 

Engineer's Wye-Level. — The Y's, leveling-plates, etc., are made as in the engineer's 
transit, which permits the use of a much longer center than usual, gives greater so- 
lidity to the instrument as a whole, and materially increases the nicety and accuracy 
of all work. The level-bar is 13" long and is screwed directly upon the center-flange, 
immediately below which the clamp embraces the center, and is connected with the 
upper parallel plate by means of the tangent screws. At each end of the bar Y's are 
mounted, one of which has a vertical adjustment for the purpose of bringing the Y'a 
into a line horizontal to the vertical axis of the instrument. These Y's support the 
telescope, which is confined in them by means of hinged clips at the top. The tele- 
scope is 17" long, the objective l-J" in diameter, and has a clear opening of If". 

A valuable and original improvement is made by adding collars of bell-metal to the 
telescope, in which the latter rotates, instead of in the Y's. In one of the collars a 
stop is placed, permitting the telescope to be revolved exactly 180°. When the usual 
clamps over the Y's are lifted, the disengagement of pins with the collars permits the 
revolution of the whole combination, as in the ordinary level, except that the collars 
revolve in the Y's instead of the telescope. The advantages derived from this im- 
provement are many. It permits a much more rapid and accurate collimation adjust- 
ment, since, the revolution of the telescope on its axis being exactly 180°, the time 
usually spent in placing the wires horizontal and vertical is gained ; for the motion 
in the collars being concentric, the axis maintains its direction unchanged in any 
position of the telescope in them, and once adjusted, is not liable to derangement 
from wear : as, instead of the usual two bearing surfaces in the Y's, the telescope re- 
volves in the accurately-fitting collars, which are so made as to exclude dust, grit, 

91 



92 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

etc. The life aud value of the level are thus indefinitely increased, ^uce there is no 
appreciable wear ot\the bearings of the telescope. ' 

The 6-inch Theodolite consists of two horizontal plates — the upper or vernier being 
of less diameter than the lower plate or limb. Within the circumference of the lower 
plate is let in a silver ring to receive the graduations. On opposite sides of the 
vernier plate, or 180° apart, silver arcs are let in, forming the verniers, which are about 
.002 of an inch lower than the graduation of the circle ; as the reading of the divisions 
through the reading microscope is performed at an angle of about 60° to the plane of 
the division, it follows that if the outer division is a trifle higher than the inner a 
continuous line will be the result when any two of the lines of the divisions are oppo- 
site each other. The reading of the verniers is assisted by having porcelain shades 
immediately above them, to mellow and subdue the light. 

The vernier plate bears freely upon the lower plate, and meets the lower limb 
within the circle at a distance of nine-sixteenths inches from the periphery, both 
having a horizontal motion by means of the vertical axis. This axis consists of two 
parts, the external and internal ; the former is secured to the graduated circle and the 
latter to the vernier plate. The form of both vertical centers is conical aud they are 
ground into each other, having an easy and very steady motion. The external center 
also fits into an upright shank having three arms or claws carrying the leveling screws, 
which rest directly upon the tripod head. The lower limb or circle is graduated to 
read to 10 minutes^ and is subdivided by the vernier to 10 seconds, which are easily read 
off by aid of the attached microscopes. 

The lower horizontal limb can he fixed in any position by tightening the clamp- 
screw, which causes the collar of the clamp to embrace the external axis and prevents 
its moving ; but if it is desired that it should be fixed in some precise position more 
exactly than can be done by the hand alone, the whole instrument, when thus 
clamped, can be moved any small quantity by means of the slow-motion screw which 
is attached to the shank (this slow motion screw being fitted with a spring box 
containing a piston controlled by a powerful spiral spring securing a counter motion). 
In like manner the upper or vernier plate can be fixed to the lower in any position by 
a clamp attached to the external center of the instrument and connected with the 
vernier plate by means of the tangent screw, thus freeing the divided circle from any 
incumbrance. 

Upon the plaae of the vernier plate a universal adjustable level is placed, its use 
being to determine the horizontal setting of the instrument. On the vernier plate the 
upright standards carrying the telescope and circle are placed. These standards are 
slotted for Y's to receive the axis of the telescope. The axis of the telescope is 
secured in the Y's by catches or clips hinged to the top of the standard, forming a self- 
actiuEf, strong, and durable fastening, easy to use and far superior to the swinging 
bars usually seen on instruments. The Y in one of the standards is adjustable, and 
can be raised or lowered by means of a stout screw which has a plain fitting in the 
standard, and is held in place by a fine steel pin which fits into a groove turned in the 
shank of the screw. The Y carries a female thread into which the upper end of the 
screw works ; hence by turning the screw the Y can be raised or low.ered at will, 
and especial merit is claimed for this appliance for securing a true vertical motion of 
the telescope. 

The clamp for the telescope axis is a hinged collar having two horizontal projec- 
tions opposite the hinge, said projections being slotted to receive a strong German- 
silver screw which is fastened to the lower projections by means of a steel pin <>u 
which it swings vertically. This screw has a milled screw-nut which slips over the 
projection of the upper half of the collar, and by turning the screw-nut, one revolu- 
tion may be made to tighten the two halt collars on the telescope axis. This clamp 
is easily operated, being permanent in its place and independent of the axis, and offers 
no inconvenience or obstruction when the axis is being reversed in the standards for 
the purpose of testing the line of collimatiou. 

The fulcrum of the tangent screw controlling the telescope works in stationary 
half balls, into which ci-eases are cut coincident to creases in the tangent screw, 
mounted on one of the standards. One end of the tangent screw works in a female 
thread or ball secured to the tail-piece of, and controls, the clamp. This kind of tan- 
gent screw is used on all instruments made by George Shilling, except where pushing- 
screws are used. 

The telescope is 11" long; the object glass li" clear aperture, having an inverting 
eye-piece magnifying 16 times ; there is a detacJiable striding level longitudinal \\ith 
the telescope. The striding level, when properly adijusted, is parallel with the line of 
collimatiou, and is used to determine its horizoiitality. The axis of the telescope 
carries a circle b" in diameter, having a silver rim laid in, upon which is indicated 
the graduations, which are divided to 20 minutes, and subdivided by means of the 
vernier to read to 30 seconds. 

The telescope drawer carrying the reticule and achromatic eye-piece is moved out 
and in, iu a straight line, by means of a rack and pinion. 

92 



MISCELLANEOUS KINDERGARTEN. 93 

The gradienler — used in preliminary triangulations to measure angles of altitude 
and azimntb, and also in distance measnrements (telemeter work). Like the theodo- 
lite, it lias two horizontal plates; the low^er one, or circle, is tixed to (he shank in 
which the center carrying the vernier jdate revolves. Within the periphery of the 
circle a silver ring is laid in, upon which the division is ruled. The diameter of the 
circle at the edge of reading is 3f". Silver arcs are inlaid in the vernier plate oppo- 
site each other (lttO° apart), forming the verniers. At the lower end of the sh.nnk 
are three equidistant arms carrying the leveling screws, which rest directly upon the 
tripod head. The construction is similar to that described for the theodolite, having, 
however, no repeating motion. 

The vertical axis and the standard are cast in one continuous piece, the vernier 
plate being screwed to the base of the standard. The standards carrying the axi.s of 
the telescope being 2" above the vernier plate, allow about ^0° of elevation and de- 
pression. The tops of the standards are slotted for Y's, and, as in the description 
given of the theodolite, the axis of the telescope is held in place by movable clips, 
to i>ermit of leady reversion to ascertain whether adjustmenti has been secured. 

A universal level is mounted upon the base of the standard central to the vertical 
axis, its use being, as readily Understood, to determine the exact horizontal position 
of he instrument. 

The clamp for the telescope axis is the same as that described for the theodolite, 
with the exception that the tail-piece has a horizontal projection carried into a slot; 
cut in one of the standards, and is there conf rolled by means of a pushing-screw aud 
counter-motion piston in a box, working against a strong spiral spring. 

The telescope resting its axis in the Y's of the standard as above described, is 9" long, 
having an object glass of IJ" aperture in the clear, with a movable cap, a rack and 
pinion to secure the inward and outward motion of the drawer which contains the 
adjustable stadia wires for telemeter observations, and an achromatic eye-piece. To 
one eud of the axis of the telescope is rigidly attached a vernier index or nonius, 
which follows the motion of the telescope aud moves upon the inner arc of a circle 
■which is divided to iiO minutes, and is subdivided by means of ihe nonius to read to 
30 seconds. The telescope carries a detachable com])ass f)" long, upon which rests an 
adjustable graduated ether-level. The compass needle can be secured or released by 
means of a small pin or lifter. 

The vernier plate is* secured to the lower limb or circle by means of a clamp which 
travels on the outer edge of the lower horizontal plane, and assists the tangent screw 
in securing a horizontal motion to the entire instrument above the horizontal circle. 

VAN ANTWERP & CO., CINCINNATI, OHIO. 

McQuffy's revised primary charts ; eclectic wall maps. 

A. G. WHITCOMB, BOSTON, MASS. 

One teacher's desk; 1 high school lid desk; 1 jjrimary lid desk; 7 graded single 
desks. 

KINDERGAKTEN^. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE SCHOOL. 

In the southwest corner of the gallery in the Government building a room 35 feet 
long by 17 feet wide has been partitioned off for a kindergarten. The walls'are of 
white cotton cloth with a red border above and a brown one below, each about two 
feet wide. Pictures illustrating animal life, groups of picture cards, an(f the children's 
first lessons in color, form, and number, in the shape of paper chains, decorate the walls. 
Over the mantel-piece hangs a picture of the Madonna and Child, to which little faces 
lovingly turn as the children sing, "Jesus once was a little child." Opposite this 
I>icture hangs a handsome clock, furnished by the Setji Thomas Clock Co., Thomas- 
ton, Conn. 

Wiiite muslin curtains, bright lambrequins, and an ingrain rug, add to the home- 
like appearance of the room. 

On cold da.\8 a cheerful fire is a center of attraction, not only to the little ones, but 
to the Itennmbed fingers and toes of chance visitors, who frequently remark, "This 
is the most pleasant place I've seen." 

93 



94 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEAKS EXPOSITION. 

In one corner stands a cabinet, well tilled with every variety of kiudergarieii ma- 
terial, generously loaned by Milton Bradley, Springfield, Mass. 

Upon the rug, near by, are arranged the beautiful tables and chairs provided by 
the Buffalo Fui-niture Company. 

The munificence of Mr. A. Weber, Fifth avenue, corner of Sixteenth street, New 
York, supplies, in addition, an elegant inlaid upright piano, whose sweet strains sel- 
dom fail to draw a delighted throng to the windows, through which the si^ectators 
witness the marching and games of the childrea. 

The object of this kindergarten, as expressed by the Commissioner of Education, 
b'ing to exhibit perfection in detail rather than numbers, only sixteen children, 
between the ages of four and seven, have been admitted. With one exception these 
children have never before attended a kindergarten. The novelty and pleasure of 
their occupations seem to render them quite unconscious of the presence of occasional 
visitors, who cannot resist the temiJtation to step inside, now and then. 

Of course, in'so short a time only a smallportion of the regular kindergarten course 
can be given; but it affords at least a glimpse of a living kindergarten to many 
parents and teachers Trho have become interested in the subject through books. 
They see how the theories of Froebel, the founder of the system, are applied to the 
children, for whose symmetrical development they were elaborated by him. Tore- 
mind the reader what those theories are, statements of them from recognized author- 
ities are presented. 

The theory which considers the universe as an organic whole and man as a member 
of the whole in all, and which will allow the laws of education to be dictated chiefly 
by the laws of life, governed Froebel through and through, governs the present time, 
and will make its influence felt more and more in the educational field. * » * 

The mission of Froebel is to give to education, not a one-sided, but an all-sided 
foundation. (Dr. Richard Lange. ) 

The purpose of the kindergarten is to take the oversight of children before they are 
ready for school life ; to exert an influence over their whole being in correspondence 
with its nature ; to strengthen their bodily powers ; to exercise their senses ; to em- 
ploy the awakening mind ; to make them thoughtfully acquainted with the world of 
nature and of man ; to guide their heart and soul in a right direction, and lead them 
to the Origin of all life and to union with Him. (Froebel.) 

Man must not be instructed, but developed. I separate instruction from develop- 
ment very sharply. (Froebel.) 

Froebel gives to children experience instead of instruction ; he puts action in the 
place of abstract learning. (Baroness Marenholtz-Bulow.) 

Work, which is at the same time fulfillment of duty, is the only true basis of 
moral culture ; but it is necessary that such work should also satisfy the child's in- 
stinct of love, and the object of it must therefore be to give pleasure to others. With 
this end in view difficulties will be overcome with courage and cheerfulness, and the 
only effectual barrier will thus be opposed to selfishness. A true system of national 
education, such as the reforms of modern times render necessary, can only be estab- 
lished by making work, such work as shall connect artistic dexterity with the culti- 
vation of intelligence, the basis of education. (Baroness Marenholtz-Bulow.) 

Two kindergartners-were employed during the continuacce of the Exposition, Mrs. 
Anna ,B. Ogden and Miss May Crosby, both of Washington, D. C. The former has 
made the application of kindergarten principles in the home and in classes of quit© 
young children the chief object of her life and study for the past twelve years. 

Prof. E. A. Spring, of Perth Amboy, N. J., rendered valuable help in giving the 
best quality of artists' clay for the exercises in modeling, and interesting lessons iu 
its nse. 

The eminent success of the kindergarten class is primarily due to the Hon. John 
Eaton, Commissioner of Education, whose belief in the wisdom of the kindergarten 
system impels him to give the fullest information of its principles and methods, and 
whose foresight enables him to embrace every opportunity to make it a power for 
improvement in the education of children. 
94 



I 



MISCELLANEOUS KINDERGARTEN. 95 



KINDERGARTEN EXHIBITS. 

MILTON BRADLEY & CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 

First gift (6 worsted balls in box) ; two second gifts (ball, cube, and cylinder) ; 
twelve third gifts ; twelve fourth gifts; twelve fifth gifts; twelve sixth gifts; one 
package seventh gift, B (right-angled isosceles triangles); three boxes eighth gift 
(colored sticks from 1 to 5 in':- lies ) ' twelve boxes jointed slats ; two bunches colored 
slats; three boxes rings (ninth gift); twelve wooden tiles; two boxes pegs for tile 
sticking ; two boxes inch straws for chains ; four packages papers for stringing ; four 
boxes parquetry; two boxes Mrs. Hai 1 man's second gift (beads) ; two boxes wooden 
balls; eight packages cutting and folding paper squares; one package circular fold- 
ing papers ; one package triangular folding papers ; fifteen packages weaving material, 
twelve steel weaving needles ; one package (180) pricked cards ; twelve paper folders ; 
twelve pricking needles; twelve pricking pads; twelve ruled slates; twelve ruled 
drawing books ; large package picture cards unpricked ; six charts embroidery design 
cards ; one Froebel institute blocks arranged by Mrs, Hailman ; one set plane forms 
(triangular tablets) arranged by Mrs. Hailman; one set colored sticks arranged by 
Mrs. Hailman; one set lentils (wooden, six colors) arranged by Mrs. Hailman; Mrs. 
Hailman's second gift, beads, to illustrate number. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Kindergarten charts, 'showing location of kindergarten and their increase in ten 
years. 

CALIFORNIA KINDERGARTEN TRAINING SCHOOL. 

Mrs. Kate Smith Wiggin, Principal. 

One school each of paper cutting, paper folding, weaving, drawing, sewing, prick- 
ing, slat work, and paper twining ; one hundred copies report of free kindergarten. 

CHEROKEE ORPHAN ASYLUM, INDIAN TERRITORY. 

Mrs. Phoebe Biddell, instructor. 

Four charts of mounted work done by children, paper folding and embroidery ; two 
charts mounted weaving mats; six sachet bags (weaving mats); two embroidered 
cardboard wall pockets ; one box clay modeling. 

NATIONAL KINDERGARTEN, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Mrs. Louise Pollock, Principal. 

One group blocks (fifth gift, B) ; two embroidered work boxes; five embroidered 
design cards ; one embroidered scrap bag ; one embroidered letter case ; two cornu- 
copias (weaving); two sachet bags (weaving); one watch case; two parquetry 
design cards; two specimens cork work ; five specimens folding ; two specimens slat 
work ; three speci-mens paper cutting ; four drawing patterns ; six worsted balls. 

EMMA MARWEDEL, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 

Labeled charts, viz : beginning with circular sewing in silk ; flowers sewed; circu- 
lar drawing and cutting; circular drawing invention; paper cutting^; map drawing j 
circular drawing by children; arithmetic; botanical drawing; geometrical draw- 
ing ; geometrical sewing. 

The following material was also exhibited by Miss Marwedel in the Pacific Slope 
Division of the Woman's Department, under the supervision of Mrs. J. G. Lemon: 

One series of ten pieces of children's work ; one series of six pictures of California 
wild flowers made in paper by the normal class ; two maps— California and Bay of San 
Francisco. One picture of the kindergarten school building of Miss Marwedel ; three 
large photographs of views of the Stanford Memorial Free Kindergarten School, San 
Francisco; one manuscript form, a concise history of kindergarten work in California, 

by Mrs, . 

95 



96 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

E. STEIGKR, 24 PARK m^ACE, NEW YORK. 

First gift (6 worsted balls iu box) ; second, gift (ball, cube, and cylinder); third 
gift; fourth gift; fifth gift; sixth gift; seventh gift (eight boxes); box connected 
slats; bunch loose slats; bundle sticks; package seeds ; package shells; package corks; 
thirty-eight i)ackages weaving material ; three packages book-mark strips; dozea 
Bteel weaving needles; dozen wooden weaving needles; twg wraj)pers for weaving 
mats ; package paper for cutting ; box artists' clay ; box modeling tools and material 
(w^x) ; pack age papers and straws ; package sewing cards ; package No. ToS, weaving 
samples ; package No. 712, thread games ; box riiigs and half-rings, three sizes ; pack- 
age paper lor interlacing; package drawing paper; package paper frames; pacKage 
perforating material; box colors, brnshes, etc., for painting; three leporello books (for 
mounting); one sample book of work; box silver baskets, etc., for perforating; box 
doll's furniture (cardboard) ; two portraits of Froebel; seventeen boxes '' Occupations 
for home and lamily"; package paper- folding; package drawing paper ; patkHge 
kindergarten tracts; copy Kraus's Kindergarten Guide; copy Watson's Calisthenics; 
copy Watson's Calisthenics and Gymnastics; copy Rhymes and Tales, Kriege ; co|>y 
The Child, Kriege; copy Tbe Kindergarten, Shirrelf ; copy The Kindergarten, Douai; 
copy' Kindergarten Guide, Ptabody; set Douai's Readers; copy "After the Kinder- 
garten, What ? " Mann and Peabody. 

KITCHEN GAEDEK 

A kitchen garden (school) was conducted by Miss Olivia Tracy in the kindergarten 
room during March and April. Sessions were held in the afternoon four times a week. 
The pupils were girls from 7 to 10 years of age residing near the Exposition, and 
were quick to learn the exercises of the kitchen garden. Many visitors to the Kxpo- 
sitiou not only saw the class under instruction, but also studied the principle« and 
methods of the system. At the close of the term of instruction a review lesson was 
given for the benefit of the public. It was well attended, and received the commenda- 
tion of those present. 

The kitchen-garden system is a cornbination of songs, exercises, and plays, de- 
signed to give a practical training in simple housework. It is divided into six parts 
or occupations, and comprehends the following details of domestic work : Kindling 
fires, waitiuii on the door, bed-making, sweeping and dusting, arranging and clean- 
ing a room, laundry work laying a dinner table in the due order of courses, etc. In 
connection with the arrangement of the table, the parts of beef and mutton, and the 
best way to cook and cut each, are taught. 

The material used in the kitchen garden, and forming part <rf the exhibit of the 
Bureau of Education, was as follows: 

Kitchen g;irden table on standards, length 9 feet by 2i and 22 inches high. Kitchen 
garden material as follows : 

Occupation No. 1. 

Occupation No. 2: 12 tea sets, 12 knives, forks, and spoons, 12 table boards, 12 ta- 
ble cloths, 4rt napkins and rings, 12 towels with -f , 12 towels plain, 12 dish pau^- 

Occupation No '6: 12 brooms, 4 bean bags, dust pan and brush, whisk broom, feather 
duster, set of steps, 4 chairs, 2 bedsteads, 'J mattresses, 2 bolsters, 4 square pillows. 

OfcupuJi.on No 4 : 1-2 tubs, 12 wash boards, 12 scrubbing brushes," 12 jumping ropes, 
4 clothes poles, 12 dozen clothes i)ins. 

Occupation No. 5 : 12 dinner sets, 12 portfolios, 24 white papers, set of designs, 24 
pricking pads. 12 pricking needles. No. 2-0. 

Occupation No. « : 12 pairs of butter pats, 12 rolling pins, 12 baking pans, 12 cookie 
cutters, 12 biscuit cutters, 12 pie plates, 12 knives and forks, 12 muihu-rings, brick of 
clay, 2 sets bed-clothing, 12 bags washing. 

FITCH CEfiCHE. 

This exhibit consisted of, first, a series of 17 frames, containing 11 photographs of the 
bnildmg, etc., a picture of Fitch Institute, a copy of the rules of the cr^clie, a copy of 
one day's record of the criiche, 2 cards with specimens of kindergarten woi k, and ;{ pho- 
tographs, respectively, of the founder, matron, and benefactor, properly lettered, so 
as to be a title for the exhibit. Second, a glass stiow-case containing samples of the 
nniforujs, toilet articles, etc., constituting numbers 13-19, inclusive. Third, a cradle. 
Fourth, a crib. 
96 



MISCELLANEOUS NOEMAL SCHOOLS. 97 

NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
MARYLAND STATE NOEMAL SCHOOL, BALTIMORE. 



Sewing was introduced abont a year before the specimens were sent to the Exhibi- 
tion. 

There were about 200 lady students. Ten per cent, had no knowledge of sewing. 
Some did not know how to thread a needle. At least one-half of them sewed badly 
and with difficulty. 

METHOD OF WORK. 

A teacher was employed. The time assigned 'was one hour and a half, Wednesday 
afternoon. The lesson was compulsory. During the time thus occupied, the young 
men went out surveying. The sewing school was divided into sections of six. The 
head sewing teacher took one section for half an hour, thus giving a lesson to eight- 
een students in one v/eek. Each of these students was assigned to a section, and 
gave them the same lesson that she had learned. In two weeks the whole school was 
fully and systematically at work — the regular lady teachers of the school acting as 
assistants to the sewing teacher. This plan has given entire satisfaction. 

The sections are graded, and no student is permitted to leave her grade until she 
can do the work of it reasonably well. Cutting is taught as soon as the student is 
ready to begin to make garments. We propose to teach fitting to those who are pre- 
pared for it. 

When a student has acquired some facility in plain sewing and shows some skill in 
the making of useful garments, no objection is made to her doing fancy work of any 
kind that good taste will sanction. 

M. A. NEWELL, 

Principal. 
EXHIBIT. 

Framed picture of State normal school ; 5 framed photographs of blackboard work ; 
2framed views of interior of rooms in normal school building; 3 framed plans for school- 
houses. 

Portfolios containing the following: 11 original wall-paper designs, full size; 35 
maps; 53 original designs from flowers in water-colors; 32 history charts and state- 
ments; 44 rapid crayon and water-color drawings; 11 plats and survey-bills; 293 
botanical specimens (5 portfolios) ; 46 examination papers in bookkeeping ; 73 essays 
on physiology ; 31 examination papers on grammatical analysis ; 26 original reading 
charts; 42 plans of normal school building and original plans for school-houses; 51 
original designs wall-paper, carpets, etc., in water-colors; 48 graded drawings ; model 
school work (3 portfolios) ; 32 drawing books from regular work. 

List of articles contributed by 132 different pupils : 14 child's dresses, 10 handker- 
chiefs, 2 shopping-bags, 2 neckties, 2 corset-covers, 3 buffet-covers, 3 skirts, 27 aprons, 
wrapper (Mother Hubbard), 6 chemises, 3 pillow-shams, 14 tidies, 2 infant's shirts, 
towel, 2 stand-covers, 6 child's skirts, child's shirt, 4 child's aprons, child's pants, 2 
splashers, night robe, pillow-case, child's bib, toilet-set ,2 collars, purse, worsted edge, 
shirt, mat, 2 shoe receptacles, drawers, arnold apron, lace, Chinese lantern, stocking- 
bag, 2 slippers, 2 hoods, child's drawers, tray-cover, cushion, pin-cushion, shoe, fichu, 
cheuiise-yoke ; samples of running, back-stitching, halfback-stitching, hemming, over- 
seaming, felling, putting on the band and button-hole, by four pupils. 

STATE NOEMAL AND TEAINING SCHOOL, FARMINGTON, ME. 

4 photographs of buildings (from museum of Bureau of Education). 

TILESTON NOEMAL SCHOOL, WILMINGTON, N. C. 

Photographs of Tileston Normal School (1) with pupils, (2) with teachers and 
janitor, and (3) with classes in calisthenics; views of interior of building, and pho- 

7950 COT 7 ^'^ 



98 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

tograph of the principal, Miss Amy M. Bradley ; 36 specimens of kindergarten work ; 
specimens of drawing and designing : primary department, first class, 17, second 
class, 20, higher department, 39; examination papers: botany, 20 vols., physiology, 
20 vols., geology, 20 vols., kindergarten department, 9 vols., primary department, 6 
vols., intermediate department, 9 vols., grammar department, 9 vols., high and normal 
department, 11 vols. ; maps of North America (6), N. E. States (2), Maryland, North 
Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia (2), South America (5), United States, Greece, and 
Europe. 

BUSINESS COLLEGES. 

I 

GEM CITY BUSINESS COLLEGE, QtTlNCY, ILLINOIS. 

3 framed specimens of penmaaship. 

KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY BUSINESS COLLEGE, LEXINGTON, KY. 

12 framed specimens of penmanship ; system of bookkeeping and business accounts, 
with papers used in complete course of study. 

PIERCE'S COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

2 volumes of papers written in full business course. 



INSTITUTIONS FOE SECONDAEY INSTRUCTION. 

NEW YORK TRADE SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY. 

Specimens of work in plumbing, pattern making, and stone catting, neatly ar- 
ranged in a large case furnished by the schools. 

SAINT ALPHONSUS' PAROCHIAL SCHOOL, NEW ORLEANS. 

Mechanical drawings,, colored. — Steam fire-engine, Baldwin locomotive, French ex- 
press engine, steam mining pump, Harris-Corliss engine. 

Architectural drawings, colored. — Plan of the exterior of a railroad depot, plan oMhe 
exterior of a court-house, scene near New Orleans (oil painting), French villa, bour- 
geois residence. Saint Alphonsus' church. Saint Alphonsus' school, Lee's monument 
(India ink), public fountain (India ink), Chilteau Vincennes (India ink), New York 
residence. 

Maps, 20 inches hy 24 inches {water colors). — United States, Europe, Asia, Africa, Amer- 
ica, and the State of Louisiana with its parishes, by boys between the ages of 12 and 16. 

Busts of distinguished men, etc. (crayon drawings). — Mozart, Haydn, Paganini, Grover 
Cleveland, Thomas A. Hendricks, child at prayer. 

Specimens of penmanship. — Business writing by boys between the ages of 7 and 16. 

A steamboat, 26 by 18, carved with a penknife by Charles Webb, aged 15. 

Model of a stationary engine, cast iron, by William Johnson, aged 16. 

SHELDON JACKSON INSTITUTE, ALASKA. 

\_An industrial training school for Indian hoys and gh-ls."] 

8 photographs, viz: Front view of Greek church, Sitka; side view of Greek church, 
Sitka ; interior of Greek church, Sitka ; totemio carvings and Chilkat shawl ; cus- 
tom-house, barracks, and castle, Sitka; totemic sticks and ruins of Hydah houses; 
Juneau, Alaska, 1882; house of native chief; 31 specimens kindergarten work; 6 
plans of buildings of Sheldon Jackson Institute ; 5 totems ; eagle bowl ; medicine rat- 
tle; 2 ducks; child's head; shark bowl; pufiflu bowl; babe and cradle; bone doll; 
model of canoe ; set table mats ; 3 hats ; 2 toy hats ; 20 baskets ; 2 covered bottles ; 
baby suit embroidered. 

98 



INSTITUTIONS FOR SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 



99 




99 



100 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 




100 



INSTITUTIONS TOE SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN. 101 

80UL6'S COMMEKCIAL college and LITEBAKY institute of new ORLEANS, LA. 

Samples of desks and furuituro used in the commercial, academical, and English de- 
partments ; sample of settees used in the lecture rooms ; specimens of apparatus used 
in the physical and chemical departments ; specimens from the college museum of 
mineralogy, phrenological husts, comparative zoology, etc. ; astronomical, physio- 
logical, geographical, and geological maps, charts, etc. ; drawings, models, and mathe- 
matical objects; specimens of books of accounts and commercial instruments of 
writing, penmanship, drawing, and grammatical and logical diagrams, work of 
students; the stenograph, or short-hand writing machine, in charge of a practical 
operator. 

WOEKINGMAN'S school AND FREE KINDERGARTEN OF NEW YORK, NEW YORK CITY. 

9 photographs, viz : Building of Woikingman's School and Free Kindergarten of 
New York; school workshop I, school workshop II, school workshop III, casts in 
modeling room, modeling room, geography class, reception room, drawing class. 

Exhibits from Technical Department: Clay cutting, 24 specimens; pasteboard 
work, 14 specimens ; scroll work, 15 specimens ; sawing, 6 specimens ; wood-turning, 
6 specimens ; carpentry work, 2 specimens; l2 drawings." 

Exhibits from Art Department : Four framed charcoal drawings, 20 plaster casts. 

INSTITUTIONS FOE THE SUPBRIOB INSTEUOTION OF 

WOMEN. 

ANDERSON FEMALE SEMINARY, ANDERSON, 8. C. 

Photograph of seminary buildings, 4 oil paintings, 2 crayon sketches. 

JUDSON FEMALE INSTITUTE, MARION, ALA. 

This school was founded in 1839, and was incorporated by the legislature of Ala- 
bama in 1841. It is the property of the Alabama Baptist State Convention. Its 
affairs are in the hands of a board of trustees appointed by that body. Its officers 
and teachers all receive stipulated salaries ; so that there is no one who is at all in- 
terested in having any pecuhiary profits arise from its management. Its object is not 
that any one shall make money by it, but that the best educational advantages that 
this country can furnish may be offered to its patrons at the lowest cost attainable 
for such advantages. Its policy is to employ the most accomplished and skillful 
teachers in all its departments, to make ample provision for the comfort and health 
of its pupils, and to practice a wise economy in all the details of its management. 

The college building is a large four-story structure of brick, with 250 feet front, 
and contains about eighty rooms. 

The Judson exhibit in the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at 
New Orleans is intended to show the character of the work done in all the depart- 
ments of the school. 

I. Kindergarten Department. — Embossing on paper, embroidery, modeling in clay, 
drawing in pencil and pastel coloring, and the work done by the children in their 
study of colors (primary, secondary, and tertiary, illustrating their combinations in 
plaiting and weaving; aad of geometric forms (surfaces and solids). 

II. Literary Department. — (a) Fifteen volumes of manuscripts containing examination 
papers and exercises showing the daily school-room work in spelling, writing, geog- 
raphy, history, languages, mathematics, physical sciences, and intellectual and moral 
philosophy. 

(6) Catalogues setting forth the organization of the school, and its curriculum and 
methods of instruction. 

(c) Monthly issues of Judson Echoes, a paper published under the auspices of its 
literary societies. 

(d) Blank forms of reports and diplomas, showing the system of rewards and honors. 

III. Department of Music. — Compositions in the form of chorals, the bass being given, 
the other parts (soprano, alto, and tenor) the original work of pupils ; analyses of 
various sonatas and fugues of Beethoven, Mozart, Clemati, Bach, and others ; pro- 
grammes of monthly recitals and concerts. 

101 



102 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 



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102 



MISCELLANEOUS COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE. 103 

IV. Department of Art. — (a) Decorative art: Kensingtoo, lustra (or iridescent) 
and tapestry painting, china painting in mineral colors and amber enamel, pastel 
drawing and painting, ancient and modern needlework, embracing Kensington and 
French embroidery, Queen Anne's darning, outlining, plush-stitch, arrasene, chenille, 
ribbon, appliqu^, drawn linen work, a variety of stitches on canvas, crochet, knitting, 
and darned lace work. 

(&) Drawing and painting: Outlines in pencil, charcoal, and crayons; studies in 
pencil, crayons, and charcoal, from the flat and the round, or from object ; drawings 
from nature, such as fruit, flowers, etc., to which is added color in pastel, crayon, 
charcoal, water-colors, and oil, and portraiture from plaster casts and from nature. 



COLLEGES AKD SCHOOLS OF SOIElirCE. 

AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF THE STATE OF MISSISSIPPI, NEAR 

STARK\aLLE, MISS. 

Six photographs of college buildings, faculty, etc. ; five drawings by students ; 
charts showing the various courses of study. 

AMHERST COLLEGE, AMSfERST, MASS. 

Thirty photographs of resident faculty in frame ; 11 photographs of college houses 
in frame ; 9 photographs of Amherst College buildings and Amherst village in frame; 
8 photographs of college in frame ; 4 photographS'of former presidents; summary of 
students and graduates in frame ; plan of buildings in frame ; 4 photographs of society 
houses in frame ; 16 bound volumes, viz : Historical reports, addresses, and papers ; 
triennial catalogues 1831-1878 ; annual catalogues 1822-1849 ; annual catalogues 1850- 
1869; annual catalogues 1870-1885 ; student life; examinations for admission 1881-1884 ; 
biographical record of alumni and non-graduates ; reminiscences ; history during first 
half century; physical culture ; commemorative discourses; inaugural and valedictory 
addresses of presidents ; schedule of exercises ; exercises at semi-centennial ; catalogue 
Amherst College 1884-'85. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

College books : Harvard, 2 volumes ; Yale, 2 volumes; Princeton, 1 volume ; Vassar, 
1 volume; models showing the improvements in ploughs; geological charts; charts 
illustrating building construction ; representations of crystals^ illustrations of conic 
sections by movable models ; plans and photographs of buildings, Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y. (from museum of Bureau of Education). 

FISK UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE, TENN. 

Two framed pictures of buildings. 

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, GEORGETOWN, D. C. 

Large walnut case containing framed photographs of Georgetown College in 1789, 
Georgetown College in 1812, and Georgetown College in 1884; framed engravings of 
Kt. Rev. John Carroll, D. D., founder of Georgetown College, and William Gaston (died 
chief justice of North Carolina), first student of Georgetown College ; framed state- 
ment of historical outline, rectors, degrees conferred, requirements for degrees, courses 
of study, and average number of students ; the Toner medal for collection of woods 
of the District of Columbia. 

HOWARD UNIVERSITY, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Framed sketch and plans of institution and grounds. 

NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL. 

Statement of Institution. — The Northwestern University has 60 professors and teach- 
ers, and about 900 students. It is located on the shore of Lake Michigan, about 12 
miles from Chicago. In beauty of situation and in moral influence it is unsur- 
passed. The sale of intoxicating drinks within 4 miles of the university is prohibited 
by its charter. 

103 



104 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

The university includes : (1) the college of liberal arts ; (2) woman's college ; (3) 
college of medicine ; (4) college of law ; (5) preparatory school ; (6) school of elocu- 
tion; (7) conservatory of music; (8) department of art; (9) Garrett biblical institute ; 
(10) Swedish theological school. 

In the college of liberal arts are four courses of study, and corresponding degrees 
are given to those who graduate from them. The privileges of the college of liberal 
arts and of the preparatory school, as well as of the departments of elocution, music, 
and art, are granted to young women on the same terms as to young men. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, SAINT LOUIS, MO. 

Specimens of mechanical drawing. 

STATE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF TEXAS, COLLEGE STATION, TEX. 

Three mechajiical drawings in ink ; 2 pencil drawinge, of laboratory. 

UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, ATHENS, GA. 

Two framed drawings. 

UNIVERSITY OF NOrIh CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, N. C. 

Eight framed photographs of university buildings. 

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Views of university buildings ; architectural drawings ; history of university ; uni- 
versity pamphlets; 9 models in engineering. 

UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, KNOXVILLE, TENN. 

Four framed drawings. 

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, VA. 

Twelve framed photographic views of exterior and interior of buildings. 
104 



I 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 105 



MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 

A. E. FOOTE, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Minerals, college cnbinet. 



Sulphur, Sicily. 

Coal, var. Jet, El Paso County, Colorado. 

Graphite, Plumbago, Colfax County. New 
Mexico. 

Copalite, Fossil Gum, Zanzibar, Africa. 

Quartz, Eoct Crystal, Hot Springs, Ark. 

Quartz, Amethyst, Thunder Bay, Lake Su- 
perior. 

Quartz, Rose, Steuthford, Conn. 

Quartz, Smoky, Cairngorm, Pike's Peak, Colo. 

Quartz, Milky, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Quartz, Chalcedony, Yellowstone National 
Park. 

Qnartz, Agate, Agate Harbor, Lake Superior. 

Quartz, Moss Agate, Middle Park, Colo. 

Quartz, Flint, Dover Cliffs, England. 

Quartz, Honestone, Hot Springs, Ark. 

Quartz, Jasper, near Ottaw-a, Canada. 

Quartz, Silieifled "Wood, Biiou Basin, Colo. 

Quartz, Itacolumite, Flexible Sandstone, Ru- 
therford County, North Carolina. 

Opal, Opalized Wood, Bijou Basin, Colo. 

Pyroxene, Pierrepont, N. Y. 

Wollastonite, Tabular Spar, Diana, N. T. 

Amphibole, Hornblende ; and Titanite, Sphene, 
Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada. 

Amphibole, Actinolite, Rhode Island. 

Amphibole, var. Asbestos, Harford County, 
Maryland. 

Beryl, Ackworth, N. H. 

Garnet and Vesuvianite, Templeton, Canada. 

Zircon, Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada. 

Epidote, Putnam County, New York. 

Allanite, Amherst County, Virginia. 

Muscovite, Mica (Magnetited), Delaware 
County, Pennsylvania. 

Phlogopite, Hull, Quebec, Canada. 

Lepidollte, Lithia Mica, Paris, Me. 

Wemerite, Bolton, Mass. 

Albite, Soda Feldspar, Redding, Conn. 

Orthoclase, Pike's Peak, Colo. 

Microcline, Amazon Stone, Pike's Peak, Colo. 

Labradorite, Mount Marcy, Essex County, 
New York. 

Tourmaline, Pierrepont, N. T. 

Cyanite, Norwich, Conn. 

Datolite, Bergen HiU, N. J. 

Stilbite, Radiated Zeolite, Frankford, Pa. 

Pectolite, Bergen Hill, N; J. 

Apophyllite, Bergen Hill, N. J. 

Natrolite, Bergen Hill, N. J. 

Talc, Saint Lawrence County, New York. 

Serpentine, Texas, Pa. 

Soda Niter, Nitratine, Peru. 

Halite, Salt, Bermudas. 

"Witherite, Northumberland, Eng. Barite, See 
No. 94. 

Strontianite, Hamm, Westphaliai. 

Celostite, Strontian Island, Lake Erie. 

Gypsum, Plaster, Grand Rapids.Mich. 

Fluorite. Fluor Spar, Eosiclare, 111. 



53. Apatite, Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada. 

54. Calcite, Lime Spar, Bergen Hill, N. J. 

55. Marble, Vermont. 

56. Dolomite, Pearl Spar, Saint Louis, Mo. 

57. Magnesite, Texas, Pa. 

58. Corundum, Jackson County, North Carolina. 

59. Cryolite, Ivigtuk, Greenland. 

60. Wavellite, Montgomery County, Arkansas. 

61. Magnetite (Loadstone)', Magnet Cove, Ark. 
63. Hematite, Ishpeming, Marquette County, 

Michigan. 

63. Martite, Cleveland Mine, Marquette County, 

Michigan. 

64. Gothite, var. "Wood Ore, Superior Mine, Mich. 

65. Limonite, Negaunee, Mich. 

66. Limonite, pseud, after Pyiite, Marion, N. C. 

67. P,f rite, Fools' Gold, French Creek, Pa. 

68. Pyrrhotite, Nickeliferous and Cobaltiferous 

Magnetic Pyrites, Gap Mine, Pa. 

69. Dufrenite, Green Iron, Rockbridge County, 

Virginia. 

70. Vivianite, Mullica HUl, N. J. 

71. Siderite, Spathic Iron, Roxbury, Conn. 

72. Chromite, Texas, Pa. 

73. Menaccanite, Titanic Iron, Rhode Island. 

74. Rutile, Nigriu, Magnet Cove, Ark. 

75. Brookite, Arkansite, Magnet Cove, Ark. 

77. Columbite, Niobite, Haddam, Conn. 

78. Pyrolusite, Nova Scotia. 

79. Psilomelane, Hard Manganese, Georgia. 

80. Rhodonite, var. Fowlerite, Franklin, N. J. 

81. Zincite, Franklinite, and WiUemite, Franklin, 

N.J. 

82. Sphalerite and Greenockite, Rosiclare, lU. 

83. Calamine, Granby, Mo. 

84. Cassiteiite. Duraingo, Mexico. 

85. Galenite, Washington County, ilo. 

86. Pyromorphite, Phoenixvillo, Pa. 

87. Cerussite, Phcenixville, Pa. 

88. Bismuthinite, Mineral Point, San Juan, Colo. 

89. Stibnite, Gray Antimonv, California. 

90. Molybdenite, Philadelphia, Pa. 

91. Copiper (Lake Superior region), Michigan. 

92. Cuprite, Frisco Mountains, Arizona. 

93. Chalcopyrite, Copper Pyrites, Chili. 

94. Malachite and Barite, Cheshire, Conn. 

95. Aznrite, Mammoth Mine, Utah. 

96. Cinnabar, California. 

97. Silver, Lake Superior. 

98. Embolite, Silver City, N. .Mex. 

99. Gold and Petzite, American Mine, Colo. 
100. Platinum, Urals, Russia. 

The following facts should be noticed: 
This collection is especially designed for teach- 
ing mineralogy, but in order to render it more 
valuaBle to those using it for illustrating chemical 
lectures there have been left out some of the less 
important silicates, and put in some of the metal- 
lic minerals like Columbite, Allanite, and Samar- 
skite, in the latter of which several elements have 
recently been discovered. 

' 105 



106 EDUCAT»IONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

WARD'S NATURAL HISTORY COLLECTIONS. 
(Inorganic nature, Ward and Howell. Organic nature, H. A. Ward.) 



\ 



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Fig. 47. — View in Ward s Museum. 

Prof. Henry A. Ward, of Rochester, N. Y., has brought from his natural science es- 
tablishment in that city a grand collection of most valuable specimens in every de- 
partment of natural history, which he and his assistants have mounted and arranged 
with care in the east gallery of the Government building, directly over the main en- 
trance. They here occupy a space 168 feet in length along the gallery, with an a«rer- 
age width of 48 feet — in all a little over 8,000 square feet of floor space. This was 
awarded him by the chief of the United States Depaxtment of Education, with the 
understanding that he should there make a full and worthy exposition or conspectus 
of all the divisions of natural history. 

To this end a series of six large cases, 50 feet long and 10 feet high, besides many 
smaller ones, all with long glass doors and suitable internal fixtures, have been so ar- 
ranged as to secure the best results of light, display, and classification. 

The east wall has also been covered to a height of 30 feet, while in a central area 
running east and west, and in a line along the whole gallery frout, lar^e forms, stand- 
ing on individual pedestals, have been so arranged as to show to the best advantage, 
either to the visitor standing beside them or to those viewing the array from the hall 
below. 

These large objects, too tall and bulky to enter cases, and by that fact thrown out 
of their exact position in the orderly, systematic series, are the mammoth, megathe- 
rium, mastodon, glyptodon, whale, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, camel, 
giraffe, walrus, and others, with groups of gorillas, orang outaugs, and ornithorhyn- 
chus. The tops of the cases outside have specimens standing upon them, while the 
walls, quite to the ceiling, are hung with charts, pictures, and specimens. The rest 
of the display is made up of special collections or cabinets, each compiled to illus- 
trate a department of science, and thus each.is complete in itself. 

PALEONTOLOGY, 

In this division is arranged a series of fossils, from the earliest dawn of life on our 
globe up through all the geological epochs to the advent of man and the present time. 
Under this chronological arrangement is a subsidiary biological arrangement, the 
plants and animals of each geological age being arranged in .botanical and zoological 
order. Many of the objects, however, are too large to be arranged in the cases, and 
are placed on platforms on the floor. 

In the center of the large forms — modern and extinct — which border the gallery edge, 
and overshadowing them all by his immensity, stands the Elephas primigenus, or great , 
hairy mammoth of Northern Europe (Fig. 48). 

Tills is a restoration, bailb up carefully by a skillful artist, under the direction of a 
German geologist — Dr. Oscar Fraas, of Stuttgart, who has a European reputation in 
Ms work on fossil forms. Among many bones of the mammoth in the Royal Museum , 
at Stuttgart, a few were greatly larger than the others, betokening an individual of J 
extraordinary size — a mammoth among mammoths. The great law of the co-rela- 
tions of parts and structures, first enunciated by Cuvier, was a sure guide in the' 
106 



MISCELLANEOUS— MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 1 07 

•work, for which, moreover, abundant material was present. The result was an ani- 
mal of form and dimensions as we see them in this specimen. The height of this mam- 
moth is 16| feet, the top of his head being exactly in a line with the highest point of 
his back ; -his length, from the tail to the front of pendent trunk, is 22 feet ; thence to 
front curve of tusks is 4 feet more, giving a total length to the animal of 26 feet, while 
his orreatest length is 32 feet. The two great flaring tusks, sweeping with a double 




Fig. 48. — The Mammoth (Elephas primigenun.) 



^^':%\\£\-^-\itf 



curve from either side of his upper jaw, are 13 feet 8 inches long, and 40 inches in cir- 
cumference at the base. His fore feet, nearly round, are quite a yard in diameter, 
with a step of about 7 feet. For the covering of the animal, guidance was given by 
the famous specimen standing in the Imperial Academy Museum in St. Petersburg, 
which was found in 1799 frozen in the ice in Northern Siberia. As a restoration, this 
stands alone in size among all similar works in this country or abroad. 

On a pedestal, conveniently near for comparison, are the head and tusks of the 
American mastodon, the near relative of the mammoth. The main or most observable 
difference is in their teeth, and is fully illustrated by fine examples of the dentition 
of each genus, which are placed side by side, together with leg-bones, vertebrae, etc., 
in the adjoining case. 





Fig. 49 — Grinder of Mammoth. 



Fig. 50.— Grinder of Maaiodon. 



107 



108 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Other large objects on pedestals are casts of the Colossoceldys atlas, or gigantic 
tortoise, from the Tertiary beds of the Sewalik Hills in the Himalayas. The cara- 
pace of this ting of the chelonians is over 8 feet long by 6 feet wide. He must have 
weighed when alive nearly or quite two tons. 




Fig. 51.— TbeGlyptodoD. 

The Glyptodon is a gigantic fossil edentate — a representative in Pleistocene times 
of the armadillos now inhabiting South America. It was furnished with a hug^ar- 
apace, or coat of mail, formed of hexagonal plates united by sutures, and constitut- 
ing an impenetrable covering for the upper part of the body and part of tbe tail. The 
carapace difleredfrom tlaat of modern armadillos in having no greaves or joints for the 
purpose of rolling up its body. The head was defended by a tessellated, bony casque. 
The tail possessed an independent dermal sheath or cuirass, made up of very prominent 
tubercles disposed in distinct whorls. This arrangement of the component parts of the 
sheath permitted slight flexibility and made the tail a formidable weapon. The animal 
measured 11 feet from the snout to the end of the tail, following the curve of the back. 

The JDinotherium giganteum. is of Miocene age, discovered in the Rhine valley, and 
now in the museum of Darmstadt. Naturalists disagree as to the proper classification 
of this huge animal, which Cuvier aud Kauss calculated to have attained the length 
of eighteen feet ! Tbe immense femur, in the case near by, shows that the animal must 
have had legs nearly ten feet long. Probably, however, he did not stand so erect and 
firm upon them as does the mammoth. De Blaiuville and Pictet considered the Di- 
notherium an aquatic herbivore, resembling the dugong, and inhabiting the embou- 
chures of rivers. But bones of the lower limb have been found so associated with 
teeth as to determine the Dinotherium to be a hoofed quadruped probably of aquatic 
habits, and transitioual, as it would seem, between the large lophiodons and the huge 
proboscidians. 




I 



Pig. 52. — Cast of skull and lower jaw of Dinotherium giganteum. 

Directly before the spectator, as he approaches the exhibition from the west, tower- 
ing above him, stands the Megatherium, or great fossil ground-sloth. This gigantic, 
108 • .. 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 109 

fossil was first made known to the scientific world in 1789. It was discovered on the 
banks of the river Luxan, near the city of Buenos Ayres. and was subsequently trans- 
mitted to Madrid, where it long excited the most lively speculations among all natu- 
ralists who were so fortunate as to see it. To give to the singular quadruped its 
proper position in the animal kingdom was for many years a problem which the 
savants of Europe could not solve. Cuvier, who gave it its generic title, thought it 
combined the characters of the sloth, ant-eater, and armadillo. Professor Owen, the 
celebrated English geologist, has conclusively proved that the Megatherium was a 
"ground-sloth," feeding on the foliage of trees which it uprooted by its great strength. 
The extreme length of the mounted skeleton is eighteen feet. Its height, when stand- 
ing on all fours, was about eight feet. No other fossil so exceeds its modern repre- 
sentative, for the largest living sloth does not exceed two feet in length. The length 
of the skull is thirty inches, three inches less than that of the Asiatic elephant. The 
formation of the muzzle indicates the possession of a short proboscis. The Megathe- 
rium differs strikingly from existing quadrupeds of corresponding bulk in the vast 
proportions of its anterior extremities. Its clavicle, fifteen inches long, is the longest 
known. The fore leg bespeaks enormous strength ; with the foot it is seven feet and 
four inches in length. The pqsterior extremities are shorter than the anterior. The 
pelvis is the largest bone- in any laud animal, living or extinct; it is upward of five 
feet broad. The hind legs appear more like columns for support than organs for 
locomotion, and, with the hind feet, are models of massive organic masonry. The 
heel- bone alone has the extraordinary length of seventeen, inches, and a circumference 
of twenty-eight inches. The monster walked, like the ant-eater, oui the outside edge 
of its foot, on a marginal hoof-like callosity. The middle toe, the hind foot, and like- 
wise the second, third, and fourth digits of the fore foot, were armed with powerful 
claws. 




Fig. 53. — Skeleton of Megatherium Guvieri. 

The magnitude of the tail fills the observer with wonder; when clothed with flesh 
It must have been. fully two feet in diameter at the greater end. With the hind legs 
it formed a tripod npon which the animal rested when obtaining its food. 

The largest actual fossil is an unusually fine and perfect skeleton of the great Irish 
elk (Megaceros Hibernicus). This was brought to light from a peat-bog near Lim- 
erick, Ireland. This skeleton, neatly and substantially mounted in a natural attitude 
on a high platform, is complete, and has great antlers spreading nearly ten feet. It 
18 a most rare and valuable fossil, unsurpassed in dimensions and completeness by any 
similar specimen in American museums. 

. 109 



110 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Another rare and valuable fossil is a mounted skeleton of the moa, or dinornis — the 
great fossil bird of New Zealand. 

Here, also, are many examples (actual and casts) of the so-called bird tracks from 
the red sandstone of the Connecticut valley, " footprints on the sands of time " made 
by these old animals far back in Trlassic time, when these hard sandstones were soft 
mud. One large slab shows the tracks of various animals of different sizes and kinds, 
who crossed it in all directions. Another with three tracks shows the mark of the 
tail also. 

Among the saurians the largest and most notable is a cast of the Plesiosaurus 
Cramjptoni, mounted on the roof-truss over the central area. This great saurian, or 
marine lizard, is from the Lias beds of Whitby, England. This specimen is 23 feet 
long, and the spread of its paddles is over 12 feet, indicating powerful and rapid mo- 
tion for this denizen of the ancient seas. Two other great saurians, the Plesiosaurus 
dolichodcirus and the Ichthyosaurus intermedius, are represented by life-size restora- 
tions, standing on fiames fastened to the ends of the cases. Other restorations on a 
smaller scale (1 inch to the foot of actual size) are the iguanodon, megalosaurus, 
labyrinthodon, pterodactyl, plesiosaurus, ichthyosaurus, and glyptodon. These are 
all ideal restorations, showing the animal clothed with iiesh as in life, and are great 
aids to the student in comprehending the actual skeleton of the fossils of same species 
in the collection. 

Space will not permit a more detailed description of this paleontological cabinet, 
which consists of many hundred specimens and contains many invertebrates (sponges, 
crinoids, echinoderms, shells, crustaceans, etc.), and large and typical forms of fishes, 
marine lizards (luosasaurus, teleosaurus, plesiosaurus, ichthyosaurus, etc.), pterodac- 
tyl, iguanodon, megalosaurus, labyrinthodon, and other terrestrial reptiles. 




Fig. 54. — Great-lieaded Plesiosaure from the Lias (Plesiosaurus maerocephalus). 



Further are many portions — legs, feet, shoulder-blades, jaws, skulls, teeth, etc. — of 
the mammoth, mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapir, mylodon, megalonyx, hex- 
aprotodon, tetraprotodon, nototherium, diprotodon, and other terrestrial mammals 
from the loose surface deposits of the Quaternary period of Europe, India, Australia, 
and North and South America. Also oreodon, anchitherium, poebrotherium, and 
others from the " Bad Lands " of northern Nebraska ; with the palseotherium, anoplo- 
therium, lophiodon, anthracotherium, etc., from which, as found in the gypsum quar- 
ries of Montmartre, near Paris, Cuvier first announced to the scientific world the ex- 

110 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. Ill 

istence of forms of life diiferent in kind and species from those now living on the 
globe, and thus laid the foundation of the science of paleontology. 

Invertebrate life is profusely represented by series, each giving many typical forms 
among the protozoa (including the foramenifera and the sponges) ; the echinoderms, 
with several score of interesting echinoidea and fossil sea-stars ; the mollusks of all 
families, including a very rich series of the ammonites with all the type-groups of 
Von Buch's classification. Finally there are nearly one hundred crustaceans, notably 
the important family of the trilobites, of older paleozoic age. 

These series of fossil specimens — actual and casts — constitute together a complete 
paleontological cabinet, graduated so as to include the lowest to the highest forms of 
fossil animal organisms, from the earliest dawn of life upon our planet down to the 
period immediately preceding our own. The collection is provided with all needful 
fixtures, and every specimen is accompanied with a handsome printed label giving 
the full scientific name, the locality, and the geological age of the fossil. It is further 
accompanied by a series of fifty-two paleontological pictures, representing forms of 
ancient animal life, which are of especial importance from a zoological or from a geo- 
logical point of view. These pictures — seven the well-known "restorations" of 
Waterhouse Hawkins, twenty-two hand copies of the series made by the celebrated 
English zoologist, Edward Forbes, for the museum of the London Geological Society, 
and sixteen the Unger series of geological landscapes — are handsomely framed under 
glass. There are, finally, several large geological wall- charts, by Hall, Winchell, etc. 

^^ Academy Series" of Paleontology. — From this large cabinet, mentioned above, a 
careful selection has been made and arranged by itself, in a case 23 feet long with 
step-like shelves, to show what can be done by schools and academies having but lit- 
tle money for collections. 

The unique and rarer forms are represented by casts, and the common forms by 
original fossils. All have been so chosen as to' cover the whole field of paleontology, 
and give an even representation of the forms characterizing each of the different geo- 
logical periods. This collection or cabinet contains 475 specimens (about one-third 
casts and two-thirds originals) and is accompanied by a complete illustrated cata- 
logue, almost full toough to answer for a text-book. 

MINERALOGY. 

In the glazed case next parallel to the east wall, situated on the right hand of 
the visitor entering the hall, is a large and very choice mineral cabinet. The speci- 
mens are handsome, clean, fresh, and beautifully crystallized, and are so chosen as 
to represent very evenly the whole field of systematic mineralogy. The specimens, 
which are mainly of large cabinet size, are each mounted" upon a black-walnut block, 
bearing a handsome printed label, which gives, in scientific fullness, the name of the 
mineral, its chemical composition, and its crystalline form, while a number in its 
corner corresponds to the same number upon the back of the specimen (see Fig. 55). 

In this case are fine specimens of adularia, aga.te, albite, allanite, amber, amethyst, 
antimonite, argentite, aventurine, axinite, barite, beryl, bournonite, brucite, cala- 
mine, calcite (many varieties), cancrinite, cassiterite, chalcedony, chrysoberyl, colum- 
bite, corundum, cuprite, cyanite, datolite, diopside, elaterite, emerald, epidote, erub- 
escite, fahlerz, fluorite, franklinite, garnet, geyserite, gold, hausmannite, heliotrope, 
hyalite, hydrotalcite, Iceland spar', itacolumite, jasper, jefferisite, jeffersonite, jet, 
labradorite, lapis lazuli, lepidolite, loadstone, malachite, meerschaum, menaccanite, 
mesotype, millerite, molybdenite, moonstone, natrolite, nephrite, obsidian, opal, orpi- 
ment, pectolite, pericline, platinum, polyhalite, quartz (20 to 30 varieties), realgar, 
rubellite, rutile, scapolite, sodalite,sphene, spinel, staurolite, stibnite, sulphur, sylvite, 
talc, topaz, turquois, ulexite, wavelite, wernerite, wolframite, wollastonite, wulfenite, 
zincite, zircon, and many hundred other species and varieties. Examination of the 
cabinet shows the abundance of choice specimens, even among such species as are rare 
for mineralogists to obtain and accounted precious when possessed. The number of 
polished specimens is large, and this plan of bringing out the structure or the reflect- 
ing qualities of the species has been liberally availed of in all species which admitted 
of it. There are a number of actual meteorites, both of the stone and the iron class, 
one of the latter weighing twenty pounds ; and these are supplemented by a series of 
seventeen casts of the most interesting meteorites of the British Museum collection. 
Besides actual specimens of the precious metals there are fac-similes of the celebrated 
Welcome nugget, the Siberian gold nugget, now in St. Petersburg, and the immense 
platinum nugget, belonging to Count Demidoff; also, copies of all the great nuggets 
of gold found in Australia, all of them gilded so as to be exact fac-similes. 

There are likewise models in cut glass of the celebrated diamonds of the world, 
containing exact reproductions of 15 of these beautiful historical gems, from the 
handsome Polar Star — the original of which weighs 40 carats and belongs to the 
Princess Youssoupoff^to the valuable Kohinoor, of the British crown, and the im- 
mense diamond belonging to the Great Mogul, said to weigh 297 carats. Also models 

111 



112 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



in glass of all tbb precious stones. There is, further, a series of crystal models in 
plate-glass, with axes and angles shown by colored threads within, and illustrating 
the six systems of crystallization, with the derivative forms. 








3Ca3Ps08 + Ca(C12,F2). Hexagon il 

SNAHUM, 




Fig. 55. — Mineialogical specimen, slio-wing method of mounting. 

Another suite of solid plate-glass models represents the fundamental forms under 
which all natural crystals may be ranged. Other artificial crystals, with colored 
primitive faces, give the more important secondary or derivative forms of minerals. 
These are several hundred in number, aiud are mounted in the classification with the 
various mineral species whose crystallographic nature they illustrate. Finally, sev- 
eral special series or suites of specimens have been compiled to illustrate the physical 
characters of minerals, as shown in their inner structure, their exterior form, and the 
several features which result from these and from their chemical composition. 

The specimens composing these series have been selected with ^reat care, in order 
to give fullest aid to the student of this chapter of the science. 

This cabinet has been planned, both in its main body of mineral specimens and in 
its adjuncts, to give a fine, showy and liberal illustration of the science. Its display 
and its educational scope and comprehension are both of the very highest character. 

"Academy Collection" of Minerals. — To the right on entering, in the case with 
sloping glazed front, is a smaller series of minerals, consisting of 180 specimens — all 
choice, though of smaller size, and mounted and labeled in the same manner as noted 
for the previous cabinet. A printed catalogue also accompanies the collection, de- 
scribing each one of its specimens. This collection is particularly calculateu for an 
academy or a normal school. 

GEOLOGY. 

1, Lithology. — ^Filling a case directly beyond the minerals is a large cabinet of rocks. 
The series is compiled and arranged with a lithological classification, and presents in 
typical specimens the various lithological varieties among the rocks which enter 
into the composition of the earth's crust. Among the more important are granite, 
from Utah, New York, Maine, Scotland, France, Saxony, etc. ; sjeuite, from Massachu- 
setts, Saxony, and Syene (Egypt) ; gneiss and mica schist, from Freiberg, Mt. Blanc, 
Abyssinia, New York, Connecticut, and Minnesota; protogine, from Mt. Blanc; por- 
phyry, from New York, Massachusetts, Cornwall, and Germany ; greenstone, or diorite, 
from native and foreign localities; basalt, from Giants' Causeway (Ireland), Rhine 
valley, Italy, and France; lavas, with obsidian, and pumice, from Vesuvius, Prus- 
112 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 113 

sia, and the Lipari leles ; diabase, gabbro, and bypersthenite, from New York, Con- 
necticut, Saxony, and Italy; apbanite, from Saxony and the valley of the Nile; an- 
desite, trachyte, rhyolite, etc., from European and American localities; serpentines 
and steatite, from New England, New York, Maryland, Italy and Saxony; slates, from 
Vermont and Wales; " Oriental alabaster" and "Mexican onyx," from Algiers, Egypt, 
California, and Mexico ; gypsum and alabaster, from Italy, England, Nova Scotia, and 
Michigan; marls, from Newr York, New Jersey, and France; old and new red sand- 
stones, from Scotland, England, and France; lias and oolite, from England, France, 
Germany, etc. Mineral composition — the preponderating, or characterizing, min- 
eral element — forms the basis of the classification of this cabinet. The specimens are 
classified in four main series. In the Earthy Series are grouped the feldspathic rocks, 
trachytic rocks, pyroxenic rocks, amphibolic rocks, hypersthenic rocks, talcose rocks, 
micaceous rocks, quartzose rocks, and argillaceous rocks. The Haloid Series contains 
the limestone rocks and the gypseous rocks. Under the ores occur the iron ores, 
copper ores, and lead ores. Finally, the Combustible Series contains the carbonaceous 
rocks and the bituminous rocks. Each of these families contains several specimens 
from all parts of the world. These specimens are of uniform size, neatly trimmed, 
with fresh surfaces and well-marked characters, and each specimen is separately 
mounted on a black walnut block with printed label. A complement to this collec- 
tion is a choice series of beautiful marbles from American and foreign localities. The 
slabs are of large size (many of them over a foot square), and are finely polished on 
face and edges. They show a state of structural density and intimate aggregation of 
particles which — in rocks of greatly different ages and widely varying composition — 
give, when cut and smoothed, a clear, reflecting surface. 

2. General StratigrapMcal Series. — There is here no constancy of lithological consti- 
tution, or even of structure, in specimens of the same age or period. But it may still 
be observed — though in a very general way and with many exceptions — that the older 
rocks are more compact and of denser structure, while those of the recent formations 
are more loose and friable. The "ages* of geological time represented are the Ar- 
chaean, Lower Silurian, Upper Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, 
Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary. 

3. Bocks of the New York System. — This series is of especial interest to students of 
American geology who wish to study the lithological character of the rocks which 
have served as the types of the Silurian and Devonian in America. 

Great care has been taken in the selection of the most typical specimens to repre- 
sent each rock, and m nearly every instauce they have been collected at the localities 
which give the names to the group or formation. Thus we give the Utica slate from 
Utica, the Oriskany sandstone from Oriskany Falls, the Moscow shale from Moscow, 
and so on through the series. 

On the bottom of the block on which each specimen is mounted, is pasted a small 
geological diagram with a red line drawn under the particular stratum to which that 
individual specimen belongs, thus giving at a glance its position in the geological 
series. In addition to this, each collection is accompanied by a large Chm-t of Geolog- 
ical Time, on which all the strata of New York are arranged and classified according 
to eras, ages, periods, and epochs, and are correlated with the beds of similar geo- 
logical horizon in other States of the Union, Canada, and Europe. As the approxi- 
mate thickness is gi ven in each case, one is able to trace their variation in that respect, 
or their entire disappearance as they are followed from one State to another. 

4. Phenomenal Series. — These illustrate many interesting points in dynamical and 
physical geology, and display many of the phenomena of rock formation, and other 
wonders registered in the crust of the earth. Here are huge pillars of basalt, from 
the Giants' Causeway (Fig. 56) and from the Ehine valley; "volcanic bombs," from 
the extinct volcanoes of central France; lava, showing contortions made in flowing; 
fulgurites (sand cemented and vitrified by the passage of lightning through it) ; veins 
of segregation, injection, and infiltration, passing through larger rock masses; con- 
tortions and foldings of strata ; sedimentary rocks altered by proximity to igneous 
dykes, or by contact with lava current ; jointed structure in slates and limestones ; 
"lignilites," septaria, claystones, "coue-in-cone," and other singular concretions; 
geodes, dendrites, "slickensides," glaci.al markings, polished and striated rocks; 
rounded drift, ripple marks, impressions of rain-drops, mud cracks, fossil "tadpoles' 
nests," coralline and shell limestones, stalactites, stalagmites, flexible sandstone, etc. 

An adjunct to these actual specimens is a series of six models in wood, which dis- 
sect in various ways and illustrate in a clear manner most of the more important feat- 
ures of structural and dynamical geology, both simple and complex, such as the 
perplexing complication produced by veins and faults crossing each other, and the 
very different surface eflects produced by erosion, whether at right angles or oblique 
to the strike of the fault and bedding. A catalogue giving full explanation, and call- 
ing attention to the different features illustrated by each model, accompanies the 
series. 

7950 COT 8 113 



114 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 




Fig. 56. — Colurana of basalt, Giants' Causeway, Ireland. 

A continuation and enlargement of tliis series_^in eludes the — 

5. Geological Belief Maps. — Along tlie south, and east walls of the room, above the 
cases or shelves of specimens, and standing on tables, are disposed thirteen relief 
maps, carefully copying to a scale, and representing, by the combination of suitable 
colors, the physical and geological structure of certain regions of the earth whose 
geology is of remarkable interest. One of these is the district of — 

Auvergne, in central France : This is a region which is full of vestiges of most in- 
tense volcanic action, which transpired during the Tertiary period. There are mul- 
titudes of trmicated cones, each with its exhausted crater; also peculiar rounded 
domes of trachyte, with flows of basalt and plateaus of great extent. This region, 
displaying as it does so remarkably the grand succession of events in central France 
since the last retreat of the sea, and illustrated by the masterly researches of Scrope, 
Lyell, and Murchison, is perhaps the finest field in the world for the study of extinct 
volcanic action. This map is over five feet square. Equally large is the relief map 
of the — 

Grand Canon of the Colorado River: This represents an area in southern Utah and 
northern Arizona, 144 miles square. There is probably no other portion of our globe 
which exhibits erosion so graphically and on so grand a scale. The Colorado River is 
seen flowing through a gorge or canon which it has cut for itself a mile in depth for a 
distance of 225 miles, some portions being 6,200 feet below the general surface. To as- 
sist the mind in grasping the magnitude of the Grand Canon, a small corner of the 
model is devoted to representations on the same scale of the Yosemite Valley and the 
gorge at Niagara Falls. This model was prepared by Edwin E. Howell, geologist, 
with the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 

Relief Map of the Henry Mountains of Utah: The Henry Mountains are of volcanic 
origin, but the lavas were all injected among the strata and cooled in bubble-shaped 
bodies, called laccolites, which were afterwards exposed to view by erosion. There was 
no eruption, properly speaking, but irruption only, and the strata lying above the 
zone of irruption were bent up in arches or domes. This peculiar structure was dis- 
covered by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who made a special study of the mountains in 1876. 

Relief Map of the high plateaus of Utah : This is another very carefully modeled 
map of a region especially interesting geologically. It is mainly one of high pla- 
teaus, separated by valleys of erosion and faults, and the great principles of structure 
and erosion, and the relation which these bear to each other, are remarkably well il- 
lustrated. 

Relief Map of Vesuvius: The map shows a portion of the Bay of Naples, and the 
slope of the volcano on all sides, from its crater to the plain. The steep, semicircu- 
lar escarpment of Monte Somma, and the modern cone of Vesuvius which it faces, 
rise in bold relief; and the various lava currents which have been ejected — from 
that which overwhelmed Herculaneum in 79 to the eruption of 1820 — are represented 
with their dates. 

Relief Map of Etna: This celebrated volcano — the loftiest in Europe — rises near the 
sea to the height of nearly 11,000 feet. The most striking and original feature in its 
physiognomy is the multitude of minor cones distributed over its flanks. They num- 
ber about eighty, and throw out sulphurous vapors. Near the summit of Etna is the 
Val del Bove — a famous gorge of magnificent dimensions, a vast amphitheater of four 
or five miles in diameter, surrounded by nearly vertical precipices from 1,000 to 3,000 
feet high. This very accurate map was modeled after one constructed on the spot by 
filie de Beaumont, the noted French geologist. 

Besides the preceding are the relief maps of Palma, Teneriffe, and Bourbon, as fur- 
ther illustration of regions shaped by volcanic action. 
114 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 115 

Relief Map of Mont Blanc : This celebrated monntain is the culminating point of 
the Alps and of all Europe. This relief map, colored geologically, exhibits the moun- 
tain arch surrounded, by its subordinate peaks, the various cols or passes, the mag- 
nificent glaciers — 30 in number — with their lateral and terminal moraines, and the 
streams flowing from them. An explanatory list of about 200 names accompanies the 
map, serving as a guide to the topography and geology of this interesting region. 

ARCHAEOLOGY. 

In this department are exhibited models of ancient ruins in Arizona and New 
Mexico. One of them shows a portion of an old cave town, high up in the side of a 
steep cliff. This position was undoubtedly chosen on account of its difficulty of access, 
and consequent ease of defense against an enemy. This ancient people took advan- 
tage of a natural cave formed by the erosion of a soft stratum in the cliff, and thus 
but little work was required to make a home suitable for occupation. 

Another model is of Tegua, one of the seven Moquis towns. This ancient town, 
occupied at the present time. by Moquis Indians, was built on the salient of a mesa, 
so as to be surrounded on all sides but one by steep cliffs. The houses were built 
without any entrance to the first story except through the roof. There are also 
models to a correct scale of a series of ancient mouuds in Wisconsin, called "animal 
mounds" on account of their resemblance to animals, such as the squirrel, rabbit, 
eagle, elephant, etc. The latter is very interesting and suggestive. Did the old 
mound builders inhabit this country contemporaneously with the mastodon ? If not, 
where did they get their model for this "elephant mound"? 

Not the least interesting of the objects in this division is a cast of the Rosetta stone. 







'^il" -*fl»:pa-AY(SV&TT7i:- 










Fig. 57.— Cast of the Eosetta Stone. 



The original of this celebrated inscription, which now occupies a central position in 
the gallery of Egyptian antiquities, British Museum, was discovered in 1799, in the 
little town of Rosetta (Rasheed of the Arabs), in the delta of the Nile. It may be 
described as a very thick, irregular-shaped slab, about 2^ feet square, of hard, black 
basalt, on the flat surface of which is the inscription in three languages — first, the 
Egyptian hieroglyphics, second, cursive Egyptian, and finally, Greek. A translation 
of the Greek showed that it was an act of the priests assembled in synod at Memphis, 

115 



116 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

B. C. 196-197, in honor of King Ptolemy Epiplianes, in the ninth year of his reign; 
and after reciting the events of the period, the birth of the king, the troubles in 
higher Egypt, the inundation of the Nile, the decease of Ptolemy Philopater, the at- 
tack of Antiochus, the suppression of rebellion, the remission of taxation, and the gifts 
to Ihe bulls Apis audMuevis and the sacred animals, proceeds to order that a hgure of 
the king should be placed in the temples; that a shrine, with a gilded figure in 
wood of the monarch, should be placed in the adyta with the other shrines, and be 
carried in procession on a special festival in honor of the king on the 30th Mesori, his 
birthday ; and, above all, that a copy of this synodical act should be engraved on a 
tablet of hard stone and set up in every temple of the first, second, and third rank 
throughout the country. 

Although the inscription was one of very great historical interest, the Rosetta 
stone derives its greatest importance from the fact that it gave the first clue to the 
meaning of the hieroglyphics. 

ZOOLOGY. 

On a pedestal directly in the rear of the mammoth is mounted a skeleton of his 
nearest modern representative, the elephant. This is the Indian species (Elephas 
Indicus), shot in 1877, in a forest of Southern India. Its general relation to the mam- 
moth is very evident; but the difference in size between that extinct proboscidian 
and this modern congener — albeit full-grown and well developed — is very notewoithy 
and striking. It will be especially observed how different is the proportion and the 
curve of the great ivory tusks in the two individuals. 




Fig. 58.— Skeleton of Elephant. * 

Along the gallery edge, as shown in the cut on page 106, stands, elevated high on 
bronzed iron standards, the bleached and mounted skeleton of a fin-back whale 
(Balwuoptera musculus). This great monster of the deep was captured off the coast 
of Massachusetts in the summer of 1884. It is one of the largest of this species of 
cetacean, being 55 feet in length. The black ialeen, or whalebone, which borders 
each side of the upper jaw, is a point worthy of especial notice. Through this, as a 
strainer, the animal passed large volumes of water taken into its opened mouth, and 
separated from it the myriad small jelly-fishes and other minute marine organisms 
116 



I 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 117 

which supplied its sole nourishment. This is an unusually perfect and entire indi- 
vidual, and it has been mounted with great care to bring out the peculiar features of 
cetacean anatomy. 




Fig. 59.— Skeleton of Mn-Back Whale (Baloenopteramusculus). 

Caiinet of Comparative Anatomy. 

In the long case east of the whale, quite filling the shelves and floor of both sides, 
and with a few specimens — too large to enter it— on top of the case, is arranged a 
cabinet of comparative anatomy. It consists of beautiful snow-white skeletons, 
mounted with brass supports on handsome black walnut pedestals. This is a sys- 
tematic series, chosen with care to represent the different natural orders in the sev- 
ei-al classes of vertebrate animals. Thev are : 

(1) Mammals.— Primates : Gorilla {Troglodytes gorilla), Orangoutang (Simia satyrus), 
Chim\->anzee {Troglodytes niger), Dog-faced Baboon {Cynocephalus jjorcarius), Rhesus 
{Macacus rhesus), Capuchin {Ceius eaimcivns), Langur {Semnopitlxecus cucullatus), Ouis- 
titi {Hapale oedipus), Slow Lemur {Xycticeiiis tardigradus), Slender Lemur {Loris 
gracilis). 

Cheiroptera : Ceylon Fruit Bat {Fteropus Edivardsii), Roussette Bat {Pteropua polio- 
cephaius), Hoary Bat {Vespertilio prninosus). 

fnsectivora : European Hedgehog {Erlnaceus europceus), Tenrec {Centetes ecaudatus), 
European Mole {Talpa europwa), Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata). 

Carnivora : Polar Bear ( Ursus viaritvmus), Dog {Canis familiaris), Leopard {Leopardus 
varins), Wild Cat {Lynx rufas), Red Fox {Vulpes fulvus), Striped Hyena {Hyaena stri- 
ata), American Otter {Lutra canadensis), Badger {Taxidea americana), Skunk {Mephitis 
mephitica), American Sable {Mustela americana), Civet Cat ( Viverra civetta). 

Pinnipedia: Walrus {Rosmarus o&csms— mounted skull), Sea-lion {zalophus Gillespii). 

Cetacea: White Whale {Beluga catodon). Porpoise {Phoccena communis). 

Sirenia : Dugoug {Halicore o«-5/m/is— mounted skull), Manatee {Manatus americmms). 

Ungulata : Burchell's Zebra {AsinusBurcheUi), BaniVsTaT^ir {Elasmognathus Bairdii), 
Hippopotamus {Hippopotamus ampMhiu8—&k\\\\), Collared Peccary (Dicoi(/?es torqua- 
tus). Llama {Auchenia guanaco), Java Deer {Tragulus javanicus), American Reindeer 
{Tarandus rangifer). Roebuck {Capreolus caprce.a), Sheep (Oj;ts aries). Bison, " Buffalo" 
{Bison americanus). Mountain Sheep {Caprocis montana), Pronghorn {Antilocapra 
americana). 

Proboscidia: Indian and African Elephants (^/ep/ias indicus and Elephas africanus — 
molar teeth). 

Rodeniia: Europeaji Squirrel {Sciurus vulgaris), Red Squirrel {Sdtirus hudsonius), 
Woodchuck {Arctomys monax), Pouched Rat {Geomys iursarius), Jerboa {Dipus hirtipes), 
Capybara {Hydrochverns capybara), Agoxiti {Dasyprocta agouti), Coypu {Capromys pilo- 
roides). Jack Rabbit {Lepus callotii). 

Edentata : Three-toed Sloth {Arctopithecus flaccidus — this specimen may be placed on 
the platform directly beneath the Megatherium, as being his nearest modern repre- 
sentative in skeleton structure), Aard Vark {Orycteropus capensis). Great Ant-eater 
{Myrmecophaga jubata — skull). 

Marsupialia : Viverrine Dasyure {Dasyurus viverrinus). Opossum {Didelphys virgin- 
iana), Giant Kangaroo {Macropus gigas). Thick-tailed Kangaroo {Halmaturus brachyn- 
rus), Vulpine Phalanger {Phalangista vulpina), Koala {Phuscolarctos cinereus). 

Monotremata : Ornithorhynchus, or Duck-billed Platypus ( Ornithorhynchus anatinus), 
Echidna, or Marsupial Porcupine {Echidna hystrix). 



118 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

(2) Birds. — Passeres: Eobiu (Turdus migratorius), Nuthatcli (Sitta cassia), America u 
Crow (CorvHS frugivorus), European Jay (Garralus glandarius) . 

PicaricB : Helmeted Horn-bill {Buceros galeatus). 
Toucan {Ehamphastos Cuvieri), Belted Kiugfislier (Ceryld alcyon), Guaeliaro Bird {Stca 
tornis caripensis). 

Psittaci : Blue and Yellow Macaw (^ra ararauna), Brazilian Parrpt (Conurus viri- 
dissimus). ^ 

Columice : Common Pigeon {Columha livia domestica). 

Gallince : Pinnated Grouse (Cupidonia cupido), Quail (Ortgx virginiana), Peacock 
(Pavo cristatus), Fire-back Pheasunt (Euplocomus), Clommon Fowl (Gallus domesticus). 

Accipitres: Red-shouldered Hawk {Buteo lineatus), Fisli Hawk (Pandion caroUnensis), 
Indian Vulture (Neophron ginginianus), Marsb Hawk {Circus hudsonius), Great Horned 
Owl {Bubo virginianus), Little Screech Owl {Scops asio), Short-eared Owl {Brachyotus 
Cassini). 

Strnthiones : Emu {Dromaius Novce Hollandice), Ostrich {Siruthio camelus), Cassowary 
(skull), Apteryx {Ajiterux Maiitelli). 

Grallce : Little Bustard {Otis ietrax), Green Heron {Africa viridis), Saras Crane {Grus 
aniigone), Jacana {Parra jacana), Marbled Godwit {Limosa fedoa), White Ibis {IMs 
alba), Sora-Rail {Porsana Carolina), Maribout Stork {Leploptilus argali). 

Natatores : Canada Goose {Bernicia canadensis), Mallard {Auas boschas). Black Swan 
{Cygnus atratus), Great Black-backed Gull {Larus marinus), Royal Tern {Sterna regia). 
Albatross {Diomedea exulans — skull), Florida Cormorant (GracitZMS ^o?"Jd««Ms), Loon 
{Colymbus glacialis), Frigate Bird {'I'achypetes f regains), Horued Grebe {Podiceps auri- 
tus). Penguin (Spheniscus demersus), Puffin {Fratercula cirrhata), Guillemot ( Uria troile), 
Mutton Bird {Nestris brevicauda), Gannet {S'lla bassana), Brown Pelican {Pelicanus 
fuscus). 

(3) Reptiles. — Serpentes : Python (22 feet long), Garter Saake {Eutania sirtalis), 
Banded Sea Snake {Platurus fasciatus). 

Lacertilia : Gould's Monitor (Momtor Gouldii), Black-yellow Cyclodus {Cyclodus 
nigrolvteus), Mastigure ( TJromastix spinipes), Scheltopusic {Pseudopus Pallasii), Horned 
Frog {Phrynosoma cornutum). 

Sauria : Crocodile [13 feet long] {Crocodilus vulgaris), Alligator {Alligator mississip- 
piensis — skull), Bornean Gavial {Tomisioma Schlegelii — skull). 

Bhyncocephalina: Tuatara; Sphenodon {Hatteria punctata). 

Ch'elonia: Painted Tortoise {Chrysemys plcta), Musk Tortoise {Ozotheca odoraia). Box 
Turtle (Cistudo clausa), Tartaruga {Testudo gra'ca). Snapping Turtle {Chelydra strpen- 
tina), Soft-shelled Turtle {Aspidonectes ferox). 

(4) Bateachia. — Urodela : Spotted Salamander {Salamandra maculosa), Giant Sala- 
mander {Sieboldia maxima), "Hell-bender" {Menopoma alleglianensis), Siren {Siren 
lacertina), Menobranchus {Menobranchus lateralis). 

Anoura: Bull Frog (Bana mugiens), Toad (Bufo americanus). 
■ (5) Fishes."— Shark (jaws), Hammer-head Shark {Zygcena malleus), Port Jackson 
Shark {Cestracion Philippi), Skate {Baja batis), Barramunda {Ceratodus Forsteri), 
Polypterus {Polypierus bichir). Gar Pike '{Lepidosteus bison), "Dogfish" {Aviia occiden- 
talis). Paddle-fish (Polyodon folium — skull), Mud-laff {Synanceia virrucosa). Scabbard 
Fish {Trichuruslepturus), Cod&sh {Morrhua vulgaris), Csbt&ah {Pimelodics pullus), Phrac- 
tocephalus, Saw-bellied Salmon {Serrasalmo), Notopterus {Notopitrus chitala), Orange 
File-fish {Monocanthus aurantiacus). 

The above enumeration will give a view of the scientific fullness of this cabinet of 
comparative anatomy. In its comprehensive representation of typical forms it prob- 
ably has not its equal south or west of the National Museum at Washington. It will 
be invaluable for teaching the science of osteology in any college or university. 

Anthropoid Apes. — The series of mounted specimens of mammals in the cabinet is led 
by two groups of apes of great stature and of a wonderfully human aspect. They show 
a greater advance and approximation toward man than any member of the animal 
kingdom below him. In the great glass case which faces the visitor approaching 
by the northern stair-case, is a group of gorillas. Here, mounted on a tree, half sit- 
ting half standing on a side branch, is a noble male gorilla and his smaller female. 
The male is over 5 feet in height, and of bodily proportions quite exceeding those of 
an adult man. The girth of his chest is 58 inches, which size diminishes little in the 
body below. His arms are of great length, reaching quite down to his knees. The 
hands are large and well-developed, with distinct thumbs, and well-developed nails 
on all five digits. The body is bare on the chest and back, but is elsewhere covered 
with a coat of gray hair, which assumes great length on his arms'and shoulders. His 
head, as large as a man's, has a villainously low forehead, but his facial angle is still 
not greater, nor his countenance more brutal, than that of many a voter in various 
parts of our country ! These specimens are from the region of the Gaboon in Western 
Africa, on the equator. 

Across the aisle from the gorillas, in a high case 12 feet long, is a group of three 

118 



'miscellaneous MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 119 

orang oiitangs (Simla, satyr us). There are three specimens, — an adult male and an 
adult and a young female. The male measures 4 feet 2 inches from head to heel, with 
a stout body, very long arms, and very short legs. His great round head possesses the 
Avonderful cheek callosities peculiar to his sex, which give his face a strangely flat- 
tened character, forming an almost perfect circle. The group is placed in the tree- 




FiG. 60. —Gorilla {Troglodytes gorilla). 

tops on the branches of the durion tree, of the fruit of which the animal is very fond. 
The male is hanging by one hand and foot to a stout limb and is reaching stealthily 
out to snatch a large durion from the hand of the old female hanging on a tree to the 
left. On the right of the group in the foregroxind is a young female lying on her back, 
fast asleep, upon a nest of green boughs broken off and piled crosswise in the top of 
a small sapling. These specimens are from the river Sadong, in Borneo. 



Cabinet of Mounted Animals. 

In the cases through the center and on the east side of the hall, with some on top 
of cases and in a closed area along the gallery edge, is a large and carefully chosen 
cabinet of mounted (stuffed) animals, belonging to each of tlie five classes of verte- 
brate life. These are handsomely and naturally mounted on ash pedestals, and make 
together a valuable zoological cabinet, as well as an interesting and graphic display. 
They are : 

(1) Mammals. — Primates: Gibbon (Hulohates leuciscus), Proboscis Monkey {Nasalis 
Itirvatus), Langur (Semnopithecus cticullatus), White-throated Monkey (Cercojnthecua al~ 
bogularis), Sooty Mangaby (Cercoceius fulifjinosus) , Rhesus (Macacus rhesus), Chacma 
(Cynocephalus porcarius), Dog-fiiced Baboon (Cynocephalus papio), Hamadryas (C?/«- 
ocephalus hamadryas), Coaita (Ateles paniscus), Brown Cuxio {Cheiropotessatanas). 
Gray Capparro (Lagotlirix Humloldti), Ouistiti {Midas derellii), Feline Douroucouli 
(Nyetipithecus felinns), Ruffed Lemur ( Farma varin), Golden hemnr (Propithecus cor- 
onatus), Gray Lemur (Hapalemtir griseus), Slow Lemur (Kycticehus tardigradus). 

119 



120 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Cheiroptera: Roussette Bat {Pieropus poUocephalus), GrayKalong {Pteropus griseus), 
Striped Fruit Bat {Pteropus capislriatiis), Duke of York Bat {Cephalotis Peronii), Har- 
paya, European Brown Bat ( Vespertilio noctula). 




Fig. 01.— Roiissettw Bat. 

Insectivora : European Hedgehog {Erhiaceus europaum), Teurec {Centetes eoaudatus), 
European Mole (Talpa europcea), Sbrew Mole {Scalops aquaficus), Elephant Shrew 
{Macroscelis intufi), Bornean Squirrel Shrew ( Tupaia tana), Colngo ( Galeopithecus volans). 

Carnivora: Lion {Felis leo), Bengal Tiger {Felis ticjris), Black Leopard {Felis leo- 
pardiis melas), Jaguar (Felis onca), Chans (Felis calligata) , Bengal Cat (Felis lengalensis), 
Leopard Cat (Felis miniita), Canada Lynx (Lynx canadensis) , Zibeth (Fiverra sibetha), 
Binturong (Arctictis binturong), Paradosure (Paradoxiirus typus), Bennett's Cynogale 
(Cynogale Bennetti), Black-footed Sable (Martes melanopus), Mink (Putorius vison), 
Polecat (Putorius fwtidus), Galera, American Otter (Lutra canadensis), Ichneumon 
(Herpestes ichneumon), European Wolf (Lupus vulgaris), Red Fox ( Vulpes fulvus), Arctic 
Fox (Leucoeyon lagopus), Raccoon Dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides). Grizzly Bear ( Ursus 
horribilis), Black Bear ( Ursus americanus), Syrian Bear ( Ursus syriacus), Sun Bear 
(JSelarctoa malayanus). Raccoon (Procyon lotor), Kinkajou {Cercoleptes caudivolvulus). 

Pinnipedia: Walrus (Odobcenus obesus). Sea hion (Eumetopius Stelleri), Sea-leopard 
(Zalophus calif or nicus). Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus), Harp Seal (Phoca groenlandica), 
Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina). 

Cetacea: Forpoise (Phocwna communis). 

Sirenia : Manatee (Manatus americanus). 

Ungulata : Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), Wild Boar and two young 
(Sua scrofa), Collared Peccary (Dicotyles torquatus), Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Floweri), 
Bison ["Buffalo"] (Bison americanus), Ravine Deer (Tragops Bennetti), Arabian An- 
telope (Antilope cervicapra), Rocky Mouutain Goat (Mazama americana). Saiga (Saiga 
tartarica), Prong-horn AnteloT^e (Antilocapra americajia). Koodoo (Strepsiceros kudu), 
Rocky Mountain Sheep (Caprovis montana), Oryx (Oryx bnsa). Giraffe (Giraffa cam- 
eleopardalis), Moose (Alces malchis), 'Elk. (Cervus canadensis), Mule Beer (Cervus ma- 
crotis), Mnsk Deer (Traguluskanchil), Ca,mel (Camelus arabicus). 

Ryracoidea : Coney [Klipdas] (Hyrax capensis). 

Bodentia: European Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Raffle's Squirrel (Sciurus Bafflesi), 
Cocoa Squirrel (Sciurus plantani), Bornean Flying Squirrel {Pteromys nitidus), Prairie 
Dog (Cy7ioniys ludovicianus), Woodchuck (Arctomys monax), American Beaver — male, 
female, and 2 young (Castor canadensis), Pouched Gopher ( Geo mys bursarius), Shewellel 
(Haplodontia leporina), Hamster ( Cricetus frumentarius). Lemming (Myodes), Dormouse 
(Myoxus), Golden-bellied Water-rat (Hydromys chry sag aster), Musk Rat (Fiber zibethi- 
cus), Borneo Spiny Rat (Acanthion javanicum), African Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), 
120 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 121 

American Porcupine (Ereihizon dorsatum), Tree Porcnpine {Cercolahesprehen,nlis), Vis- 
cacha {Lat/ostomus iTichoclactylus), Coypn {Capromys piloroides), Jack 'R&hh'it {Lepus 
callotis), Cotton-tail Rabbit {Lepus campeslris). 

Edentata: Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus Hoffmani), Maned Sloth (Bradypus crinitus). 
Collared Sloth {Bradypus torquatus), Armadillo {Tatusia peba), Giant Armadillo {Pri- 
onodon gigas), Great Ant-eater {Myrmecophaga juhata). 

Marstipialia : Viverriue Dasyure (Z)as.(/Hrits viverrinus), Opossum {Didelphys virgini- 
(ina), "Tiger Wolf" {Tbylacmus cynoctplialus), Giant Kangaroo (Macrojms gigas), Red 
Kangaroo (Macropus vKfiis), Black-tailed Kangaroo {Hahnaturus ualaiatus), Pademelon 
Kangaroo {Halmaturus thttidis), Rufous Rat Kangaroo (Hypsiprymnus rufescens), Koala 
{Phascolarctos cinereus), Vulpine Phalauger (Plialangista vulpina), Sooty Phalanger 
(Phalangista fuliginosa), Flying Phalanger {Petaurista taguanoides), Squirrel Flying 
Phalanger (Belideus sciurus), Wombat {Phaseolomys tirsitius). 




Fig. 62.— Koala. 

Monotremata : Ornithorhynchus, or Duck-billed Platypus ( OrwifAorft.i/wcfeMS anatinm). 
Echidna, or Marsupial Porcupine (_EcMdna hystrix). 

There ar.^, further, mounted heads on black-walnut shields of Virginia Deer, Prong- 
horn Antelope, Koala, Walrus, and Elk, also antlers of latter. 

(2) Birds. — Accipitres : African Vulture (Oifor/]/jjs aitricularis), 'Lammergeyer {Gyps 
barbatus), Audubon's Caracara {Polyhoriis cheriway — 2 specimens), Red-shouldered Buz- 
zard {Buteo lineatus), Broad-winged Buzzard (Buteo pennsylvanicus), Arabian Eagle, 
Mace's Sea Eagle {Cunouma Macei), Rock Falcon {Cerclineis rupicola), Sea Hawk {Tlial- 
asscetus pelagicus), Harpy, Sparrow Hawk {Accipiter nisus — 2 specimens). Collared 
Sparrow Hawk {tfrospiza torquatus — 3 specimens), Egyptian Kite {Milvus a'liypticus), 
American Goshawk {Astur alricapillus), Hen Harrier {Circus cyaneus), Sparrow Owl 
{Athene noctua), Bengal Owl {Bubo bengalensis). Great Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus). 
Spotted Owl {Spilloglaux maculatus), and others. 

Passeres : Night- Jar {Nyctihius cornutus), Tawny-shouldered Podargus {Podargus 
strigoides), Whiskered Tree Swallow {Dendrochelidon mystacea), Madagascar Roller 
{Eurystomus madagascarensis), Splendid Trogoa {Trogon splendens), Indian Trogon 
{Harpactes kasamba), Diard's Trogon {Harpacies Dia?'d!t), Entombia {Entorabia pileata)^ 
Kingfisher {Aleedo ispida), Azure Kingfisher {Alcyone azurea), Giant Australian King- 
fisher {Dacelo gigas), Spotted Japan Kingfisher {Megaceryle gutata), Gould's Kingfisher 
{Dacelo Gouldti), Racquet-tail Kingfisher {Pedes nropygialis), White-shouldered Rifle 
Bird {Seleucides niger), White-faced Honey-eater {Melliphaga phrygia), Parson Bird 
{Prosthemadera novce seeJandice), Lyre Bird {Menura superba — 3 specimens), Flame 
Breasted Roi in {Petroiea phatncea). Pied Grallina {GraUtna picata). Hermit Thrush 
{Turdus Pallasil), Great-billed Tody {Cymbirhynchusmacrorhynchus), Fork-tail {Dicru- 

rus ), Satin Bower Bixd {Plilonorhynchus holosericeus), Noisy Pitta {Pitia strep- 

itans), Mackloti's Pitta {Pitta Macklotii), Black-faced Graucalus {Graucalus melanops), 
Temninck's Graucalus {Graucalus Temninckii), Pyroderus {Pyroderus canadensis), Cock 
of the Rock {Rupicola peruviana), Crow-shrike {Cracticus cassicus), White-throated 
Thick-head (Pac/(2/cep/ia?a gutturalis), Telophorus ( Telopliorus gutturalis), European Jay 
{Garrulus glandarius), Tasmanian Piping Crow {Gymnorliina tibieen), Common Crow 
{Corone americanus), Raven {Corvus corax), American Magpie {Pica melanoleuca hudson- 
ica), Red Bird of Paradise {Paradisea raggiana), Lesser Paradise Bird {Paradisea mi- 
nor), Magnificent Paradise Bird {Diphyllodes speciosa), King Paradise Bird {Ciccinurug 

121 



122 EDUCAXIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

regius), Starling (Siurnus vulgaris), Heterolocha (Heterolocha Gould'd), Oriole (Cacicus), 
Purple Grackle ^ QuiscaiMS jjurpureus), YeUow-headed Blackbird {Xanthoceplialws icter- 
oeephalus), Snow Bunting {PlectropUanes nivalis), Tanager (P^/ranj/a cestiva), South Af- 
rican Plantain Eater (Turacus musipliaga), Red-necked Hornbill {Ehyticeros ruficollis), 
Abyssinian Hornbill (Buceros atratus), and many others. 




Fig. 63.— Lyre Bird. 



Scansores: Cuvier's Toucan (Ehamphastos Ciirieri), Pennant's Parakeet (Platycercus 
Pemianti—2 specimens), Collared Parakeet {BarnariUus semilorquuius), Barraband's 
Parakeet (Polytelis Barrahandi), Blue-tailed Parakeet (Ajnosmicius viianopygius), Eed 
and Blue Macaw {Ara macao), Blue-bellied Lorikeet (Trichoglossus Novce BoUandiw—2 
specimens), Scaly-breasted Lorikeet {Trichoglossus chlorolepidolus), Lory (Lorius 

), Musk Lorikeet (Glossopsitta concinnus), Swift Lorikeet (Nanodea discolor), 

Red and Green Eclectns (Eclecliis jyolychlorus — 3 specimens), Kaka [Mountaiu Parrot] 
{Nestor meridiorialls), Kea [Carnivorous Parrot] {Nestor notahills). Sparrow Parrot {Psit- 
tacula passerina), Sulphur-crested Cockatoo {Cacatua gaUrita), Leadbeater's Cockatoo 
( Cacatua Leadbeateri — 2s))ecinieiiH), Op tithalmic Cockatoo ( Cacatua ophthalmica), Megal- 
aima {Megalaima versicolor), Capito {Capito sp.), Eos {Eos cardinaUs), Banksian Cock- 
atoo {Calyptorhynchus BanJcsH), Yellow-eared Black Cockatoo {Calyptorhynchus xan- 
thonotus). Gang-gang Cockatoo {Callocephalon galeatnm), Great Black Cockatoo {Mi- 
croglossum aterrimum). Red-shafted Flicker (Cotej>tes m<?xica«?/s), Centrococcyx {Cen- 
trococcyx eurycercus), and others. 

Coluinhat: Yellow-bellied Fruit Pigeon {Ptilopus xantliog aster), Magnificent Fruit 
'Esbiev {Carpophaoa magnifica). Van Wyck's Globicera {GloMcera Van Wyckii), Austra- 
lian Large-tailed Pigeon {Macropygia phasianclla), Goura Crowned Pigeon {Goura cor- 
onaia). Top-knot Pigeon {Lopholaiinus antarcticus). 

Galliiuv : Argus Pheasant, male and female {Argusianus giganteus), Amherst Pheas- 
ant {Chrysolophns pictiis), Impeyan Fheasant {Lophophorus Impey anus), Golden Pheas- 
ant {Chrysoloplius pictits), Japanese Pheasant {Pliasianns versicolor), Scemmering's 
Pheasant ( Graphephasianus Swmmeringii), Euplocomus, Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl ( Gallus 
Sonneratii), Silver Pheasant {Gennccus nycttiemerus), Wild Turkey {Meleagris gallopavo), 
Honduras Ti\vk.&j {Meleagris occelatus), Capercailzie {Tetrao urogallns). Sage Grouse 
122 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 123 

(CentrocercHa uropliasianuH), Peacock (I'avo crinialim), Crtvsted Cnraasow {Crax alecior), 
Zanzibar Guinea Fowl (JS'iiinida vultiirina). 

Opisthocomi: Hoatziu {OpistUocomna criHtatna). 

Sirutlnonea: African Ostrich, male, female, and young {Struihio camelua), Rhea 
[South American Ostrich] {Bhea americava), Erriu (Dromaiua Novw Hollandiw), Casso- 
wary (Casuariua galeatua), Apteryx (Apterijx Owcni). 

Grallce: Little Bustard (Otiatetrax), Australian Bustard (Choriolis auatralia), Tasma- 
nian Double-banded Dottrel {Ochlhodromns hieinctiia), Australian Crane (Grua a.italra- 
laaiava), Great Blue Heron {Artlea Herodiaa), Red(li,sh Egret {Dem'xjrcAla rufa), Ameri- 
can Bittern {Botaurua minor), Nankeen Niglit Uovon (Nijotiardea ealedonioa), Adjutant 
{Leptoptilua dubiua), Wood Ibis (Tantalua lociilator), Straw-nocked Ibis {Carphibia api- 
nicollia), Weka, Wingless Rail (Ocifdromua auatralia), Black-backed Porphyrio (For- 
phyrio melavotua), Rutf, giou)) of six {Machetes pugnax), Crested Screamer (CViavxH a 
chavaria), Roseate Si)oonbil] (Platalea ajaja). 

Nataturea: American Flamingo (Phaemcojiterua ruher), Spnr-winged Goose {Pho- 
tropterua gamhenaia), White-fronted Goose {Anaer alhifrona), Mute Swan ((Jjigniia olor). 
Wood Duck (Aix aponau). Mandarin {Aix galericulata). Blue-winged Teal (l^iterqnedula 
circia). European Green-winged Teal {Nettion crecca), American Widgeon {Mareca 
americana), Tasmanian Broad-I)ill {Spatula rhyuchotia), Barrow's Golden l';y(» ( Jiucephala 
iaiandica), King Eider {Somateria ape<:lalnlia). Steller's Eider (<S<<^//<"n'« diapar), Hcote^v 
{Oidemia americana), Australian Musk Duck {Bizlura lohata). Smew {Meryellua alhtllua), 
Red-necked Grebe {Podicepa ruficollla). Crested Grehe {Podi<.epa criatatua). Crested Pen- 
guin {Eudyptea chryaolojilia). Little Penguin {Endyptila minor), Sea Dove {Alio nigri- 
cana), Western Guillemot {Uria cohimha), Wilson's Petrel {Oceanitea oceanlva), Ameri- 
can Mew Gull {Larua canua bravhyrhynchua). Laughing Gull {diroicoccphalua rudibun- 
dua), Common Tern {Sterna hirundo), Jaeger {Stercorarius paraaiticua), Caspian Tern 
{Tlialaaaeua caapia), Crested Cormorant {(haculna biJopkua), Wliite-breasted Cornm- 
rant { Hypoleucua leueoyaater), American WJiite. Pelican {Pclecanua crythrorliynchua), and 
others. Besides the above enumerated birds there are five groups mounted under 
glass as medallions. 

(3) Reptiles. — Serpentea: Python, 3 specimens, 2 species, one 22 feet long; Bun- 
garus {Bungarua faadatua), Banded Sea Snake {Platurua faaciatua). Hog-nose Snake 
{Ueterodon ptatyrliinua). Painted Tree Snake {Dendrophia picta). Cobra de Capello 
{Naja tripudiana), Northern Rattlesnake {Croialua conjiuenlea), Dii»sas {Dipaaa dendro- 
pMla). 

Lacertilia: Gould's Monitor {Monitor Gouldii), Black and Yellow Cyclodus (Ot/cZo- 
dua nifjroluteua), Mastignre ( Uromaatix ajiivipca), Horned Frog {Phrynoaomacornutum), 
Australian Rugose Htump-tail {Trachydoaaurua rugoana). King's Frilled Lizard {Chlamy- 
doaavrua Eingi), Beaided Grammatophore {Grammatophora barbata), Tuberculated 
Iguana {Iguana tubcrculata). 

Rhyncocephalina : New Zealand Tnatara [Sphenodon] {JIatteria punctata). 

Sauria: Florida Crocodile {Crocodilua Jloridianua), Indian Gavial {Gavialua gan- 
geticua). 

(Jhelonia: Madagascar Rayed Tortoise {Teatudo radiata). Musk Tortoise {Ozothecus 
odorata), Box Tortoise {Ciatudo Carolina), Emyda {Emyda giamala), Tryonyx {Tryonyx 
rafelit), Bornean Three-keeled Emys {Emya iri-juga). Snapping Turtle {Ghelydra aer- 
penttna). Soft-shelled Turtle {Aapidonectea' apinifer), Speckled Terrapin {Nancniya gut- 
tata). Salt-marsh Terray)in {Mulacoclemya paluairia). Green Turtle {Vkelonia mydua), 
Indian Caray {Chelonia virgata), Loggerhead {'J'halaaaochelya caounia). Hawk-bill Tur- 
tle (Eretmoclielya inibricata). Harp Turtle {Sphargia coriacca). 

(4) Batkachians. — LVodeZa; Japanese Giant Salamander {Sieboldia maxima). 
Aiioura: Bull Frog {liana mugiena). Toad {Bufo agua). 

(5) Fishes. — Hammer-head Shark {Zyr/amamalleva), Bine. fiha.Tk {Carchariaa glaucus). 
Port Jackson Shark {dcairacion Philippi), Tiger Shaik {Stegaatoma tigrinum). Saw PMsh 
{Priatia antiquorum), Australian Wabblygong {Cronaorhinna barbatna), Rliiuobates, 
Eagle Ray, Protopterus (Protopterua annectcna), Euiopean Sturgeon {Acipenaer aturio), 
Paddle- tish {Polyodon folium), Polypterus {Polypterua bichvr), Alligator Gar {Lepidoaleua 
productua), Serranus, 2 .species {Serranua crythrogaater and Serranua ap.), Svvord Fish, 
10 feet long {Xiphiaa gladiua). Unicorn Fish {Naaeua unicornis), Anjrlar {LopJiiua piaca- 
torius), Gurnard {Dactylopicrua volitana). Flying Fish {Exocetus volitana). Lump Fish 
(Cyclopterua lumpua). Hog-fish {Lachnoh/imua faJcatua), Coris {Coria aygula), Ling {Lota 
molva), Salmon {Salmo trutta), Ji!,]e(:tnc Eel {G ymnotua eleclricua), Mmmna {Murama 
helena), Sygnathus, Hippocampus, Trigger Fish, 2 species {Balialea conapicillum and 
Ji. vetula), Horned Coffer Fish and :J other species of Ostracion {Oatracion cornutus, 
O. brevicaudalis, 0. punctatua, O. auritus), PuflinFish {TetrodonloBvigatua), Balloon Fish 
{Tetrodon Mapidua), Porcupine Fish {CIdlomycterua reticulatua), Salt-water Lamprey 
(Petromyzon marinus), Lancelet {Branohioaioma lanceolatum). 

The observations made relative to the systematic series of comparative anatomy 
or skeletons on a previous page M'ill apply also to this cabinet of mounted (stufted) 
specimens. A simple reading of the aljove enumerative lists will show how tuUy each 

123 



124 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

division of a systematic zoological classification is here represented by chosen typical 
forms. But this bare enumeration of the specimens is insufficient to give au adequate 
idea or appreciation of the scientific merit, the educational value, or the museum 
display of this cabinet. For this the collection itself must be inspected and measure 
taken of its qualities and comprehensiveness. A teacher walking slowly in front of 
the cases will see that he has before him exactly the Kspecimens which he wishes to 
use in an extended course of lectures upon the animal kingdom. With small excep- 
tion every specimen stands as a type-form in some greater or lesser group. And, con- 
versely, he will not find a group of vertebrate animals which he cannot represent or 
illustrate from this collection. 

The value of the individnal specimens is in many cases very great — nearly a score of 
them being worth from flOO to $300 each. Such are the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, 
elk, moose, giraffe (13 feet high), walrus, sea-lion, camel, koodoo, bison, lion, tiger, 
manatee, two ostriches, swordfish, and others. All these forms — giant, stately, grace- 
ful, elegant, odd, quaint, bizarre— all join to make a museum of varied beauty and 
great attraction. 

As a conclusion to the many hundred forms of mounted animals standing in and on 
the cases and along the gallery edge, described in the systematic series on the previous 
pages, theie is a final case directly adjoining the great arched window on the east side 
of the museum, which is well worthy of notice. 




Fig. 64.— Group of Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithoryhnchus paradoxus). 

This case contains a group of the Duck-billed Platypus (0/7«^Aor(//(Hc/i«spara(?oa;M8), 
one of the most singular creatures in the entire mammalian world. In its body, tail, 
and feet it has some of the appearances of a mole and of a beaver, while its head, with 
the prolonged, wide, flattened beak, quite recalls a duck. It has a soft double fur like 
an otter, with like webbed feet, spurs like a cock, its tail flat like that of a beaver, al- 
though covered above with hair instead of scales. 

The group, consisting of nine individuals — 4 adult males, 4 females, and I young — 
represents these strange creatures in some of their habitual actions and attitudes — 
swimming in the water, seeking food at the bottom of a pond, coming from and eur 
tering their burrows, rolled up in sleeping" attitudes, climbing overhanging limbs and 
basking on the banks. 

Very little is known of the habits of the ornithorhynchus, and its mode of repro- 
duction, whether viviparous or oviparous, has long been a mooted point — the oppro- 
brium of Australian zoologists. 
124 



MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 125 



ANTHROPOLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 

Next to the group of orangs is a case devoted to anthropology and allied subjects. 
On its upper shelf are a number of busts of anthropoid apes, gorilla (male and female), 
chimpanzee, orang-outang, giving them in the order in which they recede from man, 
making cranial character the test. Here is also a bust of the Neanderthal man. This 
is an ideal restoration, based upon the famous "Neanderthal skull," found in lfe7 in 
the Neanderthal, Rhenish Prussia. 

Further is a series of '.]7 plaster casts of skulls of various races of mankind. They 
were taken from specimens in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, by 
Professor Flourens, the anthropologist and director of this department : Neanderthal 
man, Engis man, Ancient Imar, Aimara, Indian (Bolivia), Madura (Java), Chinook In- 
dian, Tasmaniau, Caucasian woman, Aztec, New Zealander, Mongolian, Malay woman, 
Chinese, Madagascareue, Druid (France), Laplander, Makoka, Nanaquois, Carib, Boch- 
isman woman, Negress (Sierra Leone, Mozambique, Malabar), Bengalese, Patagonian, 
Bedouin, Lapland woman, Russian, Swede, Fmlander, Kruman, Negritic, Tartar, Viti 
Islander (from Easter Isles [Rapa-Nis]), Mexican. 

The following series, from the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, at London, 
consists of casts of the interior of the cranial cavity, representing exactly the form 
and size of the brain (when covered by its membranes) of men of various races, and 
of many other species of animals : 



1. 


Man. European. 


25. 


Roussette bat. 


2. 


Man. Turk. 


26. 


Tiger. 


3. 


Man, Tartar. (Remarkably brachy- 


27. 


Dog. 




cepbalic.) 


28. 


Walrus. 


4. 


Man. Chinese. 


29. 


Porpoise. 


5. 


Man. Neiv Zealand&r. 


30. 


Du.;ong. , 


6. 


Man. East African. 


31. 


Elephant. 


7, 


Man. West African. 


32. 


Hippopotamus. 


8. 


Man. Bushman. 


33. 


Pig. 


9. 


Man. Australian. (Port Essington, 


34. 


Ox. 




compressed type.) 


35. 


Camel. 


10. 


Man. Australian. (Adelaide, de- 


36. 


Horse. 




pressed type.) 


37. 


American tapir. 


11. 


Gorilla, adult male. 


38. 


Sumatran rhinoceros. 


12. 


Chimpanzee, adnlt male. 


39. 


Hyrax. 


18. 


Orang, adult male. 


40. 


Capybara. 


14. 


Siamang. 


41. 


Beaver. 


15. 


Entellus monkey. 


42. 


Rabbit. 


16. 


Macaque monkey. 


43. 


Sloth. 


17. 


Chacma baboon. 


44. 


Glyptodon clampea. 


18. 


Howling monkey. 


45. 


Kangaroo. 


19. 


Squirrel monkey. 


46. 


Thylacoleo carnifex. 


20. 


Rutted lemur. 


47. 


Wombat. 


21. 


Galeopithecus volans. 


48. 


Dasijurus ursinus. 


22. 


Tupaia. 


49. 


Echidna hystrix. 


23. 


Teurec. 


50. 


Ornithorhynchus anatinus 


24. 


Hedgehog. 







On the top of this and adjoining cases are busts — bronzed casts of life size — of the 
following distinguished naturalists: Agaasiz, Buffon, Cuvier, Humboldt, Huxley, 
Linnaeus, and St. Hilaire. 

Cabinet of Invertebrate Forms. 

The double-sloping, glazed case, 50 feet long, at the north end of the hall, on its 
east side, has been devoted to invertebrate life, mainly marine forms from our mod- 
ern oceans. Here are arranged, on step-like shelves, series of specimens of varied and 
delicate colors and of most strange and fantastic forms. The specimens — more than 
one thousand in all— are of the choicest quality, and are so selected as to include all 
the important forms and species in the classification of these lovely gems of the ocean. 
The collection thus gives a full and scientific exposition of the entire realm of those 
animals which — with their wide class variations — have been united by systematic 
naturalists, in virtue of a negative character in common, under the title of inverte- 
brates. The labels— one for each specimen — are carefully printed, and a catalogue of 
the whole is appended. An enumeration of the entire contents of this collection is 
quite impossible, but we call attention to some of the divisions, as follows — 

(1) Protozoa are represented by actual specimens of the rhizopod shells, mounted for 
observation with a hand-lens, and accompanied by enlarged drawings. Also actual 

125 



126 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

faramenifera and radiolaria, together with models, enlarged 100 diameters, of several 
score of the strange, fantastical forms of this group of minute organisms. 

(2) Sponges : There is a rich series of several score of specimens, from the clione, 
which incrusts and bores our oyster shells, to the massive Neptune's cup, which 
stands 3 feet in height, and of which there are here several fine specimens. Here 
are several eupiectella, or Venus's flower-baskets, a foot long, whose delicate wicker 
work cylinders, with a strainer at the top, closely imitate an exquisite lace fabric, 
yet of a substance like woven glass. Another glass sponge is the hyalonema, from 
Japan. Here a delicate globular sponge is continued downward by a cable of many 
hundred strands of transparent glass thread, loosely twisted together. There are in 
view no less than five specimens of this rare species. 

(3) Hydroid polyps : Feathery, branching sertularia, plumularia, campanularia, etc. 
Allied to these are the milleiioi'a, the only hydroids which produce a coral structure. 

(4) Medusae: Delicate jelly-fishes — the physalia ("Portuguese man-of-war") from 
tropical oceans, and the beroe, which feed the whales in the polar seas. 

(5) The gorgonias, or sea-fans, afford infinite variety of form and color, imitating 
closely the sea-weeds and the ferns. There are many genera and species of them, 
hanging in elegant festoons in a separate case against an adjoiuing wall. 

(()) Corals comprise among them every conceivable variety of form and color, snowy 
white, deep red, and purple or rich brown; mushroom corals, from the Eed Sea and 
the Pacific Ocean; brain corals, from the West Indies; and hemispherical, leaf-like, 
incrustiug, branching, spreading, or massive clusters from all over the world. 

(7) The crinoids have two noble representatives in the pentacrinus caput Medusae, 
which are mounted in separate cases with glass fronts. They are dredged in deep 
water in the Caribbean Sea off the Barbadoes, and are very rare as specimens in Amer- 
ican cabinets. This crinoid is intensely interesting as the leading one of a very few 
modern representatives of a great natural order which played so conspicuous a part 
in geological times. 

(8) Echiuoderms are well represented by many species of star-fish and sea-urchins. 
Among the first are astrophyton, ophiocoma, asterias, solaster, oreaster, culcita, etc. 
The second comprise echinus, cidaris, clypeaster, scutella, bryssus, and metalia, p,s 
prominent genera. The forms are both handsome and grotesque. 




Fig. 65. — Heterocentrotiis tiigonarius. 



(9) Shells as here arranged — filling nearly all one side of the case — exhibit a series 
of choice and beautiful forms, very rich in species, and scientifically comj^lete as a rep- 
resentation of this department of nature. 

(10) Crustaceans: Many species of barnacles, hermit crabs, crayfish, American and 
European lobsters, and other interesting species. One of the very rarest, strangest, 
and most striking specimens in the room is in this division. It is the giant crab ( Me.ga- 
cheirus Kcempferi) of Japan. Its extended legs have no less a spread than 8 feet ! This 
"jumbo" of its class is especially interesting as showing the maximum of size to 
which crustacean life attains. The specimen— mounted on the roof- truss above the 

126 



MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 127 

case — is very choice and rare, there being to our knowledge but four others in Ameri- 
can museums. 

In the table-case is a series of the exquisitely made Blaschka models of actinians, 
acalephs, prosobrauchiate and cephalapod mollusca, etc. These are of glass, beauti- 
fully colored, and show these dilierent, delicate, and perishable forms of lower animal 
life with such perfection of detail as to render them invaluable for the illustration of 
these interesting groups, as well as charming to the eye. 

Finally, as an adjunct to the specimens above enumerated, there are fourteen large 
colored zoological maps, showing the external form and inner structure of various 
invertebrate animals. 

This great cabinet of invertebrate life is as complete in its systematic contents aa in 
its display. It would be of the very greatest educational value in a college, academy, 
or ladies' seminary. 

In a case to the left of the great arched window is a series of human skeletons and 
anatomical models. The latter are of both French and German make, and number 
about thirty pieces in all. Lack of space prevents their individual description. 

In the collection briefly described in the preceding pages. Professor Ward has 
sought to display to the citizens of New Orleans and of the entire South some im- 
portant portion of the wealth of natural objects which are ever to be seen at his nat- 
ural science establishment in Eochester. The collections here displayed during the 
term of the present exposition are chosen expressly for their adaptation to the needs 
of science teaching in academies or colleges. 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPAEATUS. 

This exhibit was located with the other exhibits of the Bureau of Education in the 
south gallery of the Government building. It occupied a space 35 feet deep with a 
frontage of 25 feet on the main aisle. 

The arrangement was based on that of an ordinary class room for physics and 
chemistry. A hood for chemical work, a table used for experimental demonstration 
and furnished with a pneumatic trough, and two blackboards, faced a series of desks, 
lent for the purpose by the Buffalo School Furniture Company, 

Around the sides of the space were four large cases holding the chemical and phys- 
ical apparatus enumerated further on. 

Many of the experiments in light and electricity require a darkened room for their 
proper presentation. This is provided for by having the class rooms furnished with 
proper arrangements for shutting out the daylight. As this was impossible in the 
present instance, a special dark room 8 feet wide and 16 feet long was constructed at 
one side of the space. In this room, by means of a large set of Crookes and Geissler 
tubes, in conjunction with a large Euhmkorff coil, battery, and Toepler-Holtz ma- 
chine, many beautiful and interesting experiments in electricity were shown; also a 
number on light by means of a porte-lumi^re and physical lantern with vertical at- 
tachment. As far as possible the apparatus was kept in working condition, and the 
experiments that could be performed with it shown to those interested. 

In conjunction with Mr. Leckeuby, in charge of the exhibit of Bausch & Lomb, and 
who had in his possession a large collection of fine microscopic specimens, projections 
with the solar microscope were thrown on a laige screen, in full view of the visitors. 
The objects which seemed to give most satisfaction were specimens of crystals in 
polarized light, a drop of cistern water filled with animalcules, and the circulation of 
the blood in the foot of the living frog. 

PHYSICAI# APPAEATUS. 

GENEEAL SET. 

{Property of the United States Bureau of Education.) 

Apparatus illustrating general properties of matter, gravity, mechanics, etc., as 
follows : 

Apparatus for diffusion of gases and liquids, for osmose of gases, and for osmose of 
liquids; gyroscope; inertia table ; leaning tower ; wedge : lever and fulcrum ; model 

127 



128 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

of screw ; meter and yard ; marble plate and ivory ball (showing elasticity) ; collision 
balls on stand ; pair of scales ; set of weights ; inclined plane. 





Fig. ti6.— Lever and fulcrum. 



Fig. 67.— Screw. 



Apparatus for illustrating principles of hydraulics, as follows : Large and small set 
of equilibrium tubes; siphon; set of capillary tubes; hydrometer and jar ; Cartesian 
devil; Barker's mill ; hydraulic press ; illustration of overshot, breast, and undershot 
wheels. 




— Lever air pump. 



Apparatus for illustrating pneumatics, as follows: Lever air pump, Fig. 69; gauge 
for air pump; ga'lon receiver for air pump; gninea-and-feather tube; Magdeburg 
hemispheres ; barometer tube and stand ; Mariotte's law apparatus ; hand and bladder 
glass ; mercury. 

128 



MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 129 

Apparatus for illustrating sound, as follows: Siren; bow; sonometer; glass Chladni 
plate ; clamp for holding plate ; tuning fork on resonant box (Fig. 70). 

Apparatus for illustrating beat, as follows: Glass tubing; tripod; flask; cryopho- 
rus of Wollaston ; pulse glass of Franklin ; air thermometer; compound bar;' spirit 
lamp; model of Watt's low-pressure steam engine; pair of concave reflectors on 
adjusting stands (large); double radiometer (Fig. 71). 





Tig. 70. 



Kia. 71. 



Fig. 72. 



Apparatus for illustrating light, as follows: Concave and convex mirrors; set of 
demonstration lenses : equilateral prism; equilateral prism on stand (Fig. 72); New- 
ton's disk; crystal* ol Iceland spar, showing double refraction; prism of rock salt 
for experiments on heat; apparatus for compressing glass for use with polarized light; 
black glass mirror on stand for polarizing light ; complete apparatus for showing 
phenomena of polarized light, with adjustable stand ; cube of uranium glass; magic 




Pig. 73. — Phenomena of polarized lifcht. 



lantern for physical work ; upright attHfhment, polarizer, and microscope attachment, 
for physical work ; adjustable stand with prism, for physical work; Crookes's radi- 
ometer. 

129 

7950 COT 9 



130 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 




Fig. 74. — Toepler-Holtz electric machine. 

Apparatus for illustrating magnetism and electricity, as follows : Dipping needle 
on stand; magnetic needle on stand; bar magnet, horseshoe magnet, and rolling 
armature magnet ; large Toepler-Holtz electric machine, German form, with revolving 
plate 21 inches in diameter, giving sparks of 7 inches (Fig. 75); Leyden jar, 
quart ; battery of 9 half-gallon jars in box ; discharger ; pair of image plates ; images 
for same ; 2 Geissler tubes ; ^pinus's condenser ; 2-bell chime ; ivory mortar ; luininous 
tube 3 feet long ; electric flier; Grenet galvanic battery, pint ; «lectro-magnet ; gun- 
powder cup ; water decomposer ; Euhmkorff coil with commutator, giving sparks of 




rjemrnmiTD'Etir: 



EuhinkoriF coil. 



1 inch (Fig. 75); Euhmkorff coil, fine, with commutator, Foucault mercury break, and 
Deprez vibrating break, giving spark of 9 inches ; Eebekeck thermo-electric battery, 
small size. 

A fine collection of 25 Geissler tubes of various beautiful shapes and forms, some 
quite large, and one of them probably the largest in the country. It was specially 
made for the electrical exhibition of the Franklin Institute held in Philadelphia, 
September, 1884. 

A large collection of Crookes's famous radiant-matter tubes, showing the results of 
some of his researches in high vacua, including No. 1, dark space tube ; No. 2, tube 
showing effect of discharge on different kinds of glass ; No. 4, ruby tube ; two similar 
130 



MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPAKATUS. 131 

tubes with different minerals ; No. 5, potash tube for increasing or diminishing the 
vacuum; No, 7, tubes showing difference between Geissler and Crookes tubes, also 




Fig. 76.— Shadow tube. 



independence of positive pole in the latter; No. 9, shadow tube (Fig. 76); No. 11, rail- 
way tube ; No. 16, Geissler tube for deflection by magnet; No. 17, Crookes miU-wheel 




Fig. 77.— Mill-wheel tube. 



tube (Fig. 77); No. 18, tube showing repulsion of radiant matter ; No. 21, hot platinum 
tube. 

131 



132 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

APPARATUS LOANED HY QUKEN & CO. 

(To he used in vonneoiion with that belonghuj to the Bureau of Education.) 




Fig. 78. — AicliimcUes' screw. 



Gyroscope, lurge "brass" wheel; Archimedes' principle; Archimedes' screw (Fig. 
78); small table air pump (Fig. 79); hand glass; fountain iw i-acMo; sliding rod re- 




Fio. 70.— Air pump. 

ceiver ; Bacchus illustration ; stop-cocks and connectors ; sheet rubber ; leather wash- 
ers ; pair brass Cliladui ])late8 showing sympathetic vibrations; Claque-Bois ; Tyn- 
dall's api)aratu8 for showing specific heat ; Bunseu burner ; 8))ectro8cope in portable 
case with stand ; bottles of fluorescent Holutions ; table polariwcopo; 6 specimens of 
crystals for use with polariscope ; crystal of Iceland spar ; color glass for absorption ; 
prism on stand ; lIolfuKinn's bottle )»rifim for bi8ulphi<le of carbon ; catskin ; rubber 
rod; insulated stool; magic circle; helix on stiuxl ; Q<^rKted's ay)paratus ; holder for 
wires ; 2 contact keys ; electro-magnetic bell ; electro-magnet on stand ; tangent gal- 
vanometer by Simmons, London ; galvanometer for projections by Stiihrer, Leipsic ; 
Poucault electric lamp for magic lantern (Fig. HO). 

SET NO. 2 OK SCHOOL APPAUATUS KOH TEACHING PHYSICS, LOANED BY 
E. 8. jaTCIllK & SONS, BwSTON, MASS. 

Laws of matter. — Universal support; set of balls; set of wires; set of weights ; co- 
hesion hemispheres; adheHioM disk; gravity block; momentum spring; whirling 
table; illustration of pulleys; illustration of levers; inclined plane and car. 
132 



MISCELLANEOUfS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 133 

Pneumatics. — Air-pnmp ; spherical receiver ; Magdeburg hemispheres ; guinea-and- 
feather tube ; barometer tube; bell iu vacuum ; stop-cock; sheet-rubber; mercury; 
rubber bag ; Mariotte's law. 

Heat. — Spirit lamp; bar and gauge; compound bar ; lamp-stand; glass flask ; palm 
glass ; glass tube ; conductometer ; wire gauze ; fire syringe ; Wollaston's engine. 

Sound. — Sonometer; violin bow; Savart's wheel ; siren disk; Crova's disk ; organ 
pipe; vibrating rod ; diapason. 

Dynamics. — Buoyancy vase ; capillary tubes ; capillary plates ; pressure of liquids ; 
Nicholson's hydrometer; hydrometer; lifting-pump; force-pump; siphon ; Tantalus's 
cup ; balloon and car ; glass jar. ' - 




Fio. 80.— Electric lamp. 

Light, — Kaleidoscope; thick mirror; convex aud (.oncave mirrors; prism; set of 
lenses; prismatic lens; color disk; iiereistency of vision; incidence aud reflection; 
magnifying lens. 

Electricity. — Pairof bar magnets ; bar of soft iron ; crane sujjport ; magnetic needle; 
iron filings ; friction cylinder ; gold-leaf electroscope ; electrical machine ; electro- 
scope ; test-needle ; Leyden jar ; discharger ; electrical bells ; bichromate battery ; 
galvanometer ; solenoid ; electro-magnet ; revolving magnet ; induction coil ; insu- 
lated wire. 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS, LOANED BY E. B. BENJAMIN, NEW YORK. 

Barometer; thermometer (chemical) ; air pump and receiver for same ; oxy-hydro- 
gen blow-pipe; 2 lenses, convex and concave ; 2 mirrors, convex aud concave; Ley- 
den jar; medical crank-battery ; magnet H. S.; alcohol lamp; meter and yard. 

1:33 



134 KDUCATIONAJ. KXIIIHITH AT THE NEW ORI.KAN.S EXPOSITION. 

Two tiOHtH l)«ak«irH, lippcid, l-:(; W umin bosikoiH, lippiMl, ]-(); 1 ikjhI, bcak(jrH, plain, 
0-:{; 1 luiHi hoakdiH, i)liiiii, 0-4 ; 1 umi. l)<»ik(MH, plain, O-li ; !{ llaHks, 1 oz.; '.i flasks, 2 
oz.: 3 flaHkn, 4 oz.; :{ IhiHkH, Hi o/,.; 2 (laHkn, :52 oz.; litor llaHkn: 1 liter, i liter, i liter, 
T*!) liter, 50 c. c.^ 'M) <;. c.; 2 (cHt-lnho lackH ; 12 tcsHt tuboH, 4 inch ; 12 test tubes, 6inch ; 
2 test tnboH, 7 inch ; 1 t<wt tnbc, H inch ; :{ fnnncirt, H inch ; r> fiinnels, 2i inch ; 2 fun- 
nels, :ij inch ; 1 Cnnncl, 4 incli ; I ('iinncl,*5 inch. 

Fonr rnnncl-h()l<l<!rN; :t HniiHcn ))nnicrH; <i fVxst rubber tubing ; 2 iron retort stands ; 
wash botllcs: i»int, spirit, i plut; (\ watch-KliiHscs ; :5 convex covers, 3 inch; Scon- 
vex covers, 4 inch ; '.i <!()nv(ix covers, ^> inch ; 2 (ionvcx covers, (i inch. 

IWirctte, M c. c. ; Hn)»poil, for h:i,mi(» ; spccirH! (j;r;i,vi(y bottle, .^)0 c. c. ; 3 ground-glass 
covers, 3 inches; 3 ^^ronnd-jirhiHs covcin, 4 inches; 2 ground-glass covers, 5 inches; 
piece bine glans; 2 cnhiinin chlorid*^ tubes; carbonic acid ajtparatus; 12 specimen 
tubes, corked ; 2 desiccators^ 1 lb. gljisH tnl>ing ; (i stirring rods; 3 porcelain crucibles, 
li ounce; 2 porcelain crucii)l(is, 1 3 ounce; nest (evaporating dishes; 2 casseroles; 
4-inch porcf^laiii nioitar; luontb Itlow-pijxi; retort, Htopi)ered, 10 ounces ; receiver for 
same, Kiouncces; mtorl, H ounces; graduiited e,yliu(U'r, 2.''> c. c. 

One Coot iiialimnn wire; phitinuni Coil; rouiid (ihe ; tIire(!-cornered file ; set (5 cork 
borers; 2 Hte<el foicieps ; 2 sand baflis, .''» inclieH; 3 triangles, i)lain ; 3 triangles, covered; 
t(!st tube brush ; bottle* bruHh ; horn spalul.-i, ; 3 packages, 3-iu(!h, 4-iii(!h, and 6-inch 
filters; Swedish (ilt.<er jiaper ; set li Iter pai.terns ; 12 ruldier connectors; 2 pieces wire 
cauz<i; glihzed wat.er bath; pair wii.teli glass (dips; l''let,eli(ir's solid tlaine burner; 
Biinsen burner jiitiudiuMMit; (i ignition tubes; glass scoop for weighing ; box gummed 
labels ; book bilxijs ; v(duinetric pipettes, one to 5 c. c, one to'lOc. c, one to 25 c. c, 
one to no c. c., one to TOO c. c. 

'J'nxMniKer cheinieaJ balance, weigliing 100 gram tries, showing i^jy milligrainuio, and 
set liiu* weights (or iibov(e to !')0 giainincs; BuiiKcn lilt.er ai»i»aiatus; lecture eiuliometor; 
liydrochlorie-acid apparatus; appanilus for dcinonst ration of oxyg(!n and hydrogen; 
de(!oni|)OHil,ion of water a,])par!i.tnM; aiiparatiiH for burning Hui])hur; Dani(dl's hygrom- 
eter; bell-jar; plaliuuin cone. (Jheniicals— Sulphur, iodine, iodoform, zinc oxide, 
strychnia, v(Miilri!i ; Hulphuric, acetic, and tartaric acids; mercury, mercury red oxide, 
potassium ehroniat.e, n.leohol, ether, aitropia,; muriatic, nitric, and taiini(! acids. 

APPAKATUH K()l{ ICXI-ICKIMKNTM IN STATU! H;t.H;(!TllICITV, LOANKI) BY CtTliT W. MKYER, 

OF NKW YOlMv. 

Friotional electric machine; head of hair; ehectric l»(dls; pith-ball electroscope; 
gas-pistol; Ley den jar. 

AITAKATUS TO ILI-USTItAI'lC PNICUMAIICS, I'KOM 0. K. MOVAY, MT. HEALTHY, O. 

Air-])iinip with reversible valves; detached pnm)> ])lat(i and receiver; res(srvoir for 
condensed air, and a fruit jar receiver. 

A six-cell galvanic battery was kindly loaimd by rrofcssor Ayres, of Tulane Uni- 
versity, for nH(< ill the dark room with the Crook(es and the Geissler tubes, and a 
Toejiler-IIoltz machine and ])ort(* lumiin'e wens also loaned for use in same room by 
Dr. Macintosh, of the Maclntosli ]{a,tt(My Co., Chicago. 

MODELS OF DESORIPTIVE GIOOMETKY, WITH OONSTRUC- 

TION I»LATEH. 

{Manufaotured hi/ J. Sohroeder, I)armntadt, Germany.) 

In these collections of models for examination, exhibited by the United States 
Bureau of Education, solid pear wood and mathematically accurate models, from the 
simplest to the most difficult, are combined with planes of projection, with accurate 
drawings corresponding thereto. 

Modiels and drawings are worked out in round iigures, in millimeters. The selec- 
tion of solids and their descrii)tion follow the sj)ecia.l requirements of practical use, 
and have refereuco throughout to their application in theory and in jiraotice. 

Projootions.—Vhite 1. A model to explain the idaiies of iirojection, the iirojections of 
solid bodies, and their poHilion in space with regard to each other. Tint model con- 
sists of a small drawing board, dividt^d into two ('(pial itHitangles upon hinges, in 
order that the vertical projections may be brought into a vertical position, at right 
134 



MISCELLANEOUS MODELS OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 135 

angles to the horizontal projections, by which the solid substances are placed in proper 
relation to both projections. 

Plate 2. Straight lines with revolutions and transpositions. 

Plate 3. Straight lines and circular lincH, with revolutions and transpositions. 

Plate 4. Curving lines and double fon«5 Hides, with rcvolniioiis an<l trauspositionH. 

Plate f). Kliomboidal, rectangular, and cirdhlar planes, revolving on axes in different 
positions. . . 

Plate 6. Rhomboidal and circular planes revolving on axes in different positions. 

Plate 7. Transpositions of the quadrilateral plau(». 

Plate 8. Transpositions of the o(!tag()nal plaiitJ. 

Plate 9. Transpositions of two ])arallel circular planes. * 

Plate 10. Rolling circular ])lan()S revolving on double axes. 

Plate 11. Curved surfaces— quadrilateral and circular on cylinder, circular on cone 
surface. 

Plate 12. Warped and helicoid surfaces. 

Plate I'i. Transposition formations of the cube. 

Plate 14. Transposition formations of the bexagoual pyramid. 

Plate 15. Transposition formations of the cone. 

Plate 16. Transposition formations of the hexagonal prism and cylinder. 

Plate 17. Transpositions of the si)hei(j, with circumferences ol' the spherical and 
circular ellipsoid. 

Plate 18. Construction and transpositions of a dodecahedron and a dihexagonal 
double }>yramid. 

Plate 19. Roller in form of a double cone, with transpositions. 

Plate 20. Roller in form of a cylindrical ring, with transpositions. 

Projections and (Uscription of ilic internraiiovH, jimcHoriH, and purchif/H of the variou$ 
Bolidn. — Plare 21. Lines through lines and lines througli jdanes. 

Plate 22. Lines through planes. 

Plate 2:$. The cutting of the (ju a dri lateral prism and of the cylinder by a plane. 

Plate 24. The cutting of the cone and the hexagonal pyramid by a plane. 

Plate 25. Construction of crystal forms from the cubic tetrahedron and octahedron. 

Plate 2f). Construction of (srystal forms from the <lodecahedron and [Xint.agonal do- 
decahedron. 

Plate 27. Three four-sided prisms with various plane sections. 

Plate 28. 'i'wo prisms resting with thiiir l)as(!H upon the planes of i)rojeotion. 

Plate 29. Three cylinders with various sections. 

Plate :{0. Combination of three cylinders of equal size with an obli(iue cylinder. 

Plate 31. .Junction of two cylinders with a thinl thicker cylinder, junction of two 
prisms with a cylinder. 

Plate 32. Piercing of a large cylinder l)y two smaller ones, combination of three oc- 
tagonal prisms. 

Plate 33. Three cones wiMi elliptical, jtarabolical, and hyperbolical sections. 

Plate 34. Cone pierced by vertical cylinder, cone pierced by horizontal cylinder, 
cone joined to oblique cylinder. 

Plate 3.5. Sphere with section, sphere intersected l)y cone, and sphere intersected 
by sphere. 

Plate 36. Si>hen5 pierced by cylinder, their axes coinciding, sphere pierced by hex- 
agonal prism, and sphens pierced by quadrilateral prism, 

Plate 37, Sphere pierced by cone, splxue picrc(;d by cylindrical ring. 

Plate 38. Quarter-cylindrical ring with section for changing shape, cylindrical ring 
with six parallel sections. 

Plate 39. Cylindrical ring pierced by cylinder and by cone. 

Plate 40. Two obli(iue cones, connected with the two planes of projection by int/er- 
sections, one forming ellipses and the other circles. 

ModelH of perHpective.—PliiUi 1. Lines.— Straight lines and two intersecting lines, 
Plate 2. Surfaces. — Rectangle and circle. 
Plate 3. Solids. — Cube and cylinder. 

Consiruclion of lirjhts and «/iado?<;«.— Plate 1. Construction of the angle of incidence, 
and of shadows of lines in various positions on the plane of j)rojection. 

Plate 2. Construction of the shadows of four-cornered and round planes on the plane 
of projection. 

Plate 3. Quadrilateral prism with shadow of incidence and shadow of incidence of 
an oblique line thereon. Hexagonal prism with shadow of incidence and shadow of 
an oblique plane thereon. 

Plate 4. Cylinder with shadow of incidence and shadow of a conical plane thereon. 

Oblique cylinder with shadow of incidence and shadow of a circular surface thereon. 

Plate 5.' Hexagonal pyramid with shadow of incidence and shadow of a vertical 

surface thereon. Cone with shadow of incidence and shadow of a horizontal surface 

thereon, 

135 



136 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Plate 6. Sunk cone with shadow of incidence. Sunk sphere with shadow of inci- 
dence. 

Plate 7. Sphere with shadow of incidence. Breaks as an application of the sphere, 
the hollowed sphere, and the hollowed cylinder, with shadows of incidence. 

Construction of shadows of mouldings. — Plate 8. Straight surface with coping, and 
canted off below. 

Plate 9. Semicircular moulding with newel. 

Plate 10. Semicircular hollow with slab. 

Plate 11. Cornice moulding. 

Plate 12. Cornice moulding as foot moulding. 

Plate 13. Eeversed cornice. 

Plate 14. Eev^sed cornice as foot moulding. 

Plate 15. Bases of columns. 

Plate 16. Capitals of columns. 

Plate 17. Plinth. 

Plate 18. Main moulding. 

Construction of shadows of parts of machinery. — Plate 19. Direct screw. 

Plate 20. Section of direct female screw. 

Plate 21. Female screw in outer shape. 

Plate 22. Head of slide rod. 

Plate 23. Shaft coupling. 

Plate 24. Bearings. 

Plate 25. Section of steam cylinder. 



GTMl!^ASTIC' APPARATUS. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Hand dynamometer ; back and leg dyrtamometer; spirometer; height measure ; width 
measure; stretch of arms measure ; metallic tape measure ; set wall parallel bars; pair 
suspended rings ; set traveling parallels ; set chest weights ; chest expander; chest de- 
veloper; neck machine; back and loins machine; inclined plane ; two climbing ropes; 
ladder; slant rope; horizontal bar ; jumping borse. 

FAIRBANKS & CO., SAINT JOHNSBURY, VT. 

One platform scale. 

GIFFOKD BROS., 50 W. 3.5TH iSTREET, NEW YORK. 

Two home gymnasiums. 

LIBRARY COLLECTIONS. 

AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY. 

On© hundred and ninety-seven volumes of the Scriptures, in various languages. 

AMERICAN UNITARIAN ASSOCIATION, BOSTON, MASS. 

Channing's Life ; Channing's Works ; Dewey's Works ; Sermons by James Walker; 
Memoir of Mary L. Ware ; Memoir of Henry Ware, jr. ; Life of Samuel J. May ; Memoir 
of Jas. P. Walker ; Washington Discourses; Essentials and Non-Essentials ; Unitarian 
Principles Confirmed by Trinitarian Testimonies, Wilson ; Orthodoxy, Its Truths and 
Errors, Clarke; Studies of Christianity, Martineau; The Christian Doctrine of Prayer, 
Clarke; Orthodoxy and Heresy, E. H. Hall; Steps of Belief, Clarke; Doctrine of 
Christianity, Eliot; Early Eeligious Education, Eliot; The Doom of the Majority, S. 
J. Barrows; Unitarianism Defined, Farley; Theological Essays, Noyes ; Statement 
of Reasons, Norton ; Genuineness of the Gospels, Norton ; Forgiveness of Sin, Clarke; 
Letter and Spirit, Metcalf ; Christian Consolation, Peabody ; Translation of Job, 
Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, Noyes ; Translation of the Psalms and Proverbs, Noyes ; 
Translation of the Prophets, Noyes, 2 vols. ; The New Testament, Noyes's Translation ; 
Endeavors after the Christian Life, Martineau ; Formation of Christian Character, 
Ware; Lectures to Young Men, Eliot; Lectures to Young Women, Eliot ; Social Hymn 
and Tune Book ; Sunday School Hymn, Tune, and Service Book ; Hymn and Tune 
Book and Services ; Discipline of Sorrow, Eliot ; Altar at Home ; Watchwords for 
136 



MISCELLANEOUS LIBEARY COLLECTIONS. 137 

Little Soldiers ; Little Splendid's Vacation ; Father Gabrielle's Fairy; Forrest Mills; 
Faithful to the Light; Daily Bread and Other Stories; In the Gleanings; Stories for 
Era ; Sermons to Children, Greenwood ; Day unto Day ; Channing's Thoughts, 

APPLETON, D., & CO., NEW YORK. 

Science Primers, 13 vols. ; History Primers, 8 vols. ; Literature Primers, 10 vols.; 
Johonnot's Teaching ; Baldwin's School Management ; Spencer's Education ; Bain's 
Education. 

BAKDEEN, C. W., SYBACUSE, N. Y. 

Mistakes in Teaching, Hughes ; Elementary Question Book, Southwick ; Historical 
Recreations, Laurence; Verbal Pitfalls ; The School-Room Chorus, DeGraff; Diadem 
of School Songs, Tillinghast ; Two Months in Europe ; Camps and Tramps in the 
Adirondack s, Northrup ; De GrafPs Practical Phonics ; Teachers' Hand Book ; Normal 
Language Lessons, Sornberger; First Steps among Figures, oral ed. ; First Steps 
among Figures, teachers' ed. ; First Steps among Figures, pupils' ed. ; The Spirit of 
Education, B^esau ; Northam's American History ; Michael's Beginner's Algebra ; The 
Sentence Method, Farnham; The Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence, Hough; 
Roderick Hume, Bardeen ; Methods of Teaching, Hoose ; Educational Reformers, 
Quick; New York Examination Questions for State Certificates; Studies in Articula- 
tion, Hoose ; First-Year Text Book of Arithmetic. Hoose ; First- Year Manual and 
Text Book of Arithmetic, Hoose ; Regents' Questions Complete ; Alden's Political 
Economy ; A Thousand Questions on American History ; Half a Hundred Songs for 
the School-Room and Home, Russell ; Questions in English and American Literature, 
Hendrick; Early English Literature, Harlow; A Work in Number, Roe; De GralFs 
School-Room Guide ; Manual of Mensuration, Huttou ; History of Education, Payne ; 
Advanced Question Book, Southwick ; Civil Government, Northam ; Tate's Philoso- 
phy of Education; Regents' Grammar with Key; Regents' Questions Complete with 
Key; Chart of Civil Government, Pooler; Regents'' Grammar ; Regents' Spelling 
Questions ; Regents' Geography ; Regents' Arithmetic ; Dime Question Books, and 
miscellaneous pamphlet publications. 

BAJtNARD, HENRY, HARTFORD, CONN. 

Set of Barnard's Journal of Education, v^ols. i-xxx, 1856-1880 ; educational publi- 
cations by Barnard, viz. Kindergarten and Child Culture ; Object Teaching and 
Methods for Primary Schools ; American Pedagogy ; English Pedagogy, first and sec- 
ond series; Department of Education, Special Report on the Schools of the Dist. 
Columbia; Report of Department of Education, 1867-'68; National Education ; Na- 
tional Education in German States; National Education in France, Switzerland, etc.; 
Superior Instruction ; Military Systems and Education; Studies and Conduct ; School 
Architecture ; Papers for the Teacher, first and second series ; Department of Educa- 
tion, Special Reports ; Technical Education ; Military Schools ; National Education in 
Europe ; Memoir of Froebel ; Journal of Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 3 vols. ; 
Connecticut Common School Journal, 5 vols. ; Reformatory Education and Instruction 
in Europe ; Educational Development in the United States ; Normal Training, Russell ; 
Colt Memorial. 

BARNES, A. 8., & CO., NEW YORK. 

Theory and Practice of Teaching, Page ; Teachers' Manuals, numbers iii and iv. 

BRUNNER, JOHN H., HIWASSEE COLLEGE, TENN. 

Sunday Evening Talks with Little Folks, by " Uncle John," edited by W. G. E. Cun- 
ningham, D. D. 

BUREAU OP EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Publications of the Bureau of Education (see page 38) ; State, city, and foreign 
educational reports ; bound volume of educational periodicals ; volumes of State 
school laws. 

ELDBEDGE & BROTHER, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Manuals for Teachers : (1) Cultivation of the Senses; (2) Cultivation of the Mem- 
ory; (3) On the Use of Words ; (4) On Discipline ; (5) On Class Teaching. 

137 



138 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

FOOTE, A. E., PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Edacational reports and publicatious. 

FRENCH & CHOATE, BOND STREET, NEW TORK. 

Dictionary holder. 

friends' bookstore, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Friends' Library, 14 volumes; Sewel's History ; Fox's Journal ; Friends in the Sev- 
enteenth Century ; Worship in Song ; Musings and Memories ; Views of Christian 
Doctrine; Passages from the Life and Writings of William Penn; Bevan's View ; 
Christian Advices ; Treatise of the Scriptures, E. Claridge ; Eules of Discipline of the 
Yearly Meeting of Friends; Historical Memoirs of the Society of Friends; Piety Pro- 
moted, 4 vols. ; No Cross, No Crown ; Passages from the Life and Writings of George 
Fox ; Examples of Youthful Piety ; Church Government ; Memorials of Deceased 
Friends from 1788 to 1878 ; Evans's Exposition ; JohnWoolman; Biographical Sketches 
and Anecdotes of Friends ; Phipps on Man ; Barclay's Apology for the True Christian 
Divinity ; Memoirs of Daniel Wheeler ; John Eoberts ; Dymond on War ; Penn's 
Eise, Progress, and Key; Biographical Sketch of William Penn; Eeligious Society of 
Friends and the Indians; Ancient Testimony ; Immediate Eevelation ; The Commun- 
ion; Of Universal and Saving Light ; Address of 1868 and Epistle of 1876; Advice of 
William Penn to his Children; Baptism ; The Doctrines and Ministry of George Fox. 

GINN, HEATH & CO., BOSTON, MASS. 

Allen's Reader's Guide to English History ; Allen's History Topics (ancient, modem, 
and United States history) ; Carpenter's English of the Fourteenth Century ; Church's 
Stories of the Old World (classics for children); Hall's Methoils of Teaching and 
Studying History ; Harrison & Sharp's Essays on Education, English Studies, and 
Shakespeare; Hudson's Expurgated Family Shakespeare (23 volumes) ; Hunt's Ex- 
odus, and Daniel; Lounsbury's Chaucer's Parlament of Foules; Lambert's Eobinson 
Crusoe; Sprague's Two Bof)ks of Milton's Paradise Lost, and Lycidas; Yonge's Scott's 
Quentin Durward; Fisk's Teacher's Improved Class Books, I and II; Hoffman's 
"Strong Plea for the Classics"; Guides for Science Teaching (13 volumes). 

HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO., BOSTON, MASS. 

Works of Longfellow, 6 vols. ; Modern Classics, 32 vols. ; American Prose, edited 
by Scudder; American Poems, edited by Scudder; Tales from Shakespeare; The 
Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys ; Tanglewood Tales ; 7 volumes entered as specimens 
of extra binding done by workmen now employed at the Eiverside Press, viz : Vol. 
2, Picturesque America, in illuminated vellum ; Gallery of Famous Poets, in inlaid 
crushed levant ; Frithiof 's Saga, in white calf, paneled ; Vols. 1 and 3, Shakespeare, 
in blue morocco ; Library of Poetry and Song, in blue levant, paneled ; Treasury of 
Thought, in full Eussia. 

LIBRARY BUREAU, BOSTON, MASS. 

Account book ; order book ; register ; 2 shelf sheet binders ; 2 filing cases ; Clacher 
pamphlet case ; cherry and oak catalogue cases with fittings ; tin card tray ; catalogue 
cards, 9 styles ; book support. 

MERRIAM, G & C, & CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 

Copy of Webster's National Pictorial Dictionary. 

NEW ENGLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY, BOSTON, MASS. 

Journal of Education, in half morocco, nine volumes; Education, in half morocco, 
four volumes; Primary Teacher, six volumes ; Public School, one volume; the Ameri- 
can Teacher, three volumes; portraits of Henry Barnard, John Eaton, Horace Mann, 
Barnas Sears, Louis Agassiz, George Peabody, A. D. Mayo, W. T. Harris, John D. 
Philbrick, Francis W. Parker, and Friedrich Froebel. 

Publications as follows: School-keeping, How to Do It; Talks with Teachers; 
Graduating System for Country Schools ; Life and Education of Laura Bridgman; 
Life of John Amos Comenius ; Quizzism and Key ; The National Council of Educa- 
tion ; History for Teachers ; Two Premium Essays ; The South at School, 

138 



MISCELLANEOUS ^LIBRARY COLLECTIONS. 139 

NOTES, L. W., CHICAGO, ILL. 

Dictionary-holder ; book-rest. 

O'SHEA, p., WAREEX STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. 

Lessons in Practical Scieuce. 

penman's art JOURNAL, 205 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 

Bound volume of Penman's Art Journal. 

WELBY, L. D., BOSTON, MASS. 

PalsBOgrapliia Sacra Pictoria. Rare Irish books, as follows: Ancient Irish Music; 
National Manuscripts of Ireland ; Discovery of the Tomb of Ollav Fola ; volume of 
texts, documents, and extracts, chiefly from the Bodleian and other Oxford libraries ; 
two copies of the Gaelic Journal ; Second Irish Book ; Third Irish Book ; Irish copy- 
book; German Anthology (translation), two volumes. 

RALSTON, MRS. H. N. 

The Spectral Feast. 

PROGRESS IN SCHOOL BOOKS. 

Arithmetics — 

Daboll, Nathan. Schoolmaster's assistant : improved and enlarged, being a plain, 
practical system of arithmetic. New Loudon, 1811. 

Dilworth, Thomas. The schoolmaster's assistant; being a compendium of arith- 
metic, both jiracticaland theoretical. Printed by Bousal andNiles. Wilmington, n. d. 

Guthrie, Jesse. The American schoolmaster's assistant ; being a compendious 
system of vulgar and decimal arithmetic. Printed by Joseph Charless. Lexington, 
Ky.,1804. 

Green, Samuel. Daboll's schoolmaster's assistant, improved and enlarged, being 
a plain-) practical arithmetic adapted to the United States, with the addition of the 
practical accountant, or farmers' and mechanics' best method of book-keeping, for 
the easy instruction of youth ; designed as a companion to Daboll's arithmetic. 
Printed and published by E. and E. Hosford. Albany, 1825. 

McCurdy, D. The Columbian tutor's assistant ; or, a full collection of rules and 
examples for the several calculations of common, decimal, and duodecimal arithmetic, 
adapted to the purposes of arts and commerce in the United States. Printed by E. 
DeKrafift. Washington, D. C, 1819. 

Pike, Nicholas. New and complete system of arithmetic, composed for the use of 
the citizens of the United States ; abridged for the use of schools by Nathaniel Lord. 
Published by Evert Dnyckinck. Eighth edition. New York, 1816. 

Walsh, Michael. A new system of mercantile arithmetic ; adapted to the commerce 
of the United States in its domestic and foreign relations; with forms of accounts, 
and other writings usually occurring in trade. Published by S. and E. Butler. North- 
ampton, 1807. 

Watt, Alexander. New, plain and systematic compendium of practical arithmetic, 
adapted to the commerce of the United States ; with a key. Published by John 
Bioren. Philadelphia, 1814. 

Geographies — 

Adams, Daniel. Geography ; or, a description of the world ; in three parts, accom- 
panied with an atlas. Published by Lincoln & Edmands. Boston, 1826. 

Doyle, David. Pinkerton's geography, epitomized for the use of schools. Printed 
by S, F. Bradford. Philadelphia, 1805. 

Dwight, Nathaniel. A short but comprehensive system of the geography of the 
world ; principally designed for children and common schools. Published by Simeon 
Butler. Northampton, 1812. 

Mayo, Robert. An epitome of profane geography ; being an abridgment of D'An- 
ville's geography, with additions and improvements ; illustrated by coloured maps. 
Second edition. Philadelphia, 1818. 

O'Neill, John. A new and easy system of geography and popular astronomy ; or, 
an introduction to universal geography; illustrated with maps. Published by F. 
Lucas, jr. Fourth edition. Baltimore, 1816. 

Willard, Emma. Geography for beginners ; or, the instructor's assistant, in giving 
first lessons from maps, etc. Published by O. D. Cook & Co. Second edition. Hart- 
ford, 1829. 

139 



140 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Grammars — 

Alexander, Caleb. Grammatical system of the English language ; comprehending 
a plain and familiar scheme of teaching young gentlemen and ladies the art of speak- 
ing and writing correctly their native tongue. Printed by Samuel Hall. Boston, 
1792. 

Carroll, James. The American criterion of the English language ; containing the 
elements of pronunciation ; for the use of English schools and foreigners. Printed 
by Samuel Green. New London, 1795. 

Murray, Lindley. English exercises adapted to the grammar lately published ; de- 
signed for the benefit of private learners as well as for the use of schools. Printed 
by Wilson, Spence & Mawman. York, 1797. 

Murray, Lindley. Key to the above. Printed by Collins & Perkins. New York, 
1808. 

Murray, Lindley. English exercises, adapted to Murray's English grammar, de- 
signed for the ben* fit of private learners, as well as for the use of schools. Printed 
by J. Robinson. Baltimore, 1815. 

Murray, Lindley. Abridgment of English grammar ; comprehending the principles 
and rules of the language, designed for the younger classes of learners. Published 
by Marsh, Capen and Lyon. Concord, N. H., 1830. 

Murray, Lindley. English grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners, 
witt an appendix, containing rules and observations for assisting the more advanced 
students to write with perspicuity and accuracv. Published by Collins & Co. New 
York, 1827. 

Webster, Noah. A grammatical institute of the English language; comprising an 
easy, concise and systematic method of education ; designed for the use of English 
schools in America. Part second containing a plain and comprehensive grammar, 
grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language. Printed by I. Thomas 
and E. T. Andrews. Boston, 1792. 

Webster, Noah. An improved grammar of the English language. Published by 
Sidney Babcock. New Haven, 1842. 



Murray, Lindley. Introduction to the English reader ; or, a selection of pieces, in 
prose and poetry, calculated to improve the younger classes of learners in reading, 
and to imbue their minds with a love of virtue, to which are added rules and obser- 
vations for assisting children to read with propriety. St. John, N. B., n. d. 

Murray, Lindley. English reader; or, pieces in prose and poetry, selected from the 
best writers, designed to assist yourg persons to read with propriety and effect, to 
improve their language and sentiments, and to inculcate some of the most important 
principles of piety and virtue. Printed by E. P. Walton. Montpelier, 1823. 

Picket, A. and J. W. New juvenile expositor, or rational reader, and key to the 
juvenile spelling book ; comprising the definitions of all the syllabic words in that 
work ; with copious illustrations in English etymology ; forming an extensive defi- 
nition class book for the instruction of youth ; being American school class book No. 
4. Published by Picket & Co. Cincinnati, 1831. 

Picket, A. and J. W. Introduction to Picket's expositor ; containing exercises in 
English etymology, definition, and reading, being the sequel to the author's spelling- 
book and part I of the New juvenile instructor. Published by C. P. Barnes & C. 
Cropper. Cincinnati, 1837. 

Eater, Martin. New American primer and juvenile preceptor; containing easy 
lessons for spelling, reading, and recitation, together with a short scriptural cate- 
chism. Published by Martin Enter. Cincinnati, 1821. 

Staniford, Daniel. Art of reading : containing a number of useful rules exempli- 
fied by a variety of selected and original pieces, calculated to improve the scholar in 
reading and speaking with propriety and elegance ; designed for schools and families. 
Printed by John Eussell. Boston, 1800. 

Webster, Noah. An American selection of lessons in reading and speaking, calcu- 
lated to improve the minds and refine the taste of youth, and also to instruct them in 
the geography, history, and politics of the United States, to which are prefixed 
rules in elocution and directions for impressing the principal passions of the mind, 
being the third part of a grammatical institute of the English language, etc. Pub- 
lished by Isaiah Thomas and Ebenezer T. Andrews. Boston, 1797. 

Spellers and Primers — 

Barry, John. Philadelphia spelling book, arranged upon a plan entirely new ; 
with corrections and additions ; adapted to the capacities of children, and designed 
as an immediate improvement in spelling and reading the English language. Pub- 
lished by David Hogan. Sixth rev. ed. Philadelphia, 1811. 

Franklin spelling book. Published by E. Porter & F. Lucas, jr. Wilmington, Del., 
1822. 

140 



MISCELLANEOUS ART EXHIBITS. 141 

Lamb, J. Child's primer ; or, first book for primary schools. Published by Ed- 
ward Smith. Turlington, 1833, 

New England primer. Improved for the more easy attaining the true reading of 
English, to which is added the assembly of divines, and Mr. Cotton's catechism. 
Printed by Edward Draper. Boston, 1777. 

New England primer; or, an easy and pleasant guide to the art of reading; to 
which is added the catechism. Boston, 1843. 

Prentiss, Thos. M. Maine spelling book, containing a variety of words, accented 
and divided, with moral and entertaining lessons for reading, useful tables, etc. 
Printed by Isaac Adams & Stephen Patten. Portland, 1809, 

Picket, A. Juvenile spelling book : being an easy introduction to the English lan- 
guage. Printed by John J. Williams. Exeter, 1821. 

Webster, Noah, American spelling book : containing the rudiments of the English 
language for the use of schools in the United States, Published by Wm. Fessenden. 
Brattleborough, 1816. 

Same. Published by Manahan, Hoag & Co. Concord, N, H., 1817. 

Same. Elementary spelling book: being an improvement on the American spelling 
book. Published by N. G. Burgess & Co. Cincinnati, 1829. 

CtTRRENT PERIODICAL LITERATURE, FURNISHED BY PUBLISHERS AND KEPT ON FILE. 

Andover Eeview ; Atlantic Monthly; Popular Science News; American Architect 
and Building News ; Sanitary Engineer ; Journal of Education; Boston Medical and 
Surgical Journal ; Medical Record; Kansas City Eeview of Science and Industry; 
Kentucky Deaf-Mnte ; American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb ; Deaf-Mute Voice ; 
Deaf-Mute Record; Maryland Bulletin; Southwestern Journal of Education; The 
Carolina Teacher; Southern Workman; The New Method; Deaf-Mute Hawkeye ; 
American Journal of Education; Academy Journal; Teacher's Institute; Illinois 
School Journal; School Journal; The Ohio Educational Monthly; Pennsylvania School 
Journal; Dental Cosmos; Buifalo Medical and Surgical Joui*nal; School Bulletin ; 
Normal Teacher ; Wisconsin .Journal of Education ; Vis ^ Vis; The Sanitarian ; The 
Southern Practitioner; Treasure Trove. 

The Sanitarian, A. N. Bell, M. D. , Editor, New York City. 

Twenty-one volumes of The Sanitarian (11 bound). 



ART EXHIBITS. 

ARCHITECT OF THE UNITED STATES CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Model of the Capitol. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. 0, 

Bust of George Peabody ; bust of Noah Webster, One piece Rogers' statuary — 
school examination. Set of ornamental designs and drawings, 

CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE, E. A. SPRING, REPRESENTATIVE. 

Facade of Greek temple. Portraits in clay. Chautauqua certificates, diplomas, 
and decorations. Clay modeling. 

PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM AND SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART. 

Fifty-six sheets of mounted drawings and designs, 22 inches by 28 inches. Sixteen 
casts in plaster, or works in terra cotta. 

PH I LADELPHIA SCHOOL OF DESIGN FOR WOMEN, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Six wool-carpet designs ; 2 oil-cloth carpet designs ; 7 oil paintings ; 9 engravings ; 
4 etchings; 2 wall-paper patterns; tile pattern; designs for vase; candlesticks; 
pitcher; communion service ; lace work, and study in water colors; 2 copies of pros- 
pectus. 

THE SOULE PHOTOGRAPH CO., BOSTON, MASS. 

Twelve photographic views of Boston. 

141 



142 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 



SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Andrew's anatomical charts. Skeleton. Colored casta of human brain, eye, ear, 
head, heart, and skin. Obstetrical instruments. Pulse tonograph. Laryngoscope. 
Clinical lens. Silk worm. Male pelvis, female pelvis, femur, scapula, vertebrae, 
ribs, corpus complete. Disarticulated skull. Dissected preparation injected. Man- 
ikin foetus. Obstetrical model. Skeleton of rabbit. Skeleton of frog. Skull of dog. 
Skull of horse. 

COLLEGE OP PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS, BOSTON, MASS. 

Frame of photographs of professors and instructors. 

The exhibit also contained photographs of members of the faculties of the follow- 
ing institutions: — Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, Cal.; Southern Medical 
College, Atlanta, Ga.; Medical College of Evansville, Evansville, Ind.; Medical Depart- 
ment of the State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; College of Medicine ( University 
of Maryland), Baltimore, Md.; Medical Department of Minnesota College Hospital, 
Minneapolis, Minn.; Northwestern Medical College of St. Joseph, St. Joseph, Mo.; 
Albany Medical College (Union University), Albany, N. Y.; Starling Medical College, 
Columbus, Ohio ; Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Med- 
ical College of the State of South Carolina, Charleston, S. C.; Medical Department, 
University of Virginia, Va.; National Medical College (Columbian University), Wash- 
ington, D. C; California Medical College (Eclectic), Oakland, Cal.; Bennett College 
of Eclectic Medicine and Surgery, Chicago, 111.; Boston University School of Medi- 
cine, Boston, Mass.; New York Medical College and Hospital for Women, New York 
City ; Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa. 



NUESE TEAINING SCHOOLS. 

CHARITY HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY. 

Two frames of photographs. ' 

TRAINING SCHOOL FOR NURSES, BELLEVUE HOSPITAL, NEW YORK CITY. 

Photographs. 

NEW YORK HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL FOR NURSES, NEW YORK CITT, 

Frame containing 11 photographs of institution and nurses. 

woman's hospital, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Two framed photographs: (1) ward in Woman's Hospital; (2) dormitories iuNors* 
Training School connected with Woman's Hospital. 

WASHINGTON TRAINING SCHOOL FOR NURSES, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Photographs of building and of graduates. 

'Ill the Commissioners' room at the Charities and Correction Building, at Eleventh street and Third 
avenue, yesterday, two large frames containing photographs of scenes abont Charity Hospital and the 
Training School for Nurses, on Blackwell's Island, attracted much attention and were admired by a 
throng of visitors. The pictures are to be sent In a few days to the Kew Orleans Exposition. In the 
center of one frame is a perfect representation of the front of the gray -stone hospital hnilding, with its 
four long rows of windows, rising tier above tier, its square wings and French roof. Above the rep- 
resentation of the hospital is a picture of a neat stone Duilding and three wooden pavilions. This is 
the jjroposed Home for the Nurses. There are also photographs of the interior view of three of the 
hospital wards. Everything looks so neat and clean, and the rows of white cots aro so soft and tempt- 
ing, that the observer almost envies the patients whose heads appear here and there about the 
rooms. — Tribuna, 

142 



SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE ^NUKSE TRAINING SCHOOLS. 143 




Fig. 81. — The human skeleton. 



14S 



144 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DTJMB. 

INSTITUTE FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE MUTE, COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. 

Photographs of buildings ; photograph of Dr. R. G. Buckingham ; fancy work made 
by a girl under instruction three months; examination papers; copies of reports; 
Dudley's arithmetic ; Scripture sermons. 

COLUMBIA INSTITUTE AND NATIONAL DEAF-MUTE COLLEGE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Framed drawing of buildings and grounds. Copies of reports and catalogue. 

PAY, E. A., WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Copies American Annals of Deaf and Dumb. 

FULLER, ANGIE, SAVANNA, ILL. 

Tidy. Pair black silk mittens. 3 water- color paintings. 

ILLINOIS INSTITUTION FOR THE EDUCATION OP THE DEAP AND DUMB, 
JACKSONVILLE, ILL. 

Work done in the art department by pupils: (1) from life, charcoal sketch; (2) from 
nature, water color; (3) from nature, charcoal; (4) from still life, oil painting; (5) 
from still life, oil painting; (6) from still life, oil painting; (7) from cast, crayon; 
(8) from nature, water color; (9) free-hand, crayon ; (10) from life, oil painting; (II) 
solar print, crayon; (12) free-hand, crayon; (13) from objects, crayon; (14) from ob- 
jects, crayon; (15) from life, oil; (16) from nature, water color; (17) from still life, 
charcoal ; (18) from still life, charcoal; (J.9) from cast, crayon ; (20) from cast, crayon; 
(21) from cast, crayon ; (22) from life, charcoal ; (23) from objects, oil ; 10 volumes of 
examination papers ; 3 plaster casts ; 11 pairs shoes ; 1 pair boots ; desk. 

The above work was nol; prepared expressly for the Exposition, and was sent, not 
as specimens of fine work, but to illustrate tlie education of deaf-mute children. 

PARLOW, KATE M., WICHITA, KANS. 

Two copies of " Silent Life and Silent Language," by Kate M. Farlow. 

DEAF-MUTE COLLEGE, DANVILLE, KY. 

One painting. 

KENTUCKY DEAF-MUTE OFFICE, DANVILLE, KY. 

Seven volumes publications for the deaf and dumb. 

CLARK INSTITUTE FOR DEAF AND DUMB, NORTHAMPTON, MASS. 

Reports of institution. 

INSTITUTION FOR DEAF AND DUMB, JACKSON, MISS. 

Crib, 2 paintings, 1 photograph, 7 pieces china, quilt, 2 boys' suits, banner, lace 
handkerchie:^ 2 framed paintings, wall pocket. 

EIES, ISAAC B., JACKSON, MISS. 

Black-walnut bureau. 

SLATE, MISS MATTIE P., OXFORD, MISS. 

One quilt, containing 7,200 pieces ; 4 handkerchiefs. 

NEW YORK INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. 

The exhibit consists of contributions by the artistic and industrial departments of 
the institution. 

The instruction department is represented by class books, and special works and 
chajts by Dr. Isaac Lewis Peet, the principal. The exhibit was prepared in the in- 
stitution, within six weeks, under the direction of the principal and M°>« Le Prince, 
144 



MISCELLANEOUS— SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. 145 



manager of tlic art dopartuieuts, after designs by Prof. A. Le Priuce, who also super- 
intended tlie erection of tlie stand at New Orleans. 

Other Xlxljihits. "^ 



Shelf. 



Vi 



M 



Show Case^ 
3 



j^ M antel. Shel fl ^ 



— \r~ D — 

J?ire Screen^, 



'Bench Case, 
C 



Bench Case, 



Bench. 



\ 



P 



Show Case. 



Tassa^e 



The .Illinois InsUtaUon JBencli. 



Fig. 82. — Plan of exhibit of New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 

Upright glass cases A and B (Fig. 82) and bench glass cases C and D stand on benches 
drawled with dark maroon cloth, and paneled wdth "lincrusta" and black walnut 
mouldings; an opening is reserved between cases C and D to allow closer inspection 
of drawings, panels, tiles, &c., hung on screens E and E, or standing on benches F 
and H. Other drawing and decorative works are liung on return screens I and G, or 
stand on shelves and platform at I, as described below. 

Cases A and C (Nos. 1 to 18). — Needlework department, superintendent. Miss Lewis: 
lace, silk, andAvorsted tidies, flounces, splashers, trimmings, collars, pincushions, etc., 
by Mary Branfuhr, age 11 ; E. Solomon, age 14; M. Bogatiska, age 14; Mabel Fish, 
age 15 ; E. F. Taylor, age 17 ; Nellie Long, age 18 ; Adelia Wolcott, age 18 ; Annie Kug- 
ler, age 18; B. Vogel, aged 19; E. Coppock, age 21; L. Couklin, age 23; Isabel Van 
Varick, age 18. The two lay figures in case A were also dressed by this dejiartment. 

Case D. — Printing department, manager, Mr. Hodgson : specimens of cards, menus, 
pamphlets, reports, etc., printed by the department; also two numbers of the Deaf- 
Mute Journal, edited and printed by Mr. Hodgson and his pupils. 

Instruction department: class books; specimens of method of writing by Dr. I. L. 
Peet's system ; yearly reports ; by-laws of the Institution ; w^orks on the deaf-mutes, 
by Drs. H. P. and I. L. Peet. 

Case B (Nos. 19-28). — Shoemaking department, manager, Mr. J. Lechthaler : 1 pair 
man's shoes, by T. Rudolph, age 19 ; 1 pair boy's low shoes, by E. McKerahau, age 17 ; 
1 pair lady's shoes, by A. Sinclair, age 18 ; 1 pair girl's shoes, by A. Sinclair, age 18. 
The small shoes of the lay figures were also made by this department. 

Tailoring department, manager, Mr. Henry Roth : doll's suit, by J. Toohey, age 16 ; 
doll's suit, by G. Morrisse, age 17; man's suit, by T. E. Carlmau, age 17; boy's suit, 
by H. Roth, age 18. \ 

Carpenters' department, manager, Mr. H. Interman : wood toy pump, by A. Min- 
otte, age 10 (two weeks in department) ; walnut table, by D. Zorn, age 17. This 
department has also executed all the woodwork of the stand, including benches, pan- 
eling, mouldings, woodwork of mantelpiece, etc. ; some more work is shown on plat- 
form I. 

Screen E. — Fine art, decorative, and technical art department ; directors Prof. A. Le 
Prince and Madame Le Prince: No. 29, decorative panel, painted tapestry, by C. 
Thompson, age 18; Dr. I. L. Peet's charts of the i^redicates of the English sentence; 
No. 30, mantelpiece (modern renaissance); black-walnut shelves and mouldings (car- 
penteriuy; dei^artmcnt). 

7950 COT 10 145 



146 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Panels, a, i, c, d, e, f, g, h, oxidized silver on liacrusta; four " old blue" tiles and 
velveteen lambrequin decorated in lustra by technical art department; Nos. 31, 32, 
33, 35, 37, 38, and 43, lincrusta mats by art department; No. 36, panel lincrusta 
decorated ware by art department ; No. 39, panel lincrusta decorated ware by art 
department ; No. 40, teapot stand, wild roses, tiles, by Miss Hawkins, age 20 ; frame 
made by Mr. Wormutb, age 13 ; No. 41, teapot stand, wild roses, tiles, by Miss Wells, 
age 18 ; frame made by Mr. Wormutb, age 13; Nos. 44 and 45, lincrusta panels, deco- 
rated terra-cotta, art department ; No. 46, panel of lilac and snowballs painted on gilt 
lincrusta, by Miss Hawkins, age 20; No. 47, panel of apple blossoms, painted by Miss 
Wells, age 18 ; Nos. 48 and 49, teapot stands, morning glory tiles, by Miss Peterson, 
age 18 ; frame made by Mr. Wormuth, age 13 ; No. 50, wa.ter color, "Flowers," by Miss 
Peterson, age 18 ; No. 51, water color pots and tray, by Miss Martin, age 17 ; No. 52, 
water color, " Marguerite," by Miss Welle, age 18 ; No. 54, charcoal drawing, Japanese 
jar, by Miss Peterson, age 18 ; No. 55, charcoal drawing, Japanese jar, by Mr. Thomp- 
son, age 18 ; No. 56, charcoal drawing, apples, by Mr. Thompson, age 18 ; No. 57, char- 
coal drawing, flying dove, by Mr. Avens, age 11 ; 101 to 106, lincrusta mats on mantel 
board, technical art department ; No. 58 and 59, umbrella stand, decorated lincrusta, 
technical art department. 

Screen F. — No. 60, charcoal drawing, "Bust on booiks," by Mr. Thompson, age 18; 
No; 61, charcoal drawing, " Pewter pitcher," by Mr. Geary, age 20 ; No. 62, water color, 
"Horse and cart," by Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 63, water color, "Cart," by Mr. 
Avens, age 11; No. 64, water color, "Old arch," by Miss Peterson, age 18; No. 53, 
"Foxglove," Miss Martin, age 17; Nos. 99 and 100, lincrusta mats, technical art de- 
partment. 

/Screen G. — No. 65, water color, mediaeval figure, Miss Wells, age 18 ; No. 66, water 
color, mediaeval figure, Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 67, oil, "Roses," Miss Gantz, age 
17 ; No. 68, water color, "Models," Mr. Geary, age 20 ; No. 69, water color, " Vase and 
drapery," Mr. Durian, age 19 ; five o'clock tea fire screen, by carpentering and tech- 
nical art department, dark cherry. \ 

Screen R. — No. 76, charcoal drawing, "Servant girl," Mr. Avens, age 11; No. 77, 
charcoal drawing, "Apple branch," Mr. Durian, age 19; No. 78, water color, "Cow," 
Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 79, water color, "Jar," Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 80, 
water color, "Tower," Mr. Durian, age 19; No. 81, water color, "Small vase," Mr. 
Avens, age 11 ; No. 34, water color, "Small vase," Mr. Avens, age 11. 

Bench H. — Nos. 107 and 108, lincrusta mats, technical art department ; No. 97, by 
Mr. Henry, age 11, one month in carpenter's shop. 

Screen I. — No. 74, lion's head, lincrusta decorated blue faience, technical art depart- 
ment; No. 75, lion's head, red faience, technical art department ; No. 93, lion's head, 
oxidized silver, technical art department ; No. 82, portrait of the late Rev. William 
Adams, D. D., late president of the institution, by Alfred Emmons. No. 70, charcoal 
drawings; No. 71, charcoal drawings; No. 72, charcoal drawings; No. 73 charcoal 
drawings. 

Platform I. — No. 84, desk by L. G. Smith, age 19, carpentry department ; No. 85, 
bureau by K. Zorn, age 16, carpentry department; No. 86, bureau by G. Glosque, age 
18, carpentry department; No. 87, desk by P. Butterly, age 18, carpentry department; 
No. 83, frame by R. H. Grant, age 20, carpentry department ; No. 89, frame by G. Wor- 
muth, age 13, carpentry department ; No. 90, frame by G. Wormuth, age 13, carpentry 
department. 

TRESCH, J. F. J.,405 WEST FIFTIETH STKEET, NEW YOJRK CITY. 

Six framed oil paintings ; framed ink sketch ; framed crayon drawing ; 6 wood cuts 
and 3 lithographs in a large frame. 

INSTITUTION FOU THE IMPKOVEl> INSTRUCTION OF DEAF-MUTES, NEW YORK CITY. 

Photograph of building; 7 oilpaintings; 4 pencil dra.wiugs; 5 pen-and-ink sketches ; 
crayon portrait of Longfellow by a former pupil of the institution. 

TENNESSEE SCHOOL FOR DEAF AND DUMB, KNOXVILLE, TENN. 

Framed i^hotograph of buildings. 

MILWAUKEE DAY SCHOOL FOR DEAF CHILDREN, MILWAUKEE, WIS. 

Large framed card with name of school, location, names of oflicers and teacher; 
plan of work and methods employed ; specimens of work of pupils ; publications of 
the Wisconsin Phonological Society. 
X46 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS FOE THE BLIND. 147 

WEST VIRGINIA INSTITUTION FOR DEAF, DUMB, ANB BLIND, ROMNEY, W. VA. 

The exhibit consists of the following articles in a black-walnut case : Half dozen 
brooms; mattress; boy's suit; 2 pairs shoes; 2 speciiriens of lace; knit hood, knit 
jacket, pair stockings ; copies of reports. 

FOREIGN EXHIBITS. 

MACKAY INSTITUTE, MONTREAL, CANADA. 

Two specimens of in-iuting. 

ASSOCIATION FOR THE ORAL INSTRUCTION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB, LONDON. 

(1) Time table for the use of day schools for the deaf and dumb ; (2) specimens of 
pictures used in object and language teaching (20 pictures) ; (3) spelling books, parts 
1 and 2, by Wm. Van Praagh, part 1 illustrated and on boards (16 copies); (4) nu- 
merical table, by Wm. Van Praagh, for the use of deaf and blind children (the deaf 
see, the blind feel the hollows) ; (5) season table, or illustrated almanac, for deaf 
children. 

Papers on the pure oral education of the deaf and dumb : Establishment of day 
schools for the deaf and dumb, by Wm. Van Praagh, 1871 (Triibner); Oral educa- 
tion of deaf and dumb, by Sir George Dasent, Society of Arts, 1872; Education of 
deaf and dumb by means of lip reading and articulation, 1872, and Educational 
treatment of incurably deaf children, 1880, by W. B. Dalby ; Eeport of conference 
held by the Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb at the Inter- 
national Health Exhibition, June 30, 1884 ; on the Oral education of the deaf and 
dumb, by Wm. Van Praagh, and on training colleges, by Wm. Van Praagh. (The 
last two papers are distributed gratis, and any number required can be sent.) Report 
for 1883 of the Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb. 



SCHOOLS FOE THE BLIND. 

AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY, NEW YORK CITY. 

The Bible in 8 bound volumes for the blind. 

BRITISH AND FOREIGN BLIND ASSOCIATION, 33 CAMBRIDGE SQUARE, HYDE PARK, 

LONDON. 

(1) Embossed books, printed and written ; (2) relief maps; (3) stereo plates for 
printing ; (4) frames for embossed writing ; (5) arithmetic board, type for arithmetic 
board; (6) cards for pencil writing ; (7) embossed music. 

INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, COLORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO. 

Two samples of w^orsted mat work ; 2 samples of bead work ; volume of kindergarten 
work. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Twelve books for the blind, selected from the collection in the Bureau library. 

LOUISIANA INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, BATON ROUGE, LA. 

Five brooms; 2 whisk brooms; 2 bead baskets; 3 framed samples of reading for 
the bUnd; examination papers. 

MISSISSIPPI INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, JACKSON, MISS. 

Five samples bead work ; composition ; dress ; flowers in worsted work ; 2 hanging 
bead baskets; pair stockings; 2 tidies; worsted hood; worsted head dress ; 2 cro- 
chetted tidies; "Death of Little Nell," fi-amed. 

NEW YORK INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, NEW YORK CITY. 

Book describing the tangible system of writing and printing literature and music 
for the blind; the same in raised letters; slate and movable type for arithmetic, al- 
•jebra, and harpiony ; tablet for tangible poiut-print writing ; specimen of mat weav- 

14? 



148 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

ing, kindergarten department ; rug, imitation of Turkish ; imitation Smyrna rug ; 
embroidered rug; pair pillow covers made on sewing machine; pair stockings made 
on knitting-machine ; pair silk stockings made on knitting machine ; macrem6 lam- 
brequin, crochetted; cape, crochetted. Specimen of kindergarten work in frame; 
model of hair mattress; cane-seated chair bottom. 

NEW YOKK STATE INSTITUTION TOR THE BLIND, BATAVIA, N. Y. 

Two brifsh brooms ; wax cross ; framed bead wreath ; knitted thread tidy ; knitted 
worsted tidy ; crochetted worsted tidy ; worsted frame tidy ; crochetted lambrequin ; 
crochetted collarette ; macrem6 broom case ; crochetted pansy mat ; knitted mittens ; 
bead iiincushion ; crochetted infant's sacque ; crochetted infant's shoes ; crochetted 
puff mat ; knitted teapot holder ; bead basket ; bead basket of flowers (white; ; bead 
basket of iiowers (colored); bead broom case; bead bird; bead needle case; bead 
satchel; 2 bead wash-bowls and pitchers; bead sofa; bead basket; bead round basket; 
bead pitcher ; bead napkin ring ; bead cradle. 

STATE INSTITUTION FOR DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND, RALEIGH, N. C. 

Thirty-five samples of bead work. 

OHIO INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, COLUMBUS, OHIO. 

CrocTieitintf and hand TcniUinu. — Cradle spread; wall pocket; basket; carriage boots ; 
macrem6 tidy ; 2 knit tidies. 

Bead %vorh. — ^Wreath of flowers ; panel of flowers ; 2 bead baskets ; 2 vases ; churn ; 
basket ; 2 cups and saucers ; 2 watch cases ; satchel ; 2 napkin rings ; waiter and 
set ; bead wreath in frame. 

Machine seirin(j.— Child's dress; lady's apron; doll's apron; uuderbody ; skirt; 
handkerchief case. 

Hand sewing. — Child's apron. 

Kindergarten work. — Seven frames, woven mats ; 5 frames, sewed mats. 

Blocks for instruction in solid geometry. 

CORINTH, MISS. 

Tschudi, Henry (a blind boy 11 years of age). — Two published pieces of instru- 
mental music; .5 unpublished songs; si)ecimens of the above music .as originally 
written in the characters employed by the blind. 



KEFOEM AND mDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS. 

STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, GOLDEN, COLO. 

Two uniforms; 2 pairs shoes; 12 large brooms; 6 small brooms; 4 plans of build- 
ing; 4 framed pictures ; handkerchief; shirt; 2 sacks. 

NORTH BENNET INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. 

Twenty-three x^hotographs of school. 

SOUTH END INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. 

Two designs of boxes ; 2 frames ; sample mortise work. 

STATE REFORM SCHOOL, MERIDEN, CONN. 

■ Framed i)hotograj)h8 of institution. 

MINNESOTA REFORM SCHOOL, SAINT PAUL, MINN. 

Black walniit book-case ; 24 samples of mouldings ; 5 sleds ; wheelbarrow ; 2 wag- 
ons ; rocking horse ; black walnut goblets ; black walnut vase ; black walnut light 
stand ; curtain bracket. 

NEWARK CITY HOME, VERONA, N. J. 

Girls' department. — Uniform of institution ; 1 set fancy goods needle-work 5 X se^ 
toys from smaller children. 

148 



MISCELLANEOUS — SCHOOLS FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED. 149 

Boys' departmeMt. — One set of slioe-brnshes from stoct ; 1 set No. 1 polisher, dirt- 
brnsii, au( L dauber ; I set No. 2 polislier, dirt-brusli, aud dauber ; 1 set ladies' clotli- 
brusbes. 

WISCONSIN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 

Photographs and pnhUcaiions. — General view of school buildings; family building; 
maiu school-room, with pupils; cottage class-room; 2 kindergarteu views; main 
home sewing-room ; cottage sewing-room ; cookiug class ; main home dining-room ; 
laundry-washing; laiindry-ironiug ; bedtime for the little ones; single room for 
older girls; preparing Thanksgiving dinner ; dressing Christmas dolls for the little 
ones ; older girls' picnic on shore of Lake Michigan ; boys of Industrial School fishing 
by water-works; main school-room, empty; full tile annual reports; 50 copies of 9th 
annual report. 

School and kindergarten. — 2 kindergarten scrap-books; 6 kindergarten charts ; "C" 
class examination papers; "B" class examination fjapers; "A" class examination 
papers; mai)s of Wisconsin; miscellaneous maps. 

Industrial department. — Knitted afghan ; knitted skirt ; macrem^ lambrequin ; cro- 
chetted pincushion ; embroidered plush toilet set ; drawn-work towels ; drawn-work 
towels, in colors ; etched tidies ; 2 etched s^^l^shers ; sofa-pillow cover (silk patch- 
work) ; silk mittens; woolen mittens; knitted hose, black silk ; crochetted slippers, 
skirt, and sack; infants' socks, 2 pairs; darned lace bureau cover; 3 darned lace 
tidies; inf8,»t's knit shirt ; crochetted hoods, 1 pink, 1 blue, and crochetted sack; etched 
stand cover; crochetted hoods, 2 white and 1 black; woolen knitted hose, 2 pairs ; 
sachet bags and pen-wiper; crochetted hoods, red and white; beginners' work, cro- 
chetting; crochetted tidy ; table mats; pin balls ; sunflower pen-wiper; hairpin cush- 
ion, hat ; table mats ; crochetted hood, red ; darned lace apron ; Japanese patchwork, 
mats; scrap bags, crochetted ; slop-jar covers, crochetted ; plain sewing, night-dress; 
2 chemises; sheet and j)illow-case ; 2 aprons and drawers; silk and wool hood; silk 
patchwork ; embroidered apron. 

SCHOOLS FOE THE FEEBLE-MINDED. 

KENTUCKY INSTITUTE FOR FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN, FRANKFORT, KY., JOHN Q. A. 
STEWART, M. D., SUPERINTENDENT. 

The articles in this exhibit were manufactured by the inmates of the Kentucky In- 
stitution for the Education and Training of Feeble-Minded Children, located at Frank- 
fort, Ky. They are not exhibited to the public as specimens of expert workmanship, 
but to show that idiots or feeble-minded persons may become self-helpful and useful 
citizens by the methods used in this institution for instructing this helpless class. 
Every article is just as it came from the hands of the boy or girl making it, having 
received instruction in the industrial departments from one to six years. This insti- 
tution is a State charity, and the only one in the South. It is the only one in the 
world where industrial occupations are made a leading feature of instruction. 

Exhibits. — Hammock; press; cutting-table; brooms, large and small; mattresses; 
shoes ; shirts ; shirts, showing laundry work of feeble-minded girls ; coat ; pantaloons ; 
chairs bottomed by feeble-minded children. 

MINNESOTA STATE SCHOOL FOR IDIOTS AND INEBRIATES, FARIBAULT, MINN. 

Two handkerchiefs ; 2 pin-cushions; splasher; hood; shawl; dressing-table cover ; 
school satchel ; holder; 4 doilies; brass pi acque ; head shawl; lambrequin. 

PENNSYLVANIA TRAINING SCHOOL FOR FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN. 
Volume containing 44 photographs of institution. 

AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION. 

ATLANTA UNIVERSITY, ATLANTA, GA. 

Ten sets examination papers; 60 designs in pencil and color; 42 map drawings J 
drawing of buildings; 4 ch^acter sketches ; plat of city of Atlanta ; draft of stairs. 

Industrial work. — Models of stairs, benches, saw-horses, corner bilicket, banister, 
truss, rafter, and roof frame, table, &c.; sheet of saniples of grains and grasses ; case 
of cocoons ; bottles of cocoons, »&c. 

149 



150 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

AVERY INSTITUTE, CHARLESTON, S. C. 

Thirteen sets examination papers. 

Industrial. — Mahogany pen-and-ink rack; satin pincushion; Kensington embroid- 
ery ; 6 child's aprons ; 2 child's dresses ; patchwork quilt. 

BEACH INSTITUTE, SAVANNAH, GA. 

Sixteen sets examination papers ; frame of photographic views, students and Tjuild- 
ings; 18 slates with examination work; 2 frames of slate work. 

FISK UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE, TENN. 

Framed picture of Livingstone Hall; framed picture of Jubilee Hall; 17 map 
drawings; 16 volumes examination papers ; 4 volumes herbariums; album of photo- 
graphs of students ; case chemicals ; photographs of professors and students. 

GREGORY INSTITUTE, WILMINGTON, N. C. 

Fifteen sets examination papers ; 2 sets views. 

Industrial. — Two crochetted collars ; 3 muslin collars, lace trimmed ; 2 macrem^ 
tidies; tidy; patchwork quilt; 4 aprons ; infant's dress ; 2 star mats, crochetted. 

HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, HAMPTON, VA. 

Case photographic views of buildings and students; set harness; samples of men's 
shoes ; gaiters ; felloes and rims of wagon wheels ; tinware ; iron hook and link ; draft 
iron; hammer, &c. 

LE MOYNE INSTITUTE, MEMPHIS, TENN. 

Three volumes examiuation papers: 44 pencil drawings; 2 photographs of views. 
Industrial. — Three child's aprons ; apron; linen handkerchief ; 2 tacked skirts. 

LEWIS NORMAL INSTITUTE, MACON, GA. 

Fourteen sets examination papers ; 12 map drawings. 

Industrial. — Two calico aprons ; pillow-slip; macrem6 lambrequin; motto, worsted ; 
2 sets patchwork blocks ; 2 covered boot-blacking stands ; 2 brackets. 

LEXINGTON NORMAL INSTITUTE. 

Five sets examination papers ; photographic view. 

SANTEE NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL (FOR INDIANS), SANTEE AGENCY, NEBR. 

Reading chart and Bible (native language); volume examination papers; hymn 
book; geography; speller; 3 volumes writing ; volume photographic views. 

Industrial. — Pair mittens; child's skirt ; pillowslip; knit tidy; crazy quilt; model 
of table; work box; truss; squares; joints and tenons; dumb bells; iron hooks; 
chain ; pincers ; hasps ; bolts ; shoes and gaiters ; 4 specimen bricks. 

STORRS SCHOOL, ATLANTA, GA. 

Two sets kindergarten work ; 7 sets examination papers. 

STRAIGHT UNIVERSITY, NEW ORLEANS, LA. 

Thirty-one sets examination papers ; volume drawings ; volume maps ; volume sam- 
ples penmanship; 17 pencil drawings; 70 letters from students; 2 volumes school 
paper, 0?w; volume photographs ; 6 frames photographs ; 4 Kensington paintings ; 2 
oil paintings. 

Industrial. — 14 samples crochetted lace edging; crochetted bag; silk collar; worsted 
tidy ; 2 worsted capes ; worsted shawl ; 2 worsted mats ; Kensington embroidery pin- 
cushion; silk tidy; muslin and lace nurse cap ; silk crochetted pincushion ; 2 thread 
tidies; 3 doilies; 5 muslin aprons; 4 calico aprons; 6 sweeping caps; macrem6 
Bcrap-bag; crochetted baby quilt ; 2 pairs drawers ; gingham apron ; skii't. 

TALLADEGA COLLEGE, TALLADEGA, ALA. 

Seventeen sets examination papers ; 5 sets kindergarten work ; 3 pencilings of build- 
ings; 12 sheets botanical analysis ; photograph of students. 
150 



MISCELLANEOUS BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 151 

Indmfrial. —DoyetaUed boxes; step ladders; gate; mitred pieces; splices; saw- 
horses, &c. ; 2 tidies; Keusiugton outline ; fancy apron ; child's apron; set child's un- 
derclothes ; pincushion. 

TILLOTSON COLLEGIATE AND NORMAL INSTITUTE, AUSTIN, TEX. 

Twenty-one copy books ; set memory maps ; 43 sets examination papers ; framed 
picture of buildings. 

Industrial. — Set pillow shams ; 2 pillow slips ; 3 fancy aprons ; underwaist ; sofa 
sham. 

TOUGALOO UNIVERSITY, TOUGALOO, MISS. 

Fifteen sets examination papers. 

Industrial. — 2 wagon wheels ; case tinware — coffee pots, pails, sprinklers, pans, &c. ; 
patchwork quilt ; 2 knit worsted shawls ; knit baby's sack ; girl's dress ; child's dress ; 
nightdress; pair drawers; man's shirt; 3 tidies; child's dress. 

TRINITY SCHOOL, ATHENS, GA. 

- Eight sets examination papers ; photograjthic view. 

WARNER INSTITUTE, JONESBOROUGH, TENN. 

Three sets examination papers ; set maps. 

Industrial. — Chair tidy;, pair knitted pulse warmers; design crochet edging; 2 
crochet mats; wash rag crochet ; motto, worsted; crochetted chair tidy ; 2 pin cush- 
ions, designs in pins. 

WILMINGTON NORMAL SCHOOL, WILMINGTON, N. C. 

Twelve sets examination papers ; 12 drawings. 

Industrial. — 5 aprons ; b child's aprons ; reform waist and drawers; pair stockings 
reheeled ; pair stockings darned ; child's waist ; child's dress. 



THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAlsr SCHOOLS. 
INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. ^ 

The "Brothers of the Christian Schools" is an order of the Roman Catholic Church, 
whose members devote themselves entirely to education. It originated about two 
hundred years ago, with John Baptist de la Salle, of Rheims, a young priest of splen- 
did talents and high social standing. 

As stated by the founder, the Brothers' object is "to banish ignorance, the source 
of every vice ; " its labors, therefore, are largely devoted to the instruction of the poor. 

La Salle laid his foundation so deep and broad and firm that, after many storms and 
sieges, after some alterations and additions, it is a noble, commanding, and symmet- 
rical structure. 

Established at a period of great intellectual activity, when large commercial inter- 
ests were developing, when the natural sciences were taking a prominent position. 
La Salle framed a curriculum of studies and organized a system of education which met 
the new order of ideas. Exact gradations, simnltaueous rehearsals, object lessons, 
normal schools, polytechnic schools, industrial schools, reformatory schools — all had 
a place in his inventive and capacious mind, and all were realized by his constructive 
genius. 

A careful study of the intellectual world convinced La Salle that the demand for 
classical instruction was more than supplied. He therefore made the vernacular the 
groundwork of his instruction. 

Skilled teachers were his first want. In 1683 he established a seminary for young 
teachers at Rethel, and another at Pai'is,' two years later. These were for secular 

' This sketch has been compiled chiefly from Education for November and December, 1885. 

151 



152 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

teachers. A similar institute for tlie training of young Brothers was fonncled at Van- 
girarcl. 

At St. Yon, near Eonen, La Salle opened a boarding school for the education of the 
sons of the gentry ; and under his comprehensive direction it became, in reality, a 
polytechuic school, embracing in its curriculum history, physical geography, litera- 
ture, rhetoric, the science of accounts, geometry, architecture, natural history, hy- 
drography, mechanics, differential and integral calculus, and cosmography. 

In the Irish Academy, Paris, established to receive the sons of exiled followers of 
James II, Brothers were selected to give these young gentlemen all the instruction 
needed to prepare them for the positions they were destined to occupy. 

In the Sunday School, opened in Paris, 1699, La Salle received young men over 
twenty who had acquired the elements of a primary education ; they were taught 
geography, bookkeeping, architecture, geometry, and dra^ving. A half-hour's re- 
ligious instruction closed the classes. \ 

The combination of technical and literary instruction was realized in the school of 
Rouen, where weaving formed part of the daily exercises. 

The School of Discipline, where wayward sons of wealthy parents were sent for 
reformation, was one of La Salle's most successful institutions. It was established 
at St. Yon. 

La Salle's motto was, "Principles of education are universal; their application 
must be local " ; hence, the Brothers are alive to every change in the poj)ular phase 
of education. They hold to nothing merely because it has the sanction of antiquity. 
They are ready to adojit what stands the test of experience. As a body, conservative 
yet progressive, they are saved from the disastrous effects of individual experimenta- 
tion. 

It is characteristic of the Brothers that wherever special talent is discovered it is 
fostered, encouraged, developed. The purpose is not to turn out a number of coins 
with exactly the same inscription and ornamentation, but rather to study the nature 
of each separate piece of metal and to subject it to such pressure and leave upon it 
such au impress as wo aid best suit its character. 

In the subjoined list will be found specimen work from the various grades of schools 
now established in the United States, the exhibit, with one exception, being exclu- 
sively from this country. It may be taken as representative of what is accomplished 
by a body of trained laborers, working under centralized authority. 

The large and full exhibit made by the Brothers' schools from various parts of the 
country proves that the art element is duly appreciated by this order. 

The exhibit of the colleges may be taken as a continuation of the work begun in 
St. Yon, in the first boarding school. 

De la Salle Institute and the academies are evidence of the adaptability of the 
system to the requirements of commercial life. Saint James' School, Brooklyn, the 
Cathedral, New York, and others are fairly, representative of the parochial schools 
directed by the Brothers. 

The school museums of the Sacred Heart Academy, Westchester (preparatory depart- 
ment of Manhattan College), Buffalo, Yonkers, Syracuse, and Chicopee, are illustra- 
tive of the application of instruction to local industries. 

Drawing, free-hand, mechanical, perspective, and ornamental, is a development in 
the same direction. 

The New York Catholic Protectory, Feehanville Industrial School, and Peekskill 
Farm are repetitions, in part, of the School of Discipline at St. Yon. 

Saint Joseph's Normal College, with its specimens of local herbaria, Avoods, &c., 
realizes the instructions of De la Salle to his first normal scholars. 

The manuals of method, notes of lessons, &c., from Amawalk and Ammendale, give 
views of the detailed methods of procedure. 

The whole exhibit is varied, systematic, complete, suggestive, instructive. 
152 



MISCELLANEOUS BROTPIERS OE THE CHRLSTIAN SCHOOLS. 153 




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153 



154 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. 

About forty of the Brothers' parochial schools contributed exHibits for the Expo- 
sition. We would call attention to the practical character of the work in Christian 
doctrine, apithmetic, mensuration, bookkeeping, geography and map drawing, 
history, grammar, and composition. It illustrates the Brothers' methods. Those 
methods are such as are best calculated to iit youth for business and industrial pur- 
suits. 

Cathedral ScJiool, New York City.— Set of 21 photographs of students and professors 
in album ; Christian doctrine, 1 album, 10 copies ; co-ordination of reading and com- 
position, 3 albums; co-ordinatiou of reading and composition, with photograph op- 
posite each student's work, 1 album, 19 copy-books ; language lessons, 1 album, 8 
copy-books ; miscellaneous class work, 2 albums, 23 copy-books ; arithmetic, 1 album; 
maps, 1 album, 22 specimens; maps and description of rock formations in New 
York State, 1 album, 16 copy-books ; sketches and description of Jeannette expedition, 
containing a portrait of Lieutenant De Long, a map of the route of the expedition, 
and scenes in the Arctic regions, 1 album ; penmanship, 1 album, 26 specimens ; free- 
hand drawing, 2 albums, 50 specimens ; 11 maps and description of the Holy Land, 
accompanied by a short history of the Jewish people in the students' own words. 

Cathedral ScJiool, Philadelphia, Pa.— Grammar, i album, 23 copy-books; miscella- 
neous exercises, 1 album, 15 copy-books ; arithmetic, 1 album, 18 copy-books ; algebra, 
1 album, 22 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 37 copy-books ; penmanship, 2 al- 
bums, 46 copy-books. 

Cathedral and Saint Mary's Schools, Saint Paul, Minn.— Christian doctrine, spelling, 
grammar, composition, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mensuration, natural philoso- 
phy, bookkeeping, and commercial law, 1 album, exercises, 48 examination papers, 
and copy-books; series examination questions, 1 album ; penmanship, 24 copy-books. 

Immaculate Conception Parochial School, Baltimore, Md.— Grammar, arihtmetic, and 
mensuration, 1 album, 18 copy-books; miscellaneous exercises, 1 album, 12 copy- 
books; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 18 copy-books; penmanship, 3 albums, 36 copy- 
books ; free-hand drawing, 1 album, 6 copy-books. 

Immaculate Conception Parochial School, New York City.— Christian doctrine, 2 al- 
bums, 11 copy-books; spelling, punctuation, 3 albums; grammar, arithmetic, and 
algebra, 5 albums, 48 copy-books ; compositions, 1 album ; geography, illustrated by 
maps, 1 album ; bookkeeping, 2 albums, 18 copy-books ; linear drawing, 2 albums. 

St. Ann's Parochial iScftooZ, Philadelphia, Pa.— History and grammar, 1 album, 10 
copy-books; mathematics, 1 album, 16 copy-books; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 36 copy- 
books. 

St. Alphonsus' Parochial School, Baltimore, Md. — Spelling, geography, and arith- 
metic, 1 album, 23 copy-books ; English and German grammar, and ^translations, 1 
album, 22 copy-books; bookkeeping, 2 albums, 30 copy-books; penmanship, 3 al- 
bums, 30 copy-booke. 

St. Bridget's Parochial School, New York City.— Christian doctrine, 1 album, 9 copy- 
books; mensuration, 1 album (specimens) ; penmanship, 2 albums fspecimens) ; linear 
drawing, 2 albums (specimens). 

St. Gabriel's Parochial School, New York City.— Christian doctrine, spelling, pen- 
manship, geography, grammar, history, arithmetic, algebra, mensui-ation, book-keep- 
ing, 1 album, 31 examination papers; compositions, 1 album; bookkeeping, 1 album, 
31 examination papers ; penmanship, 28 copy-books. 

St. James' Parochial and Commercial School, Brooklyn, N. Y. — Spelling, 19 copy- 
books ; miscellaneous class work of 1854, 1855, and 1857, 5 bound Tolumes ; language 
lessons, 1 album, 12 copy-books ; grammar, composition, arithmetic, algebra, type- 
writing, phonography, and bookkeeping, 2 albums; short-hand notes of sermons and 
speeches transcribed in long-hand or on type-writer, 10 copy-books; bookkeeping, 12 
copy-books ; ornamental pen work, 2 copy-books ; writing, 54 copy-books. 

St. James' Parochial School, New York City.— Catechism, 4 albums, 76 copy-books ; 
grammar, arithmetic, and history, 4 albums; algebra, geometry, and mensuration, 1 
album, 5 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 1 album ; linear drawing, 1 album. 

St. John's Paroc/aai/Sc/iooi, Baltimore, Md.— 4 photographs of classes; miscellaneous 
exercises, 1 album, 12 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 18 copy-books ; penman- 
ship, 1 album, 22 copy-books. 

St. John's Parochial School, Syracuse, N. Y. — Grammar and miscellaneous class 
work, 2 albums, 25 copy-books; arithmetic, .32 copy-books; geometry, 1 albijpa 
(specimens) ; 9 historical maps; penmanship, 1 album, 25 copy-books; 1 photograph 
of buildings, students, grounds, &c. 

Museum for object teaching.— Three specimens gypsum, or sulphate of lime, col- 
ored by oxide of iron ; 15 specimens of salt from Syracuae mines ; 73 specimens of 
wood. 

154 



MlSCELLAKEOTTS BROTHEES OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 155 

s 

St. Josejili's Cailwdrdl iSchooI, Uillnlo, N. Y. — 7\.u excellently selected museum of 600 
specimens for object'lessoDS, iucludiug the various iuflnstries of Buffalo. 

St. Joseph's ParocMal School, Chicopee, Mass. — Catecliism, grammar, geography, 
maps, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, 1 album, 12 copy-books; museum, 26 
specimens of cotton, twine, and paper indi^stry. 

St. Joseph's Parochial School, New York City. — Catechism, 1 album, 10 copy-books ; 
miscellaneous class work, 1 album ; grammar, arithmetic, &c., 22 copy-books ; book- 
keeping, 4 copy-books; writing, 35 copy-books. 

St. Mary's Parochial Scliool, Jersej City, N. J. — Miscellaneous exercises,! album, 
12 copy-books ; arithmetic, 1 album of 12 pages ; compositions, 2 albums of 28 pages ; 
bookkeeping, o albums, 36 copy-books ; penmanship, 2 albums, 34 specimens. 

St. Mary's Parochial School, Melrose, N. Y. — Catechism, grammar, arithmetic, and 
geography, 1 album ; German and English exercises, 2 albums ; penmanship, 2 
albums. 

St. Mary's Parochial School, New York City. — Grammar and maps, 2 albums ; arith- 
metic and mensuration, 1 album ; penmanship, 2 albums, 189 specimens. 

St. Mary's ParocMal School, Yonkers, N. Y.— Catechism, grammar, history, arith- 
metic, and algebra, 7 albums,. 73 copy-books; geography^ illustrated by photographs 
and maps, 1 album, 4 copy-books ; penmanship, 1 album, 9 copy-books. 

Museum for object lessons. — Silk industry, 23 specimens; felt industry, 15 speci- 
mens ; carpet industry, 20 specimens. 

St. Michael's Parochial School, West Hoboken, N. J. — Grammar, 1 album; United 
States and Bible history, 2 albums; arithmetic and algebra, 2 albums; mensuration, 
1 album ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 15 copy-books ; writing, 1 album, 50 specimens. 

St. Nicholas's Parocliial School, 'New York City. — Catechism, spelling, arithmetic, 
grammar, algebra, a.nd German, 6 albums, 45 copy-books; English and German writ- 
ing, 2 albums ; linear drawing, 3 albums. 

St. Patrick's Parochial School, Hartford, Conn. — Christian doctrine, composition, 
geography, arithmetic, and algebra, 39 copy-books ; manuscript historical charts, 
kings of England A. D. 1066-1837 ; bookkeeping, 2 albums, 41 copy-books ; writing, 
22 copy-books; photograph and specimens of writing by John Morgan, age 11, a boy 
without fingers ; 54 specimens of wood collected by students. 

St. Patrick's Parochial ScJiool, New York City. — Catechism, grammar, arithmetic, 
algebra, and mensuration, 3 albums ; penmanship and writing, 1 album, 6 copy-books ; 
linear drawing, 2 albums. 

St. Paul's Parochial School, Philadelphia, Pa. — Arithmetic and algebra, 1 album, 
16 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 70 copy-books ; penmanship, 1 album, 20 
copy-books. 

St. Peter's School, Baltimore, Md. — Miscellaneous exercises, 1 album, 8 copy-books; 
arithmetic and algebra, 1 album, 15 copy-books; geometry and mensuration, 1 album, 
20 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 21 copy-books ; linear drawing, 7 copy- 
books, 74 siiecimens ; figure and ornamental drawing, 2 albums, 3 specimens (crayon 
free-hand). 

St. Peter's Parochial School, New York City. — Christian doctrine, 2 albums, 22 copy- 
books ; spelling, 32 copy-books ; coordination of reading and composition, 1 album, 
6 coi)y-books ; compositions, 1 album, 5 copy-books; arithmetic, 2 Albums, 20 copy- 
books ; geometry, 2 albums, 13 coiDy-books ; bookkeeping, 1 album, 10 copy-books ; 
penmanship, 3 albums, 150 specimens ; penmanship, 33 copy-books; linear drawing, 
3 albums. 

St. Peter's Parochial School, Philadelphia, Pa.— Bulletin showing the results of 
monthly coniijetitions, English and German grammar, 2 albums, 24 copy-books ; Eng- 
lish and German compositions, 1 album, 8 copy-books ; arithmetic, algebra, and men- 
suration, 2 albums, 45 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 27 copy-books ; 12 large 
maps, 10 small ones ; English and German writing, 2,044 specimens, for 1880, 1881, and 
1884, and 38 additional copy-books ; linear drawing, 2 albums ; free-hand drawing, 33 
specimens. 

St. Teresa's Parochial School, New York City. — Grammar, arithmetic, and geogra- 
phy, 1 album, 6 copy-books ; maps, 1 album, 21 maps ; writing, 2 albums and copy- 
books, 100 specimens. 

St. Vincent's Parochial School, Baltimore, Md. — Miscellaneous exercises, 1 album, 16 
copy-liooks ; bookkeex^ing, 3 albums, 32 copy-books ; penmanship, 1 album, 6 copy- 
books ; ornamental drawing, 4 books. 

Sundry parochial schools from New York City, Philadelphia, Pa., Newark, N. J., 
Detroit, Mich., and Chicago, 111., sent the following class work for the exhibit : 

Catechism, grammar, geograx:)hy, arithmetic, and mensuration, 17 copy-books; mis- 
cellaneous exercises, 1 album ; bookkeeping, 74 copy-books ; English and German 
writing, 64 copy-books ; linear and free-hand drawing, 4 albums and specimens. 

155 



t 



156 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AND ORPHANAGES. 

Industrial scliools and orphanages are also within the sphere of the Brothers' mis- 
sion. Most noted among these, and the most deserving of the careful study of visitors, 
is the Male Department of the New York Catholic Protectory. This institution was 
incorporated by the legislature of New York in 186;^, and is under a hoard of man- 
agers composed of 24 members, among whom may be mentioned Mr. Henry L. Hoguet, 
president, Mr. Eugene Kelly, treasurer, and the Rt. Rev. Mousignor Qainn, advisory 
chaplain. 

INDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS. 

Neiv York Catholic Protectory, Westchester, N. Y. — Male department (in charge of the 
Brothers of the Christian Schools). — Set of framed photographic views of the build- 
ings, grounds, class rooms, members of the band, music room, drawing class, refectory, 
boys, and Brothers, also of the workshops for- printing, electrotyping, shoemaking, 
tailoring, chair caning, stocking knitting, and silk weaving. 

Christian doctrine,! album; miscellaneous class work, 33 copy-books; bookkeep- 
ing, 12 coY>y-books; penmanship, 2 albums and 25 copy-books; towns and villages in 
Westchester county. New York, 17 maps; ground plan of the Protectory and profile of 
its main sewer ; plans of the Protectory and maps of the United States, 15 specimens ; 
geometrical tracing and linear drawing, 3 albums, 117 specimens ; free-hand figure 
and ornamental drawing, 5 albums, 149 specimens. 

Industrial department. — Wax figure of boy, in glass case, with complete outfit, 
which was manufactured at the Protectory. 

Museum showing all material and processes used in printing and electrotyping, 
and specimens resulting from each process. Sixty-six specimens of job-work done at 
the Protectory for mercantile firms of New York and other cities. Specimen of bird's- 
eye view of the Protectory property printed in six colors. Twelve volumes printed 
at the Protectory. A short sketch of the Protectory from its origin in 1863 to the 
present time. 

Museum of industry in tanning hides, showing the 87 consecutive operations in 
preparing a shoe for market ; 23 i^airs of shoes of all kinds and sizes made in the 
Protectory. 

Museum of chair-caning industry, showing successive operations in caning, and 
specimens of chair seats and backs completely caned. 

Three suits of clothes made at the Protectory, with photographs of the boys who 
made the suits. 

Stocking factory. — Ten pairs fancy colored socks and stockings made with knitting 
machines at the Protectory. 

Four specimens of silks and satins woven at the Protectory. 

Female department (in charge of the Sisters of Charity). — Set of photographic views 
of class-rooms, dormitory, workshops, and girls at work ; wax figure of girl in glass 
case, with complete outfit, manufactured at the Protectory ; 39 specimens of clothing 
in plain and fancy sewing ; table-cloth and lambrequin embroidered with satin in 
flowers, &c. ; one crochetted toilet set. 

Museum of kid-glove industry, showing different stages in manufacture of gloves ; 
6 samples kid skins, assorted colors ; 2 black kid skins, lettered in gilt ; 24 pairs kid 
gloves, assorted sizes ; 1 pair unsewed kid gloves ; 1 stuffed kid. 

St. Mary^s Training School, Feehanville, 111. — Specimens of writing by Indian stu- 
dents, 1 album; 2 lists of names of comrades written by Indians; 4 pairs of shoes and 
2 suits of clothes made by pupils in industrial department ; 2 photographs of 50 Indian 
pupils. 

ORPHANAGES. 

Boman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, St. Joseph's School, Troy, N. Y. — Catechism, ,4 
albums; grammar, &c., 1 album ; writing, 76 coi^y-books ; 28 maps; 1 school museum 
for object lessons ; 153 specimens representing industries of iron, i^aper, cotton, woolen 
manufacture, &c. 

Boman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, Peekskill, N. Y. — Christian doctrine, 4 copy- 
books ; writing, 51 copy-books ; 1 framed photograph of buildings and pupils. 

ACADEMIES. 

Contributions from twelve academies have been sent. These academies are select 
pay-schools in our i)rincipal cities. It will be noticed that the order of work is of a 
higher grade than that of the parochial schools, 
156 



MISCELLANEOUS BEOTHEKS OF THE CHEISTIAN SCHOOLS. 157 

Assumption Academy, Utica, N. Y. — Christian doctrine, 1 album; miscellaneous class- 
Avork, 1 album ; geoj^raphy illustrated by 36 maps, 1 album ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 
12 copy-books; 1 framed set of 8 pbotograplis of buildings, students, and professors; 
1 museum, 17 specimens' cotton-mill industry. 

Christian Brotkers' Academy, Albany, N. Y. — Exorcises in language and composition, 
7 copy-books ; compositions, 2 albums ; arithmetic and algebra, 2 albums, 11 copy-books ; 
geometry, 2 albums, 10 copy-books ; 3 large sheets tracings of buildings — ground plan, 
elevation, &c. 

De la Salle Institute, New York City. — Development of solids, 1 album (by one of 
the Brothers) ; Christian doctrine, 5 albums, 20 copy-books ; exercises in language 
and compositions, 14 albums, 33 copy-books ; rhetoric, 2 albums, 9 copy-books ; English 
literature, 1 album, 5 copy-books; Milton's Paradise Lost, with stereopticon illustra- 
tions, 1 album ; Shakespeare's Richard III, with stereopticon illustrations, 1 album ; 
ancient history classics, 1 album, 4 copy-books; ancient and modern languages, 12 
albums, 57 copy-books; arithmetic and algebra, 4 albums, 16 copy-books; geometry 
and mensuration, 5 albums, 28 copy-books ; trigonometry and surveying, 4 albums, 
22 copy-books; astronomy, 1 album, 3 copy-books; analytical geometry, 1 album, 5 
copy-books ; natural philosophy, 2 albums, 12 copy-books ; chemistry, 2 albums, 6 
copy-books; physics, 1 alburn, 5 copy-books; miscellaneous exercises, 1 album ; book- 
keeping, 6 albums ; business forms and commercial calculations and correspondence, 
&c., 4 albums ; 12 historical maps, with descrii^tions ; maps and description in long- 
and short-hand, 1 album, 7 maps; penmanship, 2 albums, 40 specimens; mechanical 
drawi ng, 5 specimens (framed) ; mechanical drawing, water color, 1 specimen (framed) ; 
linear drawing, 3 albums, 44 specimens ; 2 crayon free-hand drawings (framed) ; 
museums for object lessons; history of a pen, 18 specimens; vegetables, cereals, seeds, 
&c., 31 specimens. 

La Salle Academy, Providence, R. I. — Normal department. — Method of teaching; com- 
position to beginners ; method of teaching oral and written composition ; lectiones, 
method of teaching conversation in the ancient languages, by aid of short-hand ; 
notes on teaching short-hand ; essay, A Christian Education ; poem. The Flag of 
Erin ; 1 set 5 photographs of professors and students. 

Class work by students. — Christian doctrine, 10 copy-books ; essays by students, 10 
papers ; miscellaneous class work, 4 copy-books ; study of words by the use of pho- 
nography, 2 copy-books ; verbatim report in short-hand of testimony of witnesses, 
and charge to the jury by the Hon. C. Matteson, in Anson W. Aldrich vs. Geo. H. 
Slade et ux., and same report deciphered by each student, in long hand, 10 copy-books ; 
bulletin with record of 210, 202, 190, 184, 184, 181, 179, 175, 167, and 167 words per 
minute, by students in phonography; ancient and modern languages, 20 coxjy-books; 
geology, 2 copy-books ; practical surveying, 5 copy-books. 

Manhattan Academy, New York City. — Christian doctrine, grammar, geography, 
rhetoric, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, lihonography, and penmanship, 3 albums 
exercises and examination j)apers ; bookkeeping and mathematics, 4 albums. 

Sacred Heart Academy. Westchester, N. Y. — Ground plan of the academy property; 
Spanish, French, and German exercises; geography and natural philosophy, 2 al- 
bums, 19 copy-books; maps, 2 albums, 74 maps; linear drawing, 5 copy-books, speci- 
mens; museum for object lessons, 6 charts, 120 specimens, representing manufacture 
of lead xiencils, pins, tobacco, felt, &c. 

Sacramento Institute, Sacramento, Cal., and St. Joseph's Academy, Oakland, Cal. — 
Arithmetic, algebra, mensuration, composition, epistolary correspondence, English 
literature, physiology, and physics, 3 albums examination papers; penmanship, 1 
albrnn and specimens ; free-hand drawing, 1 album and specimens. 

St. JosepWs Academy, Calvert Hall, Baltimore, Md. — Grammar and language exer- 
cises, 2 albums, 79 copy-books ; compositions, 2 albums, 47 copy-books ; home work 
of students, 1 album, 24 copy-books ; arithmetic, 1 album, 24 copy-books ; algebra, 1 
album, 30 copy-books; arithmetic and geometry, 1 album, 15 copy-books ; mathemat- 
ics, 1 album, 16 copy-books; phonography, 1' album, 13 copy-books; bookkeeping, 6 
albums, 144 copy-books ; teachers' registers, 1 album, 10 books. 

St. John's Collegiate Institute, Washington, D. C. — Language exercises, mathemat- 
ics, business correspondence, &c., 13 copy-books ; crayon free-hand drawings, 17 speci- 
mens. 

St. Mary's Academy, Troy, N. Y. — Grammar, language exercises, and ancient lan- 
guages, 2 albums ; compositions, 1 album, 6 copy-books; geography, 1 album; arith- 
metic, 1 album; algebra, 4 copy-books; geometry and trigonometry, 3 albums; pho- 
nography, 6 albums; business forms, 1 allium ; penmanship, 1 album. 

St. Patricio's Commercial Academy, Chicago, III. — Two albums with specimen work 
in Christian doctrine, grammar, arithmetic, conamercial bulletin, bookkeeping, pho- 
nography, penmanship, &c. 

i57 



158 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

COLLEGES. 

Eleven of the Brothers' colleges aeut in exhibits. These colleges are all incorpo- 
rated, with full power to confer degrees and academic honors. The work on exhibi- 
tion from some of these institutions shows that a high standard is maintained in Eng- 
lish literature and composition, the ancient and modern languages, the higher math- 
ematics, and the natural sciences. 

COLLEGE OF THE CHRISTIAN BKOTHEKS, SAINT LOUIS, MO. 

Normal department. — Thirty-six academic free-hand crayon studies. 

Essays. — All power from God. Skepticism. Excellence and utility of logic. Theo- 
ries regarding the origin of the world. Divinity of the Church historically proved. 
Dignity of labor. Nature and source of certitude. Mouunieuts of mind. De intel- 
lectu atque ejus dependeutia a ceteris animae poteutiis. Deexistenlia Dei. Anima 
humana immortalis est'. De lingua. Hspl tovtt]^ (pavfjg 'E?i7irjviK7J<: 'Aftw/zarof. 

Natural jthilosophy, 7 copies; bookkeepiug, :? albums, 86 copies; 6 free-hand crayon 
figure drawiugs, framed; 17 free-hand crayon figure drawings, framed; 108 free-hand, 
crayon figure, ornamental, and landscai^e drawings. 

MANHATTAN COLLEGE, NEW YORK CITY. 

Normal department. — Paper from professor showing method followed in teaching 
logic; same, in teaching Latin. 

Class work l)y students. — Evidences of religion, 8 essays (selected from those written 
hy students each mouth on subject treated at instruction) ; notes taken hy students 
during catechetical instruction on evidences of religion (transcribed), 6 copy-bool>s. 

Essays. — Extrinsic evidence not the only source of certitude. Absolute unity an 
impossibility. Pantheism. Nature of the human soul. The existence of God. The 
necessity of a First Cause. The necessity of religion. The supernatural. The possi- 
bility of revelation. Miracles — natural, supernatural. Mesmerism. Prophecy. Ne- 
cessity of revelation. Primitive man not a savage. Existence of revelation. Prehis- 
toric man. Moses and geology. Genuineness of the Pentateuch. Christian marriage 
the conservative element of society. Influence of the Church on the development of 
individual character. Influence of climate on character. Influence of Bacon on sci- 
entific knowledge. Uses of scientific and industrial expositions. Aims in life. The 
existence of a visible Church. The right of suffrage. Arbitration vs. war. The 
early traditions of the human race in proof of monotheism. 

De ente in gonere. De potentia et actu. Discrimen inter ideara entis in genere et 
ideain cutis infiuiti. De possibilitate — interna, externa. De essentia etdeexistentia. 
De principiis quaj a notioue entis dimauant. De communibus entis proprietatibus. 
De substantia. De supposito et de persona. De qualitate. De quantitate. De prin- 
cipiis et causis. De principio causalitatis. De causa finali. De perfectione. De 
oute simplici et coniposito. De ente tiuito et infinito. De pulchro et de ordine. De 
natura animte humause. De natura corporea. 

De recenti naturalisiuo. De absoluta unitate. Nature et origine du pouvoir 
civile. Evolutionism (German). Modern journalism. Immortality of the soul. 

Translations from the ancient authors, 7 classical themes by each of 17 students; 
English classics — L' Allegro, II Penseroso, Gray's Elegy, Pope's Essay, Hamlet, and 
Macbeth — copiously annotated by students, some in short-hand work of students as 
collected from explanations given by professors, 20 copy-books ; extract taken 
from the "Culture of the Spiritual Sense," translated into ancient and modern lan- 
guages, 12 copy-booke (given as a class exercise) ; exercises in scansion (ancient 
and modern languages), 20 copy-books ; mathematics, surveying, navigation, and 
iinalytics, 12 copy-books ; notes taken from lectures on hygiene ; essays in ancient lan- 
guages, 2 papers; exercises in ancient and modern languages, written by the students 
during the months of November and December, showing daily corrections by pro- 
fessors, 40 books; fortnightly essays on various subjects (these essays read before the 
class), 24 papers ; subjects of natural science, showing the ground gone over by the 
students during half scholastic year, 8 essays ; on orations delivered at the musical 
and literary entertainments given by class clubs, 8 essays. 

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, MEMPHIS, TENN. 

Normal department. — India ink sketch of college buildings, by one of the Brothers; 
crayon drawing aftc^r Raphael (fiiimed), by one of the Brothers; set of 12 photographs 
of college building, grounds, professors, students, cornet b^nd, oj'chestra, and musiq 
X58 



MISCELLANEOUS BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 159 

classes ; album of college papers, blank diplomas, honorable mention, testimonial of 
merit, reports, prog'rammes, addresses to graduates and alumni, society memorials ; 
set of 28 anatomical models for instruction in physiology ; scrap book containing 
scraps, essays, chapters, reports, and history of education. 

From its collection of rare books the college exhibits the following : The Pyramids 
of Gizeh, by J. E. Perring, Esq., C. E. ; Syntagma Juris Univetsi atque Legum pene 
omnium Gentium et Rerum Publicarum ; Bible in Latin and German, with, annota- 
tions in Latin and illustrated by old line copper engravings, printed 1751. 

Class work by the students. — Christian doctrine and evidences of religion, 1 album, 
23 examination papers ; language lessons, 3 albums, 53 copy-books, exercises ; rhetoric, 
1 album, 9 copy-books, examination papers ; ancient and modern history, 2 albums, 28 
copy-books, examination papers ; ancient languages, 2 albums, 30 copy-books (ex- 
tracts and translations from authors, with exercises in prose composition and scansion) ; 
weekly composition and literary exercises, 10 albums ; English literature, 2 albums, 
13 copy-books, examination papers, and 12 cojjy-books, exercises supplementary to text 
book ; logic, 1 album, 7 copy-books. 

Essays. — The living energy of the Catholic Church. Literature and the fine arts 
as elements of refinement. iSTational morality. Prosperity of the United States. The 
South. Value of labor. Amusements. The Mississippi Valley. The battle of life. 
Electricity. The Mississippi River. Education. The curiosities of the jjress. The 
resources of the South. The effects of cotton upon civilization. Waste not, want 
not. The improvement of the Mississippi River. The "Taxing district " formerly 
"City of Memphis." Monuments of antiquity. A century of progress. Memphis 
reconstructed. Yesterday and to-morrow. The first strife is half the battle. Road 
to success. The influence of woman. The language of silence. A trifle, yeb a power. 
Vacation experience: Good manners. Hogarth's line of beauty. 

Debates. — " Resolved, that the United States is more indebted to her statesmen than 
to her warriors" ; " Country life is preferable to city life"; "Resolved, that a repub- 
lican form of government is productive of more good than a monarchy." 

Arithmetic, 2 albums, 35 copy-books; natural j)hilo8ophy, 1 album, 11 copy-books; 
chemistry, 2 albums, 36 examination papers; physiology, 2 albums, 30 examination 
papers ; algebra, 3 albums, 48 copy-books ; geometry, 4 albums, 46 copy-books, and 
23 examination papers ; plane and spherical trigonometry, with applications to sur- 
veying and navigation, 4 albums, 34 copy-books; astronomy, 1 album, 3 examination 
papers; analytical geometry and calculus, record of class work, 2 i>apers. 

Bookkeeping, business forms, commercial calculations, cori'espondence, &c., 11 
bound volumes and 59 coi^y-books; ornamental penwork, 11 specimens, including one 
extra large size, illuminated, fourteenth century style, all framed; penmanship, 14 
albums, 1,105 specimens, by students since 1878, also 68 copies and prize penmanshij) 
from preparatory department of students under 13 years of age. 

Crayon free-hand drawing, figures, groups, and landscapes, 34 specimens in frames; 
free-hand crayon and linear drawing, 2 albums, 203 specimens; i^erspective drawing, 

1 album, 21 specimens. 

Museum for object lessons. — Cotton, 48 samples of prize and standard grades from the 
United States, South America, Africa, and British India; 10 samples of processes in 
manufacture of cotton goods from mills ; cotton-seed industry, showing samples of 
seed, hulls, lint, ashes, pearlash, lye, crushed seed, oil cake, meal, crude, lubricating, 
lighting, and cooking oils, and soap — all from cotton seed. 

Specimens of Tennessee woods, marbles, vegetable products, silk, birds' eggs, and 
Louisiana rice ; specimens of all industries, minerals, cereals, &c., systematically ar- 
ranged, 2-* charts, 828 specimens. 

DE LA SALLE COLLEGE, PHILABELPHLA., PA. 

Christian doctrine, 1 album; examination papers, preparatory department, for 
March, 1884 ; language lessons and miscellaneous class work, 7 albums. 

Essays. — Development of electricity. The Church and science. What the future 
may bring. Lights at the electrical exhibition. The political campaign. Be true 
to the dreams of youth. The Papacy vindicated. Growth of juvenile iniquity. The 
Inquisition. History of the Councils of Constance a,nd Basle. The Inquisition as seen ' 
in its true light. Sileut cities. The political outlook. Is the Church an enemy to 
science. False position of materialists. Beer gardens. Franc^ of to-day. France of 
the future. Life and work of Archbishop Wood, Reflections on the " Humanum 
genus." , Charles Reade. 

Ancient and modern languages, 7 albums, 47 copy-books (translations) ; algebra, 3 
albums, 30 copy-books ; geometry, trigonometry, and surveying, 3 albums, 18 copj''- 
books ; mathematics, 3 albums, 37 copy-books ^exercises) ; bookkeeping, 6 albums, 
73 copy-books, and additional album of balance sheets; penmanship, 3 albnras, copy- 
books, and specimens; linear drawing, 10 bound volumes ; crayon free-hand drawing, 

2 albums, .jO specimens; mechanical drawing, plain and water color, 6 albums, 142 
specimens, 

159 



160 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

KOCK HILL COLLEGE, ELLICOTT CITY, MD. 

Normal department.— llistoTj of Eock Hill College, prepared for the Bureau of Edu- 
cation ; prospectus of tlie college ; album of college regulations, rej)orts, and testimo- 
nials ; Philosophy of Literature, a text-book prepared for advanced students, by a 
Brother of the college; Levelopment of English Literature, Old English Period, a 
text- book prepared upon the Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, period of literature, for the 
class in English literature, by a Brother of the college ; Spencer's " Philosophy of 
Style," by a Brother of the college; On Thinking, an address deliveredto the senior 
class, by the president of the college ; Culture of the Spiritual Sense, an address to the 
senior students, by the president of the college ; Psychological Aspects of Education, a 
paper read before the couvocation of the University of New York, June 11, 1877, by the 
professor of English literature. 

Class work iy students. — Explanation of Christian doctrine and evidences of religion, 
1 album, 8 copy-books; Christian ethics, being notes upon Culture of the Spiritual 
Sense, 1 album, 11 copy-books. 

Theses in philosophy. — Ex psychologia. Ex theologia naturali. Ex metaphysica 
generali. 

Language lessons, 3 albums, 31 copy-books, exercises and examination papers ; rhet- 
oric, and ancient and modern history, 9 albums, 87 copy-books ; compositions, 3 al- 
bums, 35 copy-books ; English literature, 2 albums, examination pajiers. 

Students' essays. — (1) Prize essays — Samuel Johnson, his genius and in liuence. 
The Eeuaissance. Pope, his genius and influence. Shakespeare, his historical plays 
and his times. Martin Luther. Mary Tudor. (2) Commencement essays — Csesar- 
ism. Science and no science. Progress of nations. Public opinion. The relations 
of Governments to the Church. Myths in modern science. Contrasts. Godless edu- 
cation. Financial crises. Wycliffe. Organized charities. Life lessons. Education 
vs. instruction. Social and literary prejudices. Joan d' Arc. Prince Gallitzin. France 
and Gambetta. Charles O'Conor. Christianity and society. The third term. Mo- 
rality of literature. Charlatanism. The Chinese and their civilization. Social re- 
form. Idea of liberty in France. Mormonism. (3) Weekly essays — ^junior class: 
Pope's Essay on Criticism ; sophqmore class : The Norman kings of England; class of 
special study : Financial crises ; second preparatory class : Maryland toleration ; pri- 
mai'y class : A letter on home. 

Ancient languages (exercises and translations), 3 albums, 24 copy-books; chemis- 
try, 1 album, 23 copy-books; physics, 2 albums, 25 copy-books; miscellaneous exer- 
cises, 3 albums, 29 copy-books ; algebra, 2 albums, 10 coi^y-books ; geometry, mensura- 
tion, 2 albums, 16, copy-books ; trigonometry, 1 album, 7 copy-books; linear drawing, 
5 albums, 160 specimens ; water-color drawing iuiihade and shadow, 1 album, 25 speci- 
mens ; profile, 13 feet by 4 feet, route of Panama ship-canal ; profile axis of railroad. 

SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, CLAPHAM, LONDON, S. W., ENGLAND. 

Normal department. — Electricity and electrical measurement ; notes on chemistry. 

Class work. — Notes on physics, 1 album ; biology and chemistry, 1 album ; notes on 
mechanics, optics, and heat, 1 album ; notes on electricity and electrical measure- 
ment, 1 album ; notes on algebraical geometrj^ (Todhunter's), straight line and cir- 
cle,, 1 album; problems (Todhunter's Spherical Trigonometry), 1 album; notes on 
Dynamics of a Particle, 1 albuui; practical science work in hydrostatics, hydrody- 
namics, light, and heat, 3 albums; i^robleras from Godfrey's Astronomy, 1 album ; ex- 
perimental determination of the specific resistance of German silver 'wire, 1 album; 
notes on Todhunter's Conic Sections and Addison's Solid Geometry, 1 album ; differen- 
tial and integral calculus (Todhunter's), 1 album. 

SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, BUFFALO, N. Y., SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, NEW OKLEANS, 
LA., AND SAINT MICHAEL'S COLLEGE, SANTA F±, N. MEX. 

One set photograi)hic views from New Mexico; language lessons, 2 albums, 16 
papers; ancient languages, 2 albums, 18 papers, and essay by professor on method of 
teaching same ; i^honography, 12 copies ; algebra, 2 albums, 14 pai^ers ; miscellane- 
ous exercises in mathematics, 3 albuins, 20 copy-books ; geometry and mensuration, 1 
album, 10 papers ; trigonometry, 1 album, exercises ; bookkeeping, 36 copy-books ; 
penmanship, 5 albums, 47 co]>y-books ; museum of grape sugar industry, 13 specimens. 

SACRED HEART COLLEGE AND SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 

Christian doctrine and evidences of religion, 1 album, copies, and 17 examination 
papers; compositions, preparatory department, 52 examination papers. 

Essays. — The Church and science. Toleration. Civil government. The Poiie. De 
urbanitate. De amicitia. De viis ferreis. Jean Baptiste de la Salje, Resourcee of 
160 



MISCELLANEOUS BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 161 

California. ImpArtauce of the International Exijosition. The Pyramids. American 
oratory. Californian scenery. American toryism. The missionary in America. Trials 
of Leo XIII. The Deserted Village. 

Logic, 12 examination papers; algebra, 2 albums, examination papers; geometry 
and mensuration, 2 albums, examination pajiers; plane and sj)herical trigonometry, 
3 albums, 20 examination i)apers ; surveying and astronomy, 5 albums, 36 examina- 
tion papers; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 36 copy-books; penmanship, 1 album ; free-hand 
crayon and mechanical water-color drawings. 

NORMAL DEPARTMENT. 

The contributions to literature, the manuals of methods of instruction and school 
management, the ingenious appliances invented by the Brothers for communicating 
knowledge and for simplifying problems and propositions, as well as the artistic work 
of the normal students, are worthy of the serious attention of educators, as they con- 
vey an idea of the very superior system which the world owes to the venerable J. B. 
de la Salle and his discijiles. It may be a matter of information for some that the 
first normal school that ever existed was established by the founder of the Brothers. 

St.JosepWa Normal College, Amawalk, N. Y. — Portrait of the Ven. J. B. de la Salle, 
founder of the Order of the Brothers of the C^iristian Schools, and portraits of the 
superiors-general since the founding of the Order in 1680. Works by Brothers of the 
normal department : The Life and Work of the Ven. Jean Baptiste de la Salle, founder 
of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, an original study from the archives in the 
Mother House, Paris. The Ven. De la Salle, an appeal to Catholic youth, a smaller 
"Life." The Brothers on the Battle-Field and in the Hospital, 1870-'71. The Chris- 
tian's Duty," by the Ven. J. B. de la Salle ; a new translation, with poetical selections, 
proving the doctrines of Christianity, chiefly selected from non-Catholic sources, to 
which are added foot-notes and questions. Christian Politeness, translated from the 
original of the Ven. J. B. de la Salle, with "Good words" and questions. Meditations 
on the School. School Government ; or. The Brothers. Manual of Methods of Instruc- 
tion and School Management, with an apjiendix on the virtxies and duties of the edu- 
cator. Charts for teaching Grammar. Notes on Teaching, being resam6s of lectures 
on Methods. Hints ; or, how to Teach Reading. How to T'each Geography. Questions 
on Commercial Law and Bookkeeping. Notes on Physiology and the Science of Living. 
Method of Composition for Beginners. Notes on Teaching Short-hand. An Easy 
Method of Learning to Converse in the Ancient Languages by the Aid of Short-hand. A 
Method of Learning Written and Oral Composition, Aided by Short-hand. An Easy 
Method of Teaching Analytical Geometry, Hbw to Teach Moral Philosophy. Electric- 
ity and Electrical Measurement. Notes on Chemistry. Elementary Course in Botany. 
Elementary Course in Agriculture. The Christian Brothers' Series of Penmanship 
Copies. The Christian Brothers' New Series of Readers, especially i^repared to elicit 
thought and facilitate English composition. New Series of Arithmetics, especial ly com- 
X»iled according to the method of teaching in the Order. Introductory Lessonsiu United 
States History. Elements of Logic. American Battles, chronological review of prin- 
cipal engagements, dates, commanders, and victories. Set 14 maps, the world and 
continents ; I commercial planisphere (hand work) ; 2 mute maps for blackboard 
exercise ; 1 map illustrating courses taken by African exijlorers from Mungo Park, 
1795, to Serpa Pinto, in 1879 (hand work) ; 10 atlases for geographical exercises. Se- 
ries of manuals for teaching geography ; 1 diagram for illustrating the jioints of the 
compass ; 1 maj) of Europe, showing extent of mineral products, industries, and com- 
merce. 6 hypsometrical casts, ideal and local, submersible. Designs in wood for 
drawing from nature various styles of mortises, general ideas of carpentry, etc. Se- 
ries of conic sections in zinc for class talks and sense analysis XJrevious to the studyof 
text ; also for use in crayon and stub drawing from nature. Light i^asteboard skele- 
tons on which to attach any desired design or model. Set of ijlaster casts for teaching 
drawing, design, and construction, consisting of 220 casts of the orders of architect- 
ure, buildings, culverts, arches, vases, ornamental work, etc. 1 set 60 charts for 
instruction in linear drawing. 1 set 38 charts for instruction in free-hand drawing. 
2 sets of movable pasteboard projections for illustration of geometrical principles. 
Safe for pens and holders of pupils. 

Herbaria, 7 volumes, over 3,000. specimens, collected by professors and students. 
Collection of drawings from nature and the flat, the result of year's work (by stu- 
dents of the normal college). Essays. 

Series of drawing copies for linear drawing, geometi'ical tracing, persiiective draw- 
ing, ornamental drawing, figure, animal, and landscape drawing, shades and shadows. 
Sixty specimens of woods from Westchester county. New York, in which normal 
school is situated (collected by Brother professor of natural science and his junior 

7950 COT 11 161 



162 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION 

students in class walks). Plans, detailed, of normal college grounds and viciuitji 
(prepared and designed by junior normal students). Specimens of ornamental pen- 
work, maps, and sketching (by professor of penmanship in normal college). 

Ammendale Institute, Ammendale, Md. — Philosophy of Literature, Development of 
English Literature, Spencer's Philosophy of Style, On Thinking, Culture of the 
Spiritual Sense, Psychological Aspects of Education, by Brothers of the normal de- 
partment. Projections of solids in relief by means of wire and silk threads, 24 models. 
Linear drawing, 9 albums, 36 copy-books; free-hand crayon drawing, 3 albums, 12 
copy-books; ornamental drawing, 1 album, 19 copy-books ; shades, shadows, and pro- 
jections, in water color, 24 specimens ; plans and miscellaneous exercises, 2-28 speci- 
mens. 

FEBED MAN'S AID SOCIETY, METHODIST EPISCOPAL 

CHUECH. 

Bishop J. M. Walden, LL. D., President. 

Rev. R. S. Rust, LL. D., Corresponding Secretary. 

Rev. J. C. Hartzell, D. D., Assistant Corresiionding Secretary. 

Rev. Eakl Ckanston, D. D., Treasurer. 

Rev. a. F. Hoyt, A. M., S. T. B., Superintendent of Exhibit. 

Annual reports of F. A. S. from 1867 to 1879, bound volume; annual report of F. A. 
S. for 1884. 

Andrews Collegiate Institute, Andrews Institute, Ala. — Examination papers (selected) 
in algebra, arithmetic, English grammar, physics, and physiology. 

Baldivin Seminar y, Baldwin, La. — Maps (water colors) of Central America and West 
Indies, Canada, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, California, and Nevada. Exam- 
ination papers (selected) in geography, U. S. history, arithmetic, and English gram- 
mar. Technical work in photography and printing, samples. 

Bennett Seminary, Greensboro', N. C. — Examination papers (entire class) in Latin 
(beginning), geometry, geography. Anabasis, ancient history, algebra, Latin, and his- 
tory; examination papers (selected) in English grammar and arithmetic. 

Br oicn Seminary, Leicester, N. C. — Miscellaneous examination papers in grammar, 
arithmetic, and natural philosophy. 

Cent67iary Bihlical Institute, Baltimore, Md. — One catalogue, 1884-'85; examination 
j)a]5ers (selected) in orthography, arithmetic, grammar, and geography ; (entire class) 
in algebra and geometry, Latiu, algebra, natural science, and history ; geography (two 
classes), history (two classes), grammar (four classes), arithmetic (two classes), and 
orthography (two classes). 

Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenn. — Examination papers in Caesar, Anabasis, 
geometry (two classes), algebra (two classes), arithmetic (two classes), "grammar, 
orthography aud penmanship, Latin reader, physiology, natural history, and U. S. 
history; ]3hotographs — college hall, grouy* of students and teachers, and school build- 
ing ; two pillow-shams. 

Meharry Medical Department.— Catalogues, 1884; photograph of Meharry Medical 
College building, photograph of graduate class; examination papers in theory and 
practice, obstetrics, practice in medicine, surgery, anatomy, chemistry, physiology, 
and materia medica. 

The exhibit of the industrial department consisted of 16 white aprons, with edg- 
ing ; also 5 fancy aprons, with edging ; 14 models, specimens carpentry work ; 11 
specimens plain and fine darning and patching ; 1 jiair knit woolen stockings ; 1 
patch-work quilt ; 3 figured holders ; 1 pair crochetted wristlets ; 2 specimens C. T. 
C. Record ; 1 initial- worked towel ; 4 crochetted lamp mats ; 1 crochetted child's sack ; 
1 crochetted cap; 1 pair embroidered x'tillow shams; 1 tidy, macrem(5 lace- work ; 2 
fancy collars, vv^ith edging ; 1 crochetted thread collar; 1 wood engraving, a group of 
college buildings ; 1 photograph, group of industrial class ; 2 x^hotographs, group of 
medical graduating class ; 3 frames of collected pictures of medical graduating class ; 
1 photograph. Dr. McKinley ; 1 specimen compositiou and press work ; examination 
Xiapers (entire class) ia algebra, geometry, and grammar (four), arithmetic, orthogra- 
phy, Latiu, aud Greek. 

Clajlin University, Orangeburg, S. C. — Catalogue 1883-'84; the specimens of techni- 
cal and industrial work exhibited were as follows : hand bag ; five collets croch6s ; em- 
broidered pocket ; embroidered tidy ; hand-painted palette ; table mat iu crochet work ; 
tidy-worked design; pair of slii^xiers; thermometer holder, embroidered; bedstead 
model, wood-work ; Avriting desk, wood-work ; what-not model, wood-work ; panel 
door model, wood-work ; double screen blind for door, wood-work ; oil ijaiuting, ocean 
scene ; examination papers (entire class) in Greek (Herodotus), Latin (Horace, Odes), 
Latin (Cicero against Catiline), and Latin (Horace, Satires and Epistles) ; class 801 
162 



MISCELLANEOUS FKEEDMAN'S AID SOCIETY. 163 

in grammar, orthography, arithmetic, geography, chemistry, natural philosophy, alge- 
bra, physiology, Greek (beginning), rhetoric (entire class), Greek (Anabasis), and 
Greek (Iliad). 

ClarJc University, Atlanta, Ga. — Catalogue 1884 ; special papers (selected) : composi- 
tions (two classes), hills of lumber for students' building designs, and penmanship; 
examination papers (entire class) in history, Latin (Virgil), natural science, literature 
(four classes), grammar, Greek (Plato's Apology), geometry, Greek lessons, and arith- 
metic ; examination papers (selected) in grammar (two classes) ; the technical and 
industrial work exhibited consisted of the college journal, priuted by the students ; 
carpenter work, 24 specimens ; front elevation of house, 5 pencil designs j ground 
plan of house, 4 pencil designs ; ground plan of stable, pencil design; front elevation 
of stable, pencil design ; 6 photographs (by students), house and school buildings; 2 
photographs (by students), groups ; 4 pieces of female under-clo+hing. 

Cookman Institute, Jacksonville, Fla. — Examination papers (selected) in arithmetic 
(two classes) and geograi^hy ; special papers (specireiens) in iienmanship. 

East Tennessee Wesleyan tfniversity , Athens, Tenn. — Annual catalogue, 1883-'84 ; spe- 
cial papers (orations, essays, and sermons) ; specimens of commeuceme'Qfc and society 
programs; specimens of business and ornamental penmanship; examination papers 
in Latin (selected) : Horace (Odes), ^neid, and Lessons ; examination papers in Greek 
(entire class) : Odyssey and Lessons; examination papers in Greek (class 801): De 
Corona, Iliad, and Plato's Apology ; examination papers in English grammar (two 
classes), rhetoric, Latin (De Bello Gallico and De Natura Deorum), geology. Chris- 
tian ethics, physical geography, geometry, algebra, trigonometry, and mechanics. 

Ellijay Seminary, Ellijay, Ga. — Examination papers (selected) in Latin, arithmetic, 
grammar, and geography. 

Gilbei-t Seminary, Winsted, La. — Special papers: Map of Louisiana and Arkansas; 
essays ; two maps of Mexico and map of North America; examination papers (miscel- 
laneous) in algebra, Greek, and Latin.' 

Holston Seminary, New Market, Tenn. — Examination papers (entire class) in gram- 
mar, natural philosophy, Latin, and navigation. 

Houston Seminary, Houston, Tex:. — Annual catalogue, 1883-'84 ; examination papers 
(selected) in physiology and geography; examination papers (entire class) in United 
States history, arithmetic, grammar, and household economy. 

Kiwjsley Seminary, Bloomingdale, Tenn. — Annual catalogue, 1883-'84 ; specimen of 
penmanship. 

La Grange Seminary, La Grange, Ga. — Examination papers in United States history ; 
examination papers (entire class) in grammar (two classes), arithmetic, and natural 
philosophy; examination papers (selected) in natural philosophy; special papers 
(maps). 

Little RogJc University'^ Little Rock, Ark. — Examination papers (entire class), in Latin 
lessons (first and second years), Caisar, and Latin (junior year) ; examination papers 
(entire class) in Greek (Anabasis, freshman year), physiology, trigonometry, algebra, 
(two classes), English literature, rhetoric, arithmetic (two classes), and German 
(sophomore year) ; special papers (selected) : essays (junior college) and German 
penmanship) ; two maps; specimens in botany (two entire classes). 

Morristown Seminary, Morristown, Tenn. — Examination papers (entire class) in 
arithmetic, grammar, geography; examination papers (selected) in arithmetic. 

Mount Zion Seminary, Mount Zion, Ga. — Ground plan of seminary; three maps; 
examination papers in arithmetic, geography, grammar,, and history. 

New Orleans University, New Orleans, La. — Annual catalogues, 1882, '83, '84 ; oration ; 
compositions (entire class) ; examination x^apers (selected) in arithmetic (three classes), 
and in English grammar (two classes). 

Philander Smith College, Little Rock, Ark. — Examination papers (selected) in alge- 
bra, arithmetic, and Greek ; examination papers (entire class) in physiology ; maps. 

Bust University, Holly Springs, Miss.— Annual catalogue, 1883-'84; portrait of R. S. 
Rust; photograph of buildings; students' x>aper, The Enterprise, sample; examination 
papers (entire class) in natural science, English composition, rhetoric, English gram- 
mar, geometry, algebra, and Greek ; examination papers (selected) in bookkeeping, 
natural science, and general history ; six drawing books (school work) ; majj drawing 
from memory ; penmanship. 

Texas Wesleyan College, Fort Worth, Tex. — Pencil drawing, mountain goats ; crayon 
drawing, rural scene; drawing of fruit in pencil; maps: Middle States, with two 
pencil drawings, Southern States with pencil drawing, Europe with four pencil 
drawings, United States with two pencil drawings, Asia with two pencil di'awings, 
Africa with two pencil drawings, Indian Territory with one pencil drawing, and New 
Enghmd States with one pencil drawing. 

Wiley University, Marshall, Tex.— Annual catalogue, 1883-'84 ; examination papers 
(entire class) in physical geography, Latin lessons, mental arithmetic, and geography ; 
select orations ; essays ; map drawing. 

163 



164 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

DEPARTMENT OF COLORED EXHIBITS. 

James J. Spelman, Superintendent. 

EXHIBITORS. 

^{^(jrmia,— Eiclimond Normal School, Eichmond. 

Tennessee. — Tennessee Central College, Nashville. 

Kentucky. — State University, normal and theological, Louisville. 

North Carolina. — Biddle University, Charlotte. 

South Carolina. — Schofield School, Aiken ; Morris Street School, Charleston. 

Alabama. — Cuba Street School, Mobile ; Tuskegee Normal School. 

Arkansas. — Union High School," Little Kock; Arsenal High School, Little Rock; 
and public schools. 

Ohio. — Wilberforce University, Xenia ; public schools of Gallipolis. 

District of Columbia. — Sumner, John F. Cook, Lincoln, Stevens, Anthony, Boweu, 
Chamberlain, and Miner Schools, Washington. 

Indiana. — Governor, Independence, and Clark Street schools, Evansville ; public 
schools, Indianapolis. 

New Jersey. — Mt. Vernon School, Camden. 

Neio Forfc. ^Public school, New York City ; Public School No. 1, Brooklyn. 

Michigan. — Mason High School, Mason. 

Lauiaiana. — Leland University, New Orleans. 



164 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS. 



ENGLAND. 



Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dunib, 11 Fitzroy Square, London, 
England (see page 147). 

Birmingham School Board, England. — 10 volumes of manuscripts of examinations; 1 
box illustrating the teaching of magnetism ; 4 drawing folios ; 1 kindergarten folio : 
1 map folio; 1 domestic economy folio; 1 box of kindergarten speciniens; 1 lot of 
selected specimens of papers on mechanics; 1 picture of science department; needle- 
work ; mariner's compass, by Gr. E. Seymour ; levers, by I. H. Smith ; wheels and 
cord, by B. Alvey ; inclined plane, by E. Crookes; Chinese windlass, by E. Crookes; 
to change motions, by Alfred Dowler ; pile engine, by Alfred Dowler ; mariner's com- 
pass, by John Hadley ; windlass, by Samuel Hirst ; force of gravity, by F. Llewellyn ; 
inclined plane, by C. Waters; to change circular motions, by W. E. Adams; 1 lot 
of mechanical diagrams; model of Foundry Eoad School. 

British and Foreign Blind Association, Cambridge Square, Hyde Park, London. — 
Nordenfelt, Th., 53 Parliament street, London, S. W., England— school gymnasium on 
the Swedish (Ling) system. 

Biggs, James, 11 Queen Victoria street, London, E. C, England. — Mechanical mod- 
els, as follows: 

Subject II: Machine construction — single-riveted lap-joint; single-riveted butt- 
joint; double-riveted lap-joint ; 12 examples of bolts and board for same ; 4 cast-iron 
plates, etc.; junction of cast-iron plates; corner of cast- iron tank; knuckle-joint; 
proportions of cotters; gib and cotters; hydraulic joint; wrought-irou crank-shaft; 
half-lap coupling; disengaging coupling; wall-plate with pedestal; wall-plate and 
bracket; bracket bearing; wall box for supporting pedestals; foot-step bearing; 
stepped speed cone ; ordinary strap-pulley ; wrought-iron hook for 6-ton crane ; 
wrought-iron hook for 2-ton crane; plate link-chain ; hand lever, treadle lever ; winch 
handle; wrought-iron crank ; craftk-pin and shaft-joui'ual ; cast-iron crank and crank- 
pin ; disk crank and pin ; strap connecting-rod end ; box connecting-rod end ; coup- 
ling-rod joint; forked connecting-rod end; wrought-iron slide bars; cylinder cover, 
gland, and stuffing-box; air-pump valve; lift or puppet valve; engine slide-valve; 
gas plug-tap. 

Subject III : Building construction — kiug post ; trussed partition ; trussed timber 
beam; iron-roof principle (3 models). 

Subject VI : Theoretical mechanics — Professor Willis's arrangement of the mechan- 
ical powers, including three small iron tripods; skew bevels; 3 eccentric and elliptic 
tooth wheels ; mangle wheel reciprocating motion ; double rack reciprocating mo- 
tion; 2 spur wheels of wood; worm wheel and worm; eccentric pen and slit bar ; 
Eoberts' slow motion ; screw returning into itself ; Whitworth's quick-return motion ; 
triple tooth rack ; wrapping contact ; hooj) and pin wheel ; transmission of axial mo- 
tion; 2 parallel axes; Boehm's motion; rotary or oscillatory motions; oscillations 
multiplied; alternate intermittent motion; silent click; variable link work. 

Subject XXII: Steam — compound steam-engine; steam-engine; reversing gear; 5 
parallel motions. 

Both, Dr. M., 48 Wimpole street, Cavendish Square, W. London.— (1) A large table of 
elementary positions and exercises according to Ling's system, for the development of 
the various parts of the body; (2) models and patterns of hygienic dress, shoes and 
boots, stays, stockings, etc.; (3) model showing three different school ventilators; 
(4) drawing of a Eussian bath, including the apjjlication of steam, and cold and warm 
water in various forms ; (5) diagrams of bad positions during the time of education, 
causing lateral curvature and other complaints; (6) diagrams of bad positions while 
v,friting; (7) models of hygienic school benches and chairs, permitting the student to 
lean comfortably during his occupations in school ; (8) means for the physical educa- 
tion of the senses. 

Sheffield School Board Central Schools. — Wood and iron work made by boys from 13 
to 16 years of age. 

Mechanical drawings by day and evening scholars. 

- 165 



166 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 



JAMAICA. 

SELECTED SPECIMENS. 

16 sets of scholars' work in copy-books, dictation, and arithmetic (under prescribed 
conditions), from the following schools:' Belvedere (1st prize), Spanish Town Model 
School (2d prize), Wesley (3d prize), Friendship (1st prize, copy-book work alone), 
Duncans (2d prize, copy-book work alone, 1st prize, dictation -alone), New Bethle- 
hem (2d prize, dictation alone, 1st prize, arithmetic alone), Retreat (2d prize, arith- 
metic alone), Barry Street, Kettering, Elletson, Port Eoyal (Wesley an), Mizpah, 
Yallahs (Baptist), Moore Town, Mico, and Campbell's Castle. 

6 sets of maps from j)upil8 of the following schools: Belvedere (prize), Spanish 
Town Model School, Kettering, Mico, Friendship, New Bethlehem. 

13 sets of sewing (under prescribed conditions) by pupils of the following schools: 
Dry River (Ist prize). Retirement (2d prize), Alligator Pond, Port Royal (Wesleyan), 
Belvedere, Kettering, New Hope, Wesley, Snowden, Campbell's. Castle, Yallahs (Bap- 
tist), Mizpah, and Friendship. 

7 sets samples of fancy work by pupils of the following schools: St. Martins (did 
not compete for prize), Mount Horeb (prize), Duncans, Friendship, Mizpah, Spanish 
Town Model School, Alligator Pond. 

11 sets of time-table and extracts from logbook of each of the following schools: 
Retreat (1st prize), Kettering (2d prize), Friendship, Moore Town, Wesley, Spanish 
Town Model School, Belvedere, Duncans, Mount Ward, Elletson, Port Royal (Wes- 
leyan). 

4«ets elementary school reports (1882-'83), 12 sets official documents and forms,- 12 
sets circular^ and instructions respecting the exhibits, statistical exhibits respecting 
shilling reading clubs and school reading clubs, established by Assistant Inspector 
Hicks. 

JAPAN.2 

INTRODUCTION. 

The following catalogue, with explanatory notes on the more important articles, is 
published in the hope that it may be of use to visitors as a reference. 

The official communication from the United States Government, requesting the 
Japanese Government to participate in the International, Industrial, and Cotton Cen- 
tennial Exhibition, to be opened in New Orleans, jLa., in December of the present 
year, and especially an urgent request from the Bureau of Education of the Depart- 
ment of the Interior in regard to educational exhibits from this country, were only 
received by the Education Department in August. Though we have made stren- 
uous efforts to prepare as many specimens as possible, so as to meet the request of the 
United States Government, yet the time allowed (the exhibits were shipped on No- 
vember 26) was too short to enable us to make a complete collection. Especially it 
is to be regretted that during the months of August and September, almost all schools 
are closed for the summer vacation, so that very few schools have been able to accept 
the invitation of this Department ; and most of the exhibits sent by these schools are 
incomplete, owing to the want of time. 

There are many schools established by other Government Departments, but as they 
are not under the control of this Department, no exhibits are sent from them. 

It is to be remarked here that articles that are not attractive in appearance, and 
are simple and rude in construction, have been left in their original state, and have 
not been specially prepared for this exhibition. As regards articles the use of which 
may not easily be understood by visitors, short explanatory notes are placed on the 
labels accompanying them ; and as to the work of students or pupils, their names and 
those of their schools are appended ; while in the case of elementary schools, the age 
of pupils is also added, so that visitors may be able to compare and appreciate the 
value of the various exhibits. 

' Work of 5 classes (II to VI) from each school, 3 scholars from each class. 

* The following list was originally prepared nnder the direction of the Japanese Commissioner for the 
use of visitors at the Exposition. 
166 * 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 167 

VisitoTS are especially requested to understand that tlie articles here exhibited are 
not intended to give full information in regard to our edncational system, and, there- 
fore, those who are desirous of obtaining further information are referred to another 
publication, " General outline of education in Japan," which has been compiled and 
printed in order to give general information regarding our educational system. 

ICHIZO HATTORI, 

* Commissioner. 

By order of the Minister of Education. 

EXHIBITS. 

JCighth group — EducatUmal and Teclimcal Insirnmemts, Apparatus, and Metliods 

CLASS DCCCI. — HOME EDUCATION AND KINDRRGAKTEN. 

Nos. 1-3, children's toys, 3 cases. These are "instructive toys." The bows and ar- 
rows, rifles, and tops are used by boys; the shuttlecocks and battledores, hand-balls, 
and kitchen utensils, by girls. They are sometimes used for instruction in village 
schools. No. 4, cards, k^ugoroku and Musashi, 8 kinds. Among the cai'ds, those called 
Ufcakaruta (cards on which parts of verses are written) are a collection of one hun- 
dred pieces of ancient poetry, by means of which the art of versifioatioii is taught. I- 
ro-ha-tato-hi-karuta (alphabetical cards) are a collection of old Japanese parables, 
beginning with i-ro-ha (Japanese syllabary). They are used to teach the syllabary 
at the same time as they inculcate moral maxims. . Natural history cards (Tango- 
Musashi), a kind of checkers, are used for teaching the forms and names of animals 
and other objects. Sugoroku (a kind of backgammon) are used by both boys and 
girls, but the varieties now exhibited are used by girls. They teach them' about 
women celebrated for virtue and noble qualities, etc. No. 5, kinds of pictures', 2 
books. No. 6, fancy papers, 1 book. These are used to decorate boxes, etc., or are 
made into envelopes and other wrappers. No. 7, ornamental box, and wrappers man- 
ufactured from fancy papers, together with objects enclosed, 1 case. The folded ob- 
jects in the bos are forms of animals and tools, made by cutting and folding the paiier. 
Those in the box covered with glass are models showing the manner in which children 
are taught to make such objects at home. These objects develop the inventive faculty 
of children and conduce to manual dexterity. 

Kindergarten. — Kindergarten have only lately been established in Japan, and con- 
sequently there are as yet only a few such schools. Many of them form the infant 
departments of elementary schools. Only those Kindergarten which exhibit speci- 
mens in the present exhibition are here mentioned. 

No. 8, regulations of the Kindergarten attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 
English translation. No. 9, Kindergarten toys, 1 basket. These toys (No. 9) are used 
to develop the mental and ijhysical faculties of the children of the Kindergarten and 
Female Elementary School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School. No. 10, 
picture showing the children and the pupils of the Female Elementary School .attached 
to the Tokio Female Normal School, at play, 1. No. 11, Kindergarten gifts, cases Nos. 
1 and 2. These (No. 11) are such selections of teachers' gifts as are found suitable to 
Japanese children. They are used in the above-meutioned Kindergarten. Nos. 12-13, 
rnled blackboards, Nos. 1 and 2. These boards, used in the guiding room of the Kin- 
dergarten attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, are hung on the wall near the 
conductor's seat; upon them block laying, plank laying, stick laying, and line draw- 
ing are done. The full-sized boards are 12| shaku (1 shaku is equal to about 1 foot) 
long and 4 shaku wide. The lines on the models exhibited are, however, of full size. 
No. 14, moral story charts, 2 sheets ; Nos. 1 and 2. These charts (No. 14), made by the 
Tokio Female Normal School, are intended to illustrate certain moral stories told to the 
children in the Kindergarten. Chart No. 1 is the picture of a boy named Mankichi, 
aged 12, a native of the province of Ise, who supported his aged mother on the little 
money he earned by carrying travelers' baggage. Chart No. 2 is the picture of a 
cunning Suzeme (a common bird in Japan), which, having taken possession of a 
sparrow's nest, was by the latter walled up with mud, and so perished miserably.. 
There are many other such charts used in the Kindergarten, although these two speci- 
mens only are exhibited. No. 1.5, book on Kindergarten games, 1 vol. ; No. 16, diagrams 
of Kindergarten gifts, 9 packages ; No. 17, specimens of Kindergarten toys, 4 pack- 
ages ; No. 18, book on Kindergarten, 3 vols, Nos. 15 and 18 explain the method of 
guiding and the use of the various "gifts." They serve as reference books for the 
conductors of the Kindergarten attached to the Tokio Female Normal School. No. 
19, work by the infants of the Kindergarten attached to the Tokio Female Normal 

167 



168 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

School, 1 group. No. 20, ditto, 1 case. Nos. 19 and 20 were made by the Kindergarten 
cliildreu.i No. 21, pea work, 1 case. No. 22, straw work, 11 cases. No. 23, paper 
weaving, paper folding, and paper plaiting, 1 book. No. 24, paper sewing, paper cut- 
ting, and paper i)erforating, 1 book. Nos. 21-24 were done by the infants of the 
Kindergarten attached to the Koto Public Elementary School at Honjio, Tokio. No. 
25, work by Kindergarten children, I book. No. 26, weaving by Kindergarten children, 
1 case. Nos. 25 and 26 were done by the children of the private Kindergarten in Ushi- 
gome, Tokio. No. 27, work by the children of the Gumba-ken Kindergarten, 1 book. 
No. 28, ditto, 1 book. Nos. 27 and 28 were done by the children of the Kindergarten 
established by the Gumba-ken at Mayebashi, Higashi, Gumbagari, Kozuke Gumba-ken. 

Elementary schools. — In former times chairs were not used in our schools, but the 
pupils sat on the floor before short-legged tables. These, being both inconvenient and 
unhealthy, have now been replaced by chairs and tables. Other school furniture, 
apparatus, &c., have also undergone radical changes. The programme of elemenxiiry 
schools, consisting formerly of moral lessons, reading, writing, and sometimes arith- 
metic, has been enlarged by the addition of such subjects as elementary geography, 
history, physics, chemistry, and natural history. Consequently, many new books 
have been compiled and models manufactured. The few specimens following may 
give some idea of the work done : 

No. 29, photograph of the Elementary School attached to the Tokio Normal School, 
1 copy. No. 30, photograph of the Yokohama Public Elementary School, Kanagawa- 
ken, 1 copy. No. 31, pbotograpli of the Oimatsu Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 
1 coi^y. No. 32, ]3hotograph of the Kashiwagi Public Elementary School, Hakodate- 
ken, 1 copy. No. 33, ground plans of the Nananoye and Ainuma Public Elementary 
Schools, Hakodate-ken, 1 book. No. 34, ground plan of the Mita Public Elementary 
School, Tokio, 1 vol. No. 35, ground plan of the Meiji Public Elementary School, 
Tokio, 1 vol. No. 36, photograph of the Meiji Public Elementary School, Tokio, 2 
copies. No. 37, architecture of Elementary Schools, Miyagi-ken. No. 38, ground plan 
of the Annaka Public Elementary School, Gumma-ken, 1 vol. No. 39, model of the 
Kamiyama Public Elementary School, Gumma-ken, 1 ; made by Tskazawa Seitaro, 
.one of the school committee of the Kami Satomi village, in the Usuigori in the prov- 
ince of Kozuke (Gumma-ken). He is said to exert himself for encouraging education 
among the children of his village. No. 40, ground plan of the Matsuzaka Public 
Elementary School, Miye-ken, 1 vol. No. 41, ground plan of the Yo-sei Public Ele- 
mentary School, Miye-ken, 1 vol. No. 42, photograph of the Kaichi Public Elementary 
School, Nagano-ken, 1 book. No. 43, ground plan of the Kaichi Public Elementary 
School, Nagano-ken, 1 vol. No. 44, ground plan of the Takashima Elementary School, 
Gagano-ken, 1 vol. No. 45, ground plan of the Takuki Public Elementary School, 
Shiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 46, ground i^lan of the Senda Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 
1 vol. No. 47, ground plan of the Tsurucats Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 vol. 
No. 48, ground plan of the Seirio Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 49, photo- 
graph of the Seirio Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 copy. No. 50, photograph of the 
Nissin Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 copy. No. 51, ground plan of the Tanabe 
Elementary School, Aomori-ken, 2. 

No. 52, regulations of the Elementary School attached to the Tokio Normal Schoe'i. 
(Japanese), 1 vol. No. 53, ditto (English), 1 vol. No. 54, regulations of the Femaie 
Elementary School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School (Japanese), 1 vol. 
No. 55, regulations of the Female Elementary School attached to the Tokio Female 
Normal School (English), 1 vol. No. 56, the course of study of the Hiogo-ken Ele- 
mentary School, 1 vol. No. 57, the course of study of the Yamanashi-ken Female 
Elementary School, 1 vol. No. 58, desks and chairs used in the Elementary School 
attached to the Tokio normal school. No. 1. Accessories of the same : Ink box, dic- 
tation paper, slate iiencil, ruler, abacus, copy book (for Japanese pen brush), writing 
brush. The outer board of the desk is threefold and can be lifted to the upper part, 
thus affording convenience both for writing and arithmetic, both of which require a 
flat-surfaced desk, since in writing wo use a solution of Indian ink in an ink stone, 
while arithmetical operations are performed entirely by means of the abacus. No. 59, 
desk and chair (No. 2), 1. Accessories of the same: Pap.er, slate, abacus, ink box, 
dictation paper, ruler, lead pencil, blank paper. This desk is for' the use of senior 
^lupils, and is simpler in construction than the foregoing one. No. 60, drawing table, 
1. This table is used for drawing, and two scholars can be accommodated at the same 
time. On the front or near part of the table is inserted a copper plate, which is used 
as a support in sharpening the pencil. The horizontal piece of wood on the back or 

> The Kindergarten attached to the Tokio Female Konnal School is situated in Tokio and is nnder the 
control of the Bepartment of Education. It is complete in its OTganization .and serves as a model for 
all other Kindergai'tcn. 

168 



forp:tg-\ exhibits— japan. 169 

further part is for liaTigiiiu; tlie drawing book. No. (il, IxMicli, 1. This is used to- 
gether with the tarble just nieutioned. No. 62, drawing instruments, 1 set. Acces- 
sories of the same: Clamp, lead pencil, drawing hoard, drawing book, and drawing 
paiier. No. 63, model of blackboard for school room nse. The model is oue-third of 
the original. It consists of two boards, which can be freely raised and lowered by 
means of the pulleys fastened on each side. This arrangement was made because 
children cannot reach the upper part of the board when they are required to write. 
Hence, they now write on the lower half, which is tben raised, while the other part 
is simultaneously lowered. No. 64, ink-box used in Female Elementary School at- 
tached to the Tokio Female Normal School, I set. No. G^, red-ink box for use of 
teachers. No. 64 is furnished for the nse of scholars in writing or composition. No, 
65 is used by the teacher in making corrections and in marking written exercises. 
Both kinds are in -very general use. No. 66, luncheon box for the use of scholars 
of the ]'"'emale Elementary School attacked to the Tokio Female Normal School, 
No. 1, No. 2. Accessories of the above : Chopsticks, tea cup, clolh, bag, chop- 
stick pouch. No. 1 is fortlic nse of the senior. No. 2 for junior scholars. The latter 
is accordingly lighter, and is inclosed in a bag, instead of being wrapped in a cloth. 
No. 67, instruments for collcci ing and preserving insects, 1 case. No. 68, instruments 
for collecting and dryin;; iii;uits, 1 case. These instruments are for tlie use of schol- 
ars in elementary schools, who are encouraged to collect insects and plants and to 
study the same. No. 69, ])aper slate. No. 70, paper blackboard, 1 sheet. Nos. 6'J and 
70, which are made in Shinseido, Tokio, may be used in common schools, as they are 
light and not broken easily. No. 71, chalk, prepared in Japan. This chalk, made by 
Aoki Yasuhu, of Tokio, is used in common schools, and is i^roduced at various places. 
No. 72, water-writing copy-book,! case. Accessories of tko same: Ink stone, ink, 
very soft lead perrcil, writing brush and lead pencil. This copy book was invented 
by ikeda Jetsu-taro, of the province of Kaga (Isliikawa-ken). Its peculiarity is that 
Ihe characters are traced by a brush dipped in water instead of ink. The writing 
remains visible sufficiently long to be insi)ected and corrected by the teacher, and 
then disappears altogether, leaving the paper free for the operation to be repeated. 
This method not only keejis the hands and faces of the young pupils free from ink 
stains, but it is also a very great saving of paper, since Japanese characters are of 
large size and occupy much space. The ink stone may be used on both sides, one 
side being for the "water writing," just described, the other side for ordinary ink. 
The ink here exhibited is very ckeap, but of inferior quality. The very soft pencil 
and lead pencil are the production of the province Kaga, and are the manufacture 
of a man named Kakizawa Rihei. No. 73, wooden slate for school use. This was. 
manufactured by Karai Boku, Wada Soicbi, and Yuno Hajimu, residents of the prov- 
ince of Higo (Kumamoto-ken). It is used by school boys in the place of the ordinary 
slate, and is very convenient for carrying about ; it is hard, but light, and is not 
easily broken. 

No. 74, apiiaratus used in teaching fractions in the Female Elementary School at- 
tached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 set. Accessories of the same. No. 75, 
explanation of Bunsu Keisauki. No. 76, cube, I case. No, 77, model of clock, 1. No. 78, 
apparatus for teaching spelling, 1 set. No. 79, numerical apparatus, 1. No. 80, geomet- 
rical figures, 1 set. No. 81, cabinet of weights and measnres, 1 set. These are Jap- 
anese weights and measures, and are used to sbow their use to the pupils. No. 82, 
zoological specimens, 1 set. These specimens (No, 82) are a collection of Japanese 
small beasts, birds, fislies, and mollusks, and are used in teaching the elements of 
zoology. No. 83, specimens of wood, 1 case. 

No. 84, specimens of dried i)lainta, 1 case. These specimens (No. 84) are collections 
of Japanese plants, and are used in teaching the elements of botany. No. 85, speciincns 
of minerals. These specimens (No. 85) are a collection of Japanese minerals, and are 
used in teaching the elements of mineralogy. No. 86, minerals arranged in scale of 
hardness, 1 case. These minerals (No. 86) are used to show the scale of hardness, in 
teaching the elements of mineralogy. No. 87, specimens of object lessons, 1 case. 
These specimens (No. 87) are a collection of more than 200 Japanese common ob- 
jects, and are used in giving object lessons. No. 8S, simple apparatus of physics 
and chemistry, 1 ca.se. No. 89, physical and chemical apparatus, 1 case. This ap- 
paratus (No. 89) is used in teaching the elements of physics and chemistry in 
ward and village schools, where it is difficult to get good and complete apparatus. 
No. 90, geared tellurian. No, 91, geographical apparatus for common school use. 
1 case. No. 92, geographi(;al model, 1. No. 93, abacus, 1. No. 94, school-room 
abacus, 1. The abacus is an apparatus for performing numerical calculations: 
the teacher hangs it on the \Yall or blackboard, and by raising and lowering 
the balls the pupil is tarught how to work witli it. Each ball in the upper line of 
No. 94 is marked with [ • • ■ ], and each in the lower line with [ . ], so that the 
l)upil8 can ea.sily understand that the former represent five, the latter, one. No. 94 
is to be used in computation when i)upil has acquired some familiarity witli the ap- 
paratus. No, 95, physical ai)paratu8. This apparatus has been manufactured by 

169 



170 EDUCATIOJ^AL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Kioiktihin Seizo Gaisha (a private company in Tokio), by order of the Totio Ednca- 
tional Museum. No. 96, simple physical apparatus for school use, 1 sel. This ap- 
paratus has been made out of objects of daily use which can be easily obtained. 
Among others, bamboo can be got everywhere in Japan, and as it is flexible and hol- 
low it is very useful ahd convenient as a substitute for glass })ipes. These instru- 
ments are, of course, very rude in point of form and structure, especially the elec- 
trophorus and the air-pump cylinder ; but these specimens have beeu in daily 
practical use and are not merely theoretical. They have been manufactured by the 
students of the Tokio Normal School, under the direction of instructors, and two ob- 
jects have been kept in view in the construction of such apparatus; one is to make 
the studeiits perform jn-actical esperirfnents whereby they may discover the truth of 
physical laws, and the other is to give them sufficient manual dexterity to enable 
them to construct rough but serviceable apparatus from materials easily accessible 
to them in rural schools to which they may hereafter be appointed teachers, aud 
where tTiey may not be able to secure the regular apparatus. No. 97, esplanatoiy 
notes of simple ]5hysical apparatus for school use (English), 1 vol. No. 98, chemical 
apparatus, 1 set. This apparatus has been manufactured by Seirensha (a private 
company thart nuikes and sells educational and medical apparatus), by order of the 
Tokio Educational Museum. No. 99, simple chemical apparatus for the use of schools. 
1 set. These instruments have also beenVuade from materials readily accessible, such 
as boxes, earthenware, plates, etc., which are all very cheap. It might perhaps be 
doubted whether bamboo pipes or paper air bags could be of any practical rise. But. 
these specimens have, as in the case of the physical apparatus just mentioned, all 
been examined and tested. Of course, they are not very durable; but when properly 
handled they are found to serve their purpose quite well. They have been mauu- 
factured by the instructors of chemistry in the Tokio Female Normal School, aud the 
mode of manufacture, as well as their use, has been explained to the female students. 
The objects kept in view have been explained above. No. 100, instruments for mak- 
ing simple physical and chemical apparatus, 1, set. These instruments, which have 
been selected from those used in wards and villages, are for making simple chemical 
and physical apparatus. No. 101, explanatory notes of simple chemical apparatus 
for the use of schools (English), 1 vol. No. 102, photograph of simple physical ap- 
paratus. This is a photograph of the physical ap]')aratu3 made by K. Oshima, a 
teacher of the Kaitatsu Public Elementary School, of Shiga-keu, with materials easily 
obtained in villages. 

No. 103, drawing copies, 2 cases. No. 104, writing copy for Kaisho (formal 
hand), 1 vol. No. 105, writing copy for Giosho (easy hand), 1 vol. No. 106, writing 
copy for Sosho (running hand), 1 vol. No. 107, text books of arithmetic, 3 vols. 
These books (No. 107) were published by the Tokio Normal School, and are used in 
the eleraeutary school attached thereto. No. 108, text books of the female element- 
ary school attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 group. No. 109, outline 
maps of Japan aud continents, 7 rolls. Outline maps (No. 109) are used in the female 
elementary school attached to the Tokio Female Normal School. No. 110, book on 
needle work, 2 vols. No. Ill, charts for sewing and cutting, 10 sheets. No. 112, charts 
for cutting, in two pouches. Text books No. 110, charts No. Ill, and charts No. 112 
are published by T. Takahama, the principal of the Takahama Private Elementary 
School in Tokio, and they are used iu the sewing department of his school. No. 113, 
text books of abacus arithmetic, 2 vols. No. 114, Hokkai Shobnnten (grammar of 
the language of the inhabitants of the Yezo), 1 vol. The inhabitants of Yezo are 
ignorant of letters, and as their ideas are communicated only by means of the spoken 
language which is peculiar to themselves, in Hokkai Shobunteu, which was pub- 
lished by Hakodate-ken, the two diflerent languages are arranged side by side in 
order to teach the inhabitants of Yezo the language and idiom of the main land No. 
115, elementary school readers, 4 vols. No. 116, elementary school readers, 6 vols. 
No. 117, First Lesson in School, 1 vol. No. 118, Charts of Phrases, 10 sheets. No. 119, 
Charts of Eeadiug Lessons in Elementary Schools, 10 sheets. No. 120, Moral Books for 
Elementary Schools, 6 vols. No. 121, Manners and Etiquette in Elementary Schools, 3 
vols. No. 122, Elementary Natural Philosophy, revised, 3 vols. No. 123, Roscoe's 
Chemistry (Science Primer), translated by W. Ichikawa, 3 vols. No. 124, Cooley's 
Easy Experiments in Physical Science, translated by J. Naomura, 1 vol. No. 125, Ele- 
mentary School Arithmetic, 5 vols. No. 126, Brief Geograjihy of Japan, 4 vols. No. 
127, Brief Geography of the World, 4 vols. No. 128, Outline Map of Japan, with Ex- 
planatory Remarks of the Symbols Used, 1vol. No. 129, Outline Map of the World, 1 voL 
No. 130, Sjmples Lectures sur les Sciences, par Carrigues, translated by K. Tanaka, 15 
vols. No. 131, Botanical Charts, 5 sheets. No. 132, Zoological Charts, 5 sheets. No. 133, 
Mineralogical Charts, 1 sheet. No. 134, Brief History of Japan, 2 vols. No. 135, Outline 
of Universal History, 4 vols. No. 136, Drawing Copies for Common use in Elementary 
Schools: A, 12 vols, B, 12 vols. No. 137, Map Drawing, 3 vols. No. 138, Geological 
Charts, 2 vols. No. 139, Principles of Political Economy, 2 vols. No. 140, First Lessons 
in Reading, 1 vol. No. 141, Charts for Reading Lessons, 14 vols. No. 142, Vocabulary, 3 

170 - 



, FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 171 

vols. No. 143, Primer, 1 vol. No. 144, Primary School Eeadcr, 4 vols. No. 145, charts of 
the Japanese syllaljary and others up to the multiplication table, 8 sheets. No. 146, 
Elements of Writing, 1 vol. No. 147, copy books, 59 vols. No. 148, book on gymnastic 
exercise, 1 vol. Works Nos. 103 and 147 were compiled and published by the Bureau 
of Compilation in the Dei^artmeut of Education, for elementary schools. However, 
they are used not only in many elementary schools, but also in normal schools. 

No. 149, writing by pupils of the female elementary school attached to the Tokio 
Female Normal School. 1 vol. No. 150, writings by pitpils of the pnblic elementary 
schools, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 151, compositions by pupils of the public elementary 
schools, Hakodate-ken, 1 vol. No. 152, writings and compositions by the children of 
the iu habitants of Yezo, 1 vol. No. 153, compositions by pupils of the Kozimachi 
Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 6 sheets. No. 1.54, compositions by i)ui)ils of the 
Sakui'ada Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 roll. No. 155, compositions by^ pupils of the 
Mita Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 roll. No. 156, compositions of the Ikuyei Public 
Elcmeutary School, Tokio-fu, 1 book. No. 157, compositions by pupils of the Negishi 
Public Elementary School, Tokio-fn, 1 vol. No. 1.58, compositions by pupils of the 
Oimatsu Public Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 1 roll No. 1.59, compositions by 
pupils of Kotobuki Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 1 roll. No. IGO, composi- 
tions by pupils of the Genkai Elementary School, 1 book. No. 161, drawings and 
compositions by pupils of the elementary schools, Miyagi-ken, 2 vols. No. 162, 
compositions by pupils of the Tomioka Public Elementary School, Gumba-ken, 1 
vol. 'No. 163, compositions by pupils of the Annaka Elementary School, Gumba- 
ken, 1 roll. No. 164, compositions by ]iupils of public elementary schools, Miye-ken, 
1 vol. No. 165, comjiositions by pupils of public elementary schools, Gifu-ken, 1 vol. 
No. 166, compositions by pupils of the Aomori Public Elementary School, Aomori-ken, 
I vol. No. 167, compositions by pnpils of pnblic elementary school, Shiga-ken,2 vols. 
No. 168, drawiugs by pupils of the female elementary school attached to the Tokio 
Female Normal School, 1 vol. No. 169, drawings by pupils of Kojimachi Public Ele- 
mentary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 170, drawiugs by f)upils of Nankai Elementary 
School,'Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 171, drawiugs by pupils of Sakurada Elementary School, 
Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 173, drawings by pupils of Mita Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 
1 sheet. No. 173, drawings by pupils of Shinsei Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. 
No. 174, needle-work, drawings, and compositions by pupils of Takahama Private 
Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 175, drawiugs and compositions by pupils 
of Toda Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 176, drawings by pupils of 
Ikuyei Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 2 sheets. No. 177, drawings by pupils 
of Meiji Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 5 sheets. No. 178, drawings by pupils 
of Negishi Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 2 sheets. No. 179, drawings by pu- 
pils of Kotobuki Public Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 2 sheets. No. 180, draw- 
ings by pupils of Tomioka Public Elementary School, Gumba-ken, 1 roll. No. 181, 
drawings by pupils of Kumafu Public Elementary School, Kumamoto-ken, 1 vol. 
No. 182, drawings by pupils of the Aomori Pnblic Elementary School, Aomori-ken, 

1 book. No. 183, drawings by pnpils of the Sekizen Seirio Kenki Public Elementary 
School, Shiga-keu, 1 book. No. 184, drawings by pupils of elementary schools, Shiga- 
ken, 1 book. No. 185, needle work by pupils of the female elementary school at- 
tached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 case. No. 186, needle work by pupils 
of the Kojimachi Public Female Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 187, 
needle-work by pupils of the Kojimachi Public Female Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 

2 groups. No. 188, needle work by pupils of Nankai, Koto, and Matsuchiyama Public 
Elementary Schools, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 189, needle work by pupils of the Shi- 
nobuoka Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 190, needle work by 
pupils of the Toda Pnblic Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 191, needle 
woi'k by pupils of the Einboku Public Female Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 3 cases. 
No. 192, needle work by pupils of the Asakusa Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 
2 cases. No. 193, needle work by pupils of the Meiji and Negishi Public Elementary 
School, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 194, needle work by pupils of the Oimatsu Public Ele- 
mentary School, Kanagawa-ken, 1. No. 195, needle work by puxiils of the Tomigaoka 
Public Elementary School, Gumba-ken, 1 group. No. 196, needle work by pupils of the 
Gifu Female School, and Kobun, Kansho, and Furukawa Pnblic Elementary Schools, 
Gifu-ken, 1 grorp. No. 197, needle work by pupilsof Koko and Tokujun Pnblic Elemen- 
tary Schools, Shiga-ken, 1 group. No. 198, needle work by pupils of Kiosen, Jishiu, 
and Takuki Elementary Schools, Shiga-ken, 1 sheet. No. 199, table-cloth by pupils of 
the Kiosen Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 sheet. No. 200, needle work by pupils of 
the Shindo Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 3 sheets. No. 201, relief work. No. 202, 
needle work by pupils of the Chishin Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 2 sheets. No 
203, needle work by pupils of the Shisei Elementary School, Shiga-keu, 1 sheet. 
No. 204, needle work by j)upils of the Kaibun Elementary School, Shiga-keu, 1 sheet. 
No. 205, cloth for wrapping by pupils of the Kaibun Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 
1. No. 206, needlework by pupils of the Seirio Elementary School, Shiga-keu, 1 
sheet. No. 207, needle work by pupils of the Uchidehama Elementary School, Shiga- 

171 



172 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

ken, 1 group. No. 208, needle work by pupils of the Keuki a,ufl Yuriu Elementary 
School, Shiga-ken, 1 group. No. 209, needle work by pupils of the Kenki Elementary 
School, Shiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 210, needle work by pupils of the Otawara Public Ele- 
mentary School, Tochigi-ken, 1 case. No. 211, needle work by pupils of the Kuma-fu 
Public Elementary School, Kumamoto-ken, 1 case. 

The above work (Nos. 149-150 and No. 211) is the result obtained by pupils of 
the elementary schools, of government, public and private establishments. But it is 
to be remarked here that we are unable to make a largo collection of these results, as 
the time of the exhibition is very pressing and we have but a few days for such col- 
lection, so that we are obliged to show the results of a few schools. Moreover, hand- 
writing and compositions are all in Japaiuese or Chinese, audit is regretted that their 
quality cannot be understood by foreigners. As to the drawings here exhibited' we 
have made no special selection, and it is to be observed that only ten years have 
elapsed since the introduction of pencil drawing into our elementary education. In 
regard to the instruction of female pupils in needle work, according to the pro- 
gramme of elementary schools, a short explanation will be necessary. In Japan it is 
considered as the duty of the wives of common people to make the clothes of the mem- 
bers of their families, and even in rich or noble families the superintendence of needle- 
work devolves on wives, though they themselves do not sew. Such being the case, 
needle-work is universally practiced by both the lower and higher classes, and it is con- 
sidered an essential element of female education, and it is taught with the same care 
as reading, arithmetic, etc. 

No. 212, table showing examination marks, etc., at the end of the school term of 
the elementary school attached to the Tokio Normal School, 1 roll. No. 213, table 
showing the physical growth and development of pupils of the same school, 1 roll. 
No. 214; weekly record of the same school, 1 vol. No. 21.5, specimen register of pupils 
of the same school, 11 vols. 

SchooUfor deaf and duml and &Zi«fZ.— Education for the deaf and dumb and other 
afflicted persons has never been neglected in Japan, and there are many blind w4io 
learn music or the art of shampooing or acupuncture ; and in the case of the deaf 
and dumb, there are many who take some handiwork for their occupation. But it is 
only in recent time that our educators, as well as philanthropists, have directed 
their attention towards the improvement of the method of instruction, which has not 
yet become complete. A number of schools have, however, been instituted specially 
for this class of persons in Kioto, Tokio, and Osaka ; that of Kioto was esta.blished at 
public expense, while those of Tokio and Osaka are supported at priArate expense. 
As to the period of establishment, that of Kioto is the first in order. 

Now, considering the quality of work by pupils of the Kioto blind and mute insti- 
tution, it will be observed that not only talent and virtue can be developed, but 
also manual dexterity can be got by the method of instruction now adopted. . Visitors 
are referred to the articles mentioned below : 

No. 1, ground plans of a private blind and mute school, Asaka-fu, 2. No. 2, reg- 
ulations of a private blind and mute school, Asaka-fu, 1 vol. Accessories of the 
same: Regulation of school management, course of study, brief notes as to the main- 
tenance of the school. This school had originally been established by Osaka-fn, but 
some f ime after some philanthropists in that fn determined to support it by contribu- 
tions, and called it " Jizen Kai" (philanthropic society). 

No. 3, stereotypes of relief letters for the blind. No. 4, picture of finger arithmetic 
for the blind. No. 5, picture of finger language for the mute. These are used in a 
private blind and mute school, Osaka-fa. 

No. 6, paper cigarettes, 2 cases. No. 7, carved tea tray. No. 8, relief-worked figure, 
1. No. 9, composition and drawing, 1 copy. All these 'are the work of mute pupils of 
the private blind and mute institution, Osaka-fu. No. 10, screen, 1. This is the joint 
manufacture of both blind and mute pupils of Blind and Mute Institution, Kioto-fu. 
To speak more minutely of the respective parts undertaken by them : Firstly, the 
dragon's head and cloud on the shitau (a kind of wood) board have been carved by four 
male mutes; the embroidery and a bird on the left side of the fore part has been 
worked by two female mutes, and the embroidery, moon, and pine tree on the right 
by three female mutes ; the sun in the cloud and the fittings of gold on tablet board, the 
engravings of cherry flower, momiji (a red-leaved tree), of pine tree and cone, made 
wirh gold a,ud copper, and the figure drawn with silver on the leg, are the product of 
six male mutes; a silk thread nest on the lower part has been manufactured by a 
blind boy, and the two hanging thread nests by a blind girl ; a class on the back part 
has been woven by a blind girl with delicate" thread made of paper; lastly, a pict- 
ure papered on the back has been drawn by a male mute, and a versehas been com- 
posed and written by a blind boy. Now, this screen may be used either as tsuitate 
(a kiud of screen), or as a two-folding screen ; if the legs be' appended and put upright, 
172 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 173 

it becomes tsuitato ; while if they be taken away and put iu a way to make au ang]e, 
it becomes a folding screen. As to its construction, it differs from those commonly 
found, being intended for a room where chair and table are provided. Thus flowers 
and leaves engraved on the middle part are mostly horizontal to surface of the table, 
so that they can be seen directly by one on a chair. The lower part of the screen 
has nothing but thread hanging, through which air can freely circulate. Lastly, it 
can be freely folded on either side, unlike common ones. This last is the invention 
of the institution itself. The institution gives at first elementary education in gen- 
eral, after which, the blind are taught music and shampooing as principal, and lan- 
guage, Japanese and Chinese literature, moral lessons, and history, as branch sub- 
ject^ and kamiyori (making thread with paper) work and weaving in technics; the 
mutes, drawing, both Japanese and foreign writing, and writing speech (speech by 
writing) as principal, and engraving, joinery, gold lacquering, and sashinui (a kind 
of embroidery) iu technics ; and the female mutes, sewing in addition ; all with inten- 
tion that they can establish themselves with them as their pvofessLou after leavmg 
the school. 

CLASS DCCCII. — SECONDARY EDUCATION, INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, ETC., OF MIDDLE 

SCHOOLS. 

, Middle schools are those in which higher instruction is given iu the common 
branches of study, and such branches are taught as are necessary to prepare students 
for liberal pursuits or for the more advanced schools. One foreign language, either 
English, French, or German, is introduced in the curriculum of these schools. Mid- 
dle schools are established in most fu and ken, and some private establishments 
also exist. A model middle school has been instituted by the Department of Educa- 
tion, which has also issued the standard outline of the course of study of middle 
schools aud the general regulations of middle schools for the guidauce of such schools 
throughout the Empire. The following are the exhibits relating to middle schools: 

No. 1, exterior and interior views of the Osaka Middle School. This is the model 
middle school, under the control of the Department of Education, referred to above. 
No. 2, photograph of the Tokio-fu Middle School, 1 copy. No. 3, picture of the 
Miyagi-ken Middle School, 1 roll. No. 4, picture of the Middle School department of 
Ka.yogakko of Gifa-ken, 1 roll. No. 5, picture of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 
roll. No. 6, photograph of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 copy. No. 7, regulations 
of the Osaka Middle School, 1 vol. 

Text books for middle schools and other institutions published by both the Govern- 
ment and private individuals are very numerous, yet as they are mostly either in 
Chinese or Japanese, they are not exhii3ited. 

No. 8, compositions by the students of the Miyagi-ken Middle School, 1 vol. No. 
9, compositions by the students of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 vol. No. 10, com- 
positions by the students of the Shiga-ken Middle School, 1 vol. No 11, compositions 
by the students of the Aomori-ken Middle School, 2 vols. No. 12, compositions by 
the students of the middle school department of the Gif u-ken Kayogakko, 1 vol. No. 
i:?, compositions by the students of the Mige-keu Middle and Normal Schools. No. 14, 
compositions by the students of the Tochigi-ken First Middle School. No. 15, draw- 
ings by the students of Tokio-fu Middle School, 10 sheets. No. 16, drawings by the 
students of the Miyagi-ken Middle School, 1 book. No. 17, drawings by the students 
of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 book. No. 18, drawings by the students of the 
Aomori-ken Middle School, 2 vols. No. 10, calendar of the Osaka Middle School, 1 vol. 

Normal Schools. — Normal schools are established in each fu and ken to train teachers 
of elementary schools. Students are admitted from every gun (civil division of a 
province) in the fu or ken, and are trained at the public expense. After the com- 
pletion of the course of study, they must serve in the elementary schools within their 
respective fu or ken during a i)re8cribed period. Sometimes students pursue their 
studies at their own expense. As models, the Department of Education has estab- 
lished two normal schools, one for males and the other for females. Outlines of the 
course of study of normal schools and general regulations of the same are also issued 
by the Department for the guidance of normal schools throughout the Empii'e. The 
following are the exhibits relating to normal schools : 

No. 1, photograph of the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 copy. Photographs of 
Kindergarten and the Female Elementary School. No. 2, ground plan of the Tokio 
Female Normal School, 1 copy. No. 3, picture of the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 
copy. The Tokio Female Normal School is established as a modelj under the control 

173 



174 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION, 

of the Department of Education, and a female elementary school, a female higher 
school, and a kindergarten are attached to the same, also to serve as models. There 
is also a normal school for males under the control of the same Department, and two 
courses of study are organized, one for training elementary school teachers, and the 
other for middle school teachers. But this school was lately burnt, and is now in 
course of reconstruction, so that no plans, photographs, etc., of it can Ije exhibited. 
No. 4, picture of the Gumba-ken Normal School, 1 roll. No. 5, photograph of the 
Gumba-ken Normal School, 1 copy. No. 6, picture of the Miyagi-ken Normal School 
1 roll. No. 7, picture of the uormal department of the Kayogakko of Gifu-ken, 1 roll. 
No. 8, picture of the Ishikawa-ken Normal School, 1 roll. No. 9, i)hotograph8 of the 
Akita-ken formal School, 2 copies. No. 10, photograph of the Akita-ken Female 
Normal School, 1 copy. No. 11, pictures of interior and exterior views of the Akita- 
ken Female Normal School, 2. 

No. 12, regulations of the normal school course for training middle school teachers 
of the Tokio Normal School, 1 vol. No. 13, regulations of the normal school course 
for training elementary school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 vol. No. 14, 
regulations of the Tokio Female Normal School, together with tables, etc., 1 vol. 

No. 15, lecture room desk used in the Tokio Normal School. One desk is given to 
each student. No. 16, needle- work case. No. 17, apparatus for needle- work, 1 case. 
Accessories — instruments for jareparing relief work. These two are used in the Tokio 
Female Normal School. The needle-work case is for the needle-work apparatus. The 
apparatus for needle-work is that in common use. The board for cutting is a small 
model of one-quarter of the original; the smoothing-irons, etc., are different in shape 
from those used in foreign countries, while they are used in a different manner also. 
Relief work is taught in the female school, together with sewing and cutting. These 
instruments and api^aratus are not only used in the Tokio Female Normal School, but 
also in other schools, and generally by the peo^jle. They are found sufficient for all prac- 
tical purposes. No. 18, instruments of water-color painting and color ijainting, 1 case. 
These are used in the Tokio Female Normal School, and also by painters in general. 
No. 19, models of the kitchen utensils used in the dormitory of the Tokio Female Nor- 
mal School, 1 case. This dormitory is established for instruction and training students 
generally, as well as for the convenience of those who come from distant places. , There 
are a kitchen, bath-room, hair-dressing room, wash-house, etc., so that the students 
may practice the various branches of daily domestic economy. Moreover, these uten- 
sils are in general use by the people. 

No. 20, Modern History of Europe (with supplement), 10 vols. No, 21, drawing 
copy-books, 2 cases. No. 22, drawing copy-books, 1 set. These were published by 
the Tokio Normal School, for the students. 

No. 23, Japanese verses by students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the 
Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 tablet. No. 
24, compositions by students of the Miyagi-ken Normal School, 1 book. No. 25, com- 
positions by students of the Gumba-ken Normal School, 2 vols'. No. 26, compositions 
by students of the normal department of the Gifu-ken Kayogakko, 1 vol. No. 27, 
compositions by students of the Akita-ken Female Normal School, 1 vol. No. 28, 
comi)ositious by students of the Aomori-ken Normal School, 1 book. No. 29, compo- 
sitions by stndeuts of the Shiga-ken Female Normal School and Middle School, 1 vol. 
No. 30, drawings by pupils of the middle and elementary normal dep'artraents of the 
Tokio Normal School, 1 case. No. 31, drawings by students of the Miyagi-ken Normal 
School, 1 book. No. 32, drawings by students of the Gumba-ken Normal School, 1 
vol. No. 33, drawings by students' of the normal department of the Kayogakko of 
Gifu-ken, 1 vol. No. 34, drawings by students of the Ishikawa-ken Normal School, 
3 rolls. No. 35, handwriting and drawings by students of the Tokio Female Normal 
School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 
book. No. 36, drawings by students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the 
Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 book. No. 37, 
drawings in rolls by students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the Higher 
Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 8 rolls. These are the 
work of students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the Higher Female School, 
the apparatus (No. 18) being used. No. 38, drawings by students of the Aouiori-ken 
Normal School, 1 book. No. 39, drawings by students of the Nagano-ken Normal 
School, 1 vol. Nos. 40 and 41, needle-work by students of the Tokio Female Normal 
School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 2 
cases. No. 42, relief-work, Aveaving-work, knot-work, and folding-work by students 
of the Tokio Female Normal School and the Higher Female School attached to the 
Tokio Female Normal School, 1 case. No. 43, relief-work by students of the Tokio 
Female Normal School aud the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female 
Normal School, 1 tablet. No. 44, needle- work by female students of the Hakodate-keu 
Normal School, 1 group. No 45, needle-work by female students of the Ishikawa- 
ken Normal School, 1 group. No. 46, relief- work by female students of the Ishikawa 
ken Normal School, 1 tablet. This is relief- work representing Isneo Tayu, a maid of 
174 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS — JAPAN. 175 

honor, -who is presenting n verse together with a branch of a cherry tree to an em- 
peror. No. 47, needle-work by students of the Akita-ken Female Normal School, 2 
groups. No. 48, needle-work by students of the Shiga-ken Female Normal School, 7. 
No. 49, relief-work by students of the Shika-ken Female Normal School, 1. 

No. 50, table showing the term examination marks, etc., of the students of the nor- 
mal course for training middle school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 roll. 
No. 51, table showing the term examination marks, etc., of the students of the normal 
course for training elementary school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 roll. 
No. 52, table showing the physical growth and development of the students of the 
normal course for training elementary school teachers of tbe Tokio Normal School, 1 
roll. No. 53, specimens of school registers, etc., of the normal course for training ele- 
mentary school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 5 vols. No. 54, statistical table 
showing the physical growth and development of the students of the Gumba-ken Nor- 
mal School, 1 roll. No. 55, table showing the physical growth and development of the 
students of the Hakodate-ken Normal School, 1 vol. 

Riglier female schools. — In the higher female schools higher instruction is given to 
those who have completed the elementary school course. There are many such schools 
established by fu or ken. They are either independent or are departments of middle 
or normal schools. The higher female school in the Tokio Female Normal School 
was organized as a model of this sort of school. The following are the exhibits relat- 
ing to these schools : 

In female schools, sewing and cutting, domestic economy, and etiquette are taught, 
in addition to the common branches of study. In the female elementary school, in- 
struction on these subjects is only introductory, while in the higher female school it 
is somewhat advanced. 

The domitory teaches the management of the kitchen, cooking, &c., and in addi- 
tion silk-worm breeding is taught, if the circumstances of locality admit it. Some- 
times verse-making is added to the course. Poetry being a matter of taste, assists the 
development of esthetic ideas, and also to compose sentences in " Kaua," and for this 
reason it is included in the curriculum of these schools. 

No. 1, picture of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 roll. No. 2, photograph 
of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 copy. No. 3, regulations of the Higher 
Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 vol. (This is combined 
with the tegulations of the Tokio Female Normal School.) No. 4, regulations of the 
Kioto-fu Female School, 1 vol. 

No. 5, compositions by students of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 roll. 
No. 6, verses written on colored paper by the students of the Gumba-ken Higher 
Female School, 1 book. No. 7, verses written on rectangular i^ieces of paper by the 
students of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1. No. 8, compositions and verses 
by students of the Gifu-ken Female School, 1 vol. No. 9, compositions by students 
oi' the female department of the Tochigi-keu First Middle School, 1 book. No. 10, 
handwriting and drawings by students of the Atomigakko (private school), Tokio, 
1 book. This school was established by Atomi Kakei ; and the common branches of 
study, in addition to lessons in etiquette, koto (musical instrument), and tea-makinr 
ceremony, are taught. Nos. 11 and 12, drawings by students of the Gumba-ken Highee 
Female School, 5 rolls and 1 book. No. 13, water-color paintings by students of thf 
female department of the Tochigi-ken First Middle School, 2 sheets. No. 14, draw- 
ings by students of the Gifu-ken Female School, 1 vol. No. 15, needle-work by stu- 
dents of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 grouj). No. 16, needle- work l)y stu- 
dents of the Gifu-ken Female School, 2 groups. No. 17, needle- work by students of 
the Female Department of the Tochigi-ken First Middle School, 1 case. 

Schools of f exude handiwork. — Schools of female handiwork are established every- 
where in the country. The chief object of the schools is to educate females in man- 
ual work, such as cutting and sewing, weaving, and other line work, so that they may 
become useful wives, or that they may earn their own living after leaving the schools. 
In some schools moral lessons, reading, and arithmetic are taught in addition to the 
above subjects. In the Kioto-fu Female School not only cutting and sewing, but 
sashinui (a sort of embroidery), weaving, tsudzuriori (a kind of embroidery), relief- 
work, bordered relief-work, silk-worm breeding, and drawing from life are taught. 
The following are the exhibits front schools of this class: 

No. 1, plan of Sho-so Private Female School, Miyagiken, and photograph of the 
school-room arrangement, 1 roll. This school was instituted by Knshi wazuw a. Miyogi 
to teach cutting and sewing. 

No. 2, regulations of the Sho-so private school, Miyagi-ken, 1 vol. 

175 



176 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

No. 3, specimens of various handiwork, 1 case, containing (1) specimen of sasbinui 
(a kind of embroidery) ; (2) specimen of tsudzuriori (a kind of embroidery) ; (3) 
s])ecimen of relief-work; (4) specimen of bordered relief work; (5) specimen of bami- 
awase (a kind of embroidery) ; (6) specimen of nuiawase (a sort of embroidery) ; (7) 
specimen of sasbimouo (a sort of embroidery). 

These specimens show the order of the handiwork as taught in the Kioto-fu Female 
School. The following is a brief explanation of them: 

Firstly, sashinni : Sashinui is of very ancient origin. It is of the finest and most 
tasteful description. Figures, such as animals,- plants, etc., are drawn with spelter on 
silk cloth or muslin, which is then fastened to a frame and is sewed with colored silk 
or golden threads. This being done, the spelter outside the figure is wiped away. 
When carefully and skillfully done this kind of work is very effective. It may be used 
as a decoration of folding screens, sho-ji (window or door sashes covered with their 
paper), table-cloths, wrapping cloths, and curtains, or of dresses, hats, etc. Although 
this kind of w^ork is not laborious, nor does it require comi)licated apparatus, yet long 
practice is necessary in order to acquire skill and delicacy in it. Book No. 1 has been 
worked out with sashinui, strictly so called, and the second is of what is commonly 
called nuitori, a mixture of soranui (which have seams) and keshinui (very minute 
work), while the other is what is called rosashi, as it has been worked on ro (a kind 
of gauze silk). Both nuitori and rosashi may be used for table-cloths when the piece 
is large, and for bags when it is small. 

Secondly, tsudzuriori : This has also been known from olden times. It is to weave 
out figures by inserting various colored silk cloth on the warp. In working this out, 
skill consists in this, that both warp and woof are correctly interwoven, length- 
wise and across, and do not intermingle with each other. The instruments used are a 
frame for insertion, a reed loom, a bamboo pipe, comb, aad ito-maki (a spool for wind- 
ing thread on). The result of the work may be seen on Nos. 3, 4, and 5, in the Hand- 
iwork Manufacture Book. Cloth of this sort is made into curtains, table-cloths, 
wrapping-cloths, bags, etc. 

Thirdly, relief-work : This is worked out by drawing a picture which is then cut 
out on thick paper. On it is pasted silk cloth or crape, by which flowers, fruit, stems, 
or branches of plants or trees are formed, and in case of animals, cotton is enclosed to 
form the body. The instruments used are a table, cutting-board, knife, scissors, 
spatula, smoothing iron, kemetsuke (a small thin plate used for marking), and hana- 
basami (a kind of scissors). The result of the work may be seen in Nos. 6, 7, and 8, 
in the Handiwork Manufacture Book. They may be made- into tablets, kakemono 
(pictures hung on walls, etc.), tanzakukake (on which thick paper, used for writing 
verses on, is hung), or small boxes. 

Fourthly, bordered relief-work : This has also beeu known from olden times^ Mii 
Takayoshi, a resident of Kioto-fu who jiossesses one manufactured two centuries ago, 
devised a new method of work in the seventh year of Maji, which has since been 
called Takayoshi's bordered relief-work. The mode of working is as follows : at first 
a colored picture is cut out, on the back of which is pasted cloth in layers according 
to the size and color of the object itself, and the direction of rays. By this way the 
form, the raised or lowered parts of the object itself, may be clearly represented. The 
instruments used are nearly the same as in the case of relief- work. The work may 
be made into folding screens, kakemono, tablets, fans, etc. This work is very compli- 
cated and needs much practice in pasting the pieces one by one. For the result, see 
Nos. 9, 10, and 11, in the manufacture book, and other manufacture by students of 
other schools. 

Fifthly, hameawase : The process is the same as in the relief-work. Tire only dif- 
ference is that the former is done by fitting into plain surface, while this is done by 
pasting one after another. The craft is usually taught in conjunction with cutting 
and sewing. They may be made into tablets and boxes. The instruments used are 
the same as in the case of relief-work and bordered relief-work. For the result, see 
No. 12 of the manufacture book. 

Sixthly, nuiawase : This belongs to the branch of cutting and sewing. It is a kind 
of patch with woolen thread and is therefore economically important. If, for instance, 
costly dresses be torn or charred, they may be repaired by this process. It is worked 
out by cutting thick jiaper into forms of animals, plants, etc., to which size the cloth 
itself is cut, and sewed together. The instruments used are the same as in the ordi- 
nary work of cutting and sewing. For the result see No. 13 in the manufacture book. 
The above mode is pursued in other schools also. 

Seventhly, sashimono : By this various designs are sewed out simply by the eye. 
Accordingly this cannot be made use of in cases where.living objects, such as animals, 
plants, etc., are to be represented. The only instrument used is a needle. This is 
taught as one subject in the school, in order to teach students ho^iv to work with 
needles. 

No. 4, tools for making bordered relief work, 1 case. No. H, lools for making relief 
work, 1 case. No. 6, models showing how to cut out cloth, I'J in all. They are used 
176 



FOREMN exhibits JAPAN. It? 

in the Sho-so pti-^a^fe' Seiool, Miyagi-keriito teach stndonta how to cut out cloth. 
No. 7, bordered relief work tablet with peony flower, 1. This has been manufactured 
in accordance with the method devised by Mii Takayoshi, mentioned before, and is 
ill fact the manufacture of Takayoshi himself. Ho is a man seventy-seven years of 
age. He once taught bordered relief work in Kioto Female School, "and it is in this 
connection that he" has exhibited his work. 

No. 8, model of the hanging picture for cutting and sewing course, 1 roll. No. 9, 
hanging picture of instruments used for cutting and sewing for school-room use, 
1 roll. No. 10, hanging picture showing how to cut out cloth for dresses, 1 roll. 
These are made use of in the Sho-so private school, Miyagi-ken. No. 11, domestic 
economy pictures for female schools, ti sheets. They have been published by the 
Model Female School, Tochigi-keu, to teach pupils spinning and weaving, cutting 
and sewing, and domestic economy. . 

No. 12, handiwork manufacture book, 1 copy. The specimens have all been made 
by pupils of the female school, Kioto-fu. Nos. 1 and 2 are of sashinui, Nos, 3, 4, and 
;5 are of tsuzuriori, Nos. 6, 7, and 8 are relief work, Nos. 9, 10, aud 11 are bordered 
ifelief work. No. 12 is of hamiawase, No, 13 is of nuiawase, Nos. 14, 1.5, 16, and 17 are 
1,-drawings from life, Nos. .18, 19, and 20 are Japanese sentences, and No. 21 is of 
taashimono. Compare models in No. 3. No. 13, two-folding screen with sashinui, 
:and objects drawn from life on both sides, 1. Tlie sashinui is the joint manufacture 
«of?p.uplls of the female school, Kioto-fu, aud the picture was drawn by Atomi Tamaye, 
ifemale teacher of the school. No. 14, relief- work tabic, with ten flowers, both of 
ibrees .and plants, 1. This was manufactured by pupils of female school, Kioto-fu. 
WiO.. 15, tsuzuriori, table-cloth, 1 piece. This is the joint manufacture of pupils in 
the female school, Kioto-fu, on which is sewn representations of -old social customs. 
"No. 16, lace, A, 1 case. No. 17, lace, B, 1 case. These are the manufacture of pupils 
in the female school, Kioto-fu, and well fabricated after the European method. No, 
18, children's hats, 1 case. These are the manufacture of pupils in the above-men- 
tioned school. Those made of crape are for winter, while those of kanreisha (a kind 
•of gauze-silk) are for summer use. No. 19, wrappiug-cloth, with figure of Guanshi, 
mother of Confucius, 1 piece. The picture has been made with thread by pupils in 
the central public school of cutting and sewing, Osaka-fu. No. 20, tablets made out 
by interweaving silk cloth, 3. They have all been sewed togetbcr with thread by 
■;pupil8 in the central public school of cutting aud sewing, Osaka-fu. Number 1 is the 
picture of a court-lady p~iaying on the koto (musical instrument) in the moonlight; 
inumber two that of Fujihara Yasumasa playing the lute in a garden one autumn 
might ; number three that of the famous Shidzuka dancing ; all representing events in 
our history. No. 21, round bags fabricated by interweaving silk cloth, 2. They have 
been sewed with thread by pupils in the central public school of cutting and sewing, 
Osaka-fii. Number A is a picture of Oye Masafusa criticising the tactics of Minamoto 
Yoshiiye, aud number B is that of Minamoto Yoshimitsu playing the sho (a musical 
instrument) on Mount Ashigara, Sagami province; both representing events in our 
history. No. 22, round bag worked out by nuikomi (inserting by sewing). This has 
been sewed with thread by pnpils in the public southern school of cutting aud sew- 
ing, Osaka-fn, and represents Fujihara Teika singing a ballad in snowy weather. 
No. 22, tablets with pictures of flowers, both plants aud trees. This has been fabricated 
by embroidering silk cloth by pupils of the private Ai-kei Female School, Osaka-fu. 
No. 2'i, tine work by pupils of private Ai-kei Female School, Osaka-fu, 7. No, 24, 
tablets worked out by inserting crape, 2, These have been sewed together with thread 
by pupils of the cutting and sewing department of Toto School, Osaka-fu, Number 
A represents Ukou, a famous woman in Japanese ancient history. No, 25, a long loose 
robe worn by women over their other garments, made by pupils of the Sbo-so School, 
Miyagi-ken, 1 suit. No, 26, shiromuku aidagi (a white under-garment), made by the 
same, 1 suit. No. 27, woman's garment, made by the same, 1 suit. No, liS, womarf% 
shirt, made by the same, 1 suit. No, 29, woman's belt, made by the same. These five 
form one set and are worn by women of high social rank. No, 30, other articles made 
by the same, 6, 

GYMNASTICS, 

No, 1, photographs of interior and exterior views of the gymnastic institution, 2 
copies. The gymnastic institution, which is under the control of the Department of 
Education, has been established for the purpose of teaching the art of gymnastics. 
Lectures on physical education are given, and the manoeuvers of infantry are also 
taught. The detailed account of the iustitution may be seen in "Explanatory Notes 
on Gymnastics." Those who learn gymnastics are the instructors sent from fu aud 
ken, and the students and pupils of the schools under the control of the Department 
of Education, and many of those who have learned the art, are now engaged to teach 
it in various localities. Though archery apparatus and fencing apparatus are not us'^i 
in the institution, yet as they are employed in schools for gymnastic purposes, some 
apecimeus are exhihited, 

7950 COT 12 177 



178 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

No. 2, Eegulations of the Gymuastic Institution ( Jai^auese), 1 vol. No. 3, Ecgula- 
tions of the Gymnastic Institution (English), 1 vol. No. 4, gymnastic apparatus. 
This is used not only in the gymnastic institution, but also in schools. The bean- 
bag is only for females. No. 5, Explanatory Notes on Gymnastics (English), 1 vol. 
This is an explanation of the gymnastic apparatus (No. 4). No. 6, the dakiu apparatus, 
1 set. The game of dakiu has been in existence in Japan from ancient tinies. Its 
object is to show skill on horseback. At present it is applied to school gymnastics 
and practiced on foot, by school boys. It is a kind of ''polo." The upper division of 
the picture shows the game of dakiu on horseback, in ancient times, by the military 
class ; and the lower division the game on foot, at present, by school boys. No. 7, 
picture of the dakiu game on horseback and on foot, 1 vol. No. 8, books on gymnas- 
tics, 6 vols. No. 9, picture of gymnastic exercises, 1 sheet. No. 10, book on gym- 
nastics, 1 vol.^ No. 11, apparatus for archery, 1 set. Archery was formerly much 
practiced for military purposes in Japan, and during the feudal period it was a duty 
of the military class to practice it. But it is now adopted as a gymnastic exercise for 
school boys. No. 12, fencing apparatus, 1 set. The art of fencing was practiced 
formerly like that of archery by the military class, and. at present by policemen, 
naval and military officers, and the common people. It has been recently adopted as 
gymnastic exercise for school boys. The swords (shinai) used are made of bamboo. 

PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 

In the general outlines of education, referred to in the introductory notes, agricult- 
ural, commercial, and industrial schools are not particularly enumerated among the 
professional schools, 'but here, for the convenience of visitors, things exhibited from 
those schools are arranged under this class. Professional schools have been estab- 
lished in various parts of Japan. The medical schools are most numerous, and next ,:, 
to them are the agricultural schools. ..Besides, there are many commercial schools, Jj 
industrial schools, schools of pharmacy, law schools, scientific schools, literary schools, ^ 
schools of drawing, schools of navigation, schools of mathematics, schools of archi- 
tecture, schools of fine arts, schools of manufacturing porcelain, etc., which schools 
have been unable to send exhibits to this exhibition, owing to the short notice which 
they received. Therefore the specimens, etc., bere exhibited, being very few, do not 
adequately show the present state of Japanese higher education. 

No. 1, photograph of interior and exterior views of Tokio Industrial School. This 
is a technical school established by the Department of Education to educate those 
who wish to become teachers in such schools, or foreman or managers of manufacto- 
ries, and to serve as a model for similar schools, which will be established in vari- 
ous parts of the country as soon as circumstances admit. As this school has been 
very recently established, and as it has only just got into working order, no speci- 
mens worthy of exhibition have yet been produced by the students. No. 2, plan of 
Sumiyoshi Private School of Drawing in Tokio-fu. This school has been established 
by Koichi Sumiyoshi for teaching Japanese painting. No. 3, plan of Shiriu Kogioku- 
sha (a private school), in Tokio-fu. This school is the private establishment of Kondo 
Makoto, and provides instruction in navigation and mathematics. No. 4, photograph 
of Osaka-fu Nautical School, Osaka, seen from the front. No. 5, photograph of the 
same, seen from the side. No. 6, photograph of Yokohama Private School of Com- 
merce, Kauagawa-ken. This school was founded by a few merchants at Yokohama, 
and it provides a course consisting of subjects relating to commerce, as well as 
English and Chinese. No. 7, plan of the Miyagi-ken Medical School. No. 8, plan of 
the hospital belonging to the above medical school. No. 9, plan of the Miyagi-ken 
Agricultural Institute. 

No. 10, regulations of Tokio Industrial School. No. 11, regulations of Tokio For- 
eign-Language School. This school has been established by the Department of Edu- 
cation to provide instruction in the German, French, Russian, Chinese, and Corean 
languages. 

No. 12, regulations of the Kobe Medical School in HLogo-ken, No. 13, regulations of 
the Kaisei San Agricultural School in Fukushima-ken. No. 14, regulations of the 
Commercial School in Aichi-keU. No. 15, regulations of the Kobe Pharmaceutical 
School in Hiogo-ken. No. 16, model of a European sailing ship, and two photo- 
graphs of its equipment, from Shiriu Kogiokusha (a private school) in Tokio-fu. No. 
17, practical exercises in book-keeping by the students of the Yokohama private school 
of commerce in Kauagawa-ken, 6 vols. No. 18, forms of a bill of exchange, of the 
same school of commerce. No. 19, specimens of insects from the Department of 
Agriculture of the Kuayogakko, Gifu-ken. These specimens have been collected in 
order to i'urnish the students with materials for practical study. No. 20, description 
of insects from the Department of Agriculture of the Kuayogakko. No. 21, chart of 
176 



FOEEIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 179 

insects from the above departmeut of agriculture of the Kuayogakko. No. 22, her- 
barium from TokusTiima-ken medical school. No. 23, specimen of lung distoma 
from the Tokushima-keu medical school. No. 24, figure of deformed fetus from the 
Tokushima-ken medical school. No. 25, photograph of a deformed fetus from the 
Tokushima-ken medical school. No. 26, picture of a mountain and a stream. This 
was drawn by Yeisho Kano, teacher of drawing in Shiriu Naniwa Gua Gakko (Naui- 
wa private school of drawing, Osaka- fu), to show his students. No. 27, picture of 
peony. This was drawn by Kohei Wyeda, teacher of the above school of drawing 
for a similar purpose. No. 28, picture of a woman visiting a Buddhist temple. The 
picture drawn by Kauzan Mori, teacher of the same school of drawing, shows the 
costume of a woman in very old times, who is going to Miidera (a temple named 
Miidera) near Lake Biwa in the province of Oomi. No. 29, picture of the scenery 
of Tsukigase, in the province of Iga, noted for the beautiful blossoms of plum 
trees, and the picture was drawn for the students by Kinseki Mori, teacher of 
the same school of drawing. No. 30,_ picture (oil painting) of a girl carrying a 
child on her back. The iricture was painted for the students of the private school 
of oil painting called Kitodo, by Tsuiji Matsumoto, the owner of the school. No. 
31, Shogaku Sanjitsu Kiokasho (text-book of elementary arithmetic). No. 32, 
Sanjitsu Kiokasho (text-book of arithmetic). No. 33, Daisu Kiokasho (text-book of 
algebra). No. 34, Daisu Kiokasho Kaishiaku (key to the text-book of algebra). 
No. 35, Kika Kiokasho (text-book of geometry). No. 36, Kikusen Taisu Hio (table 
of logarithms). No. 37, Gatshiukokushi Chokuyaku (translation of the history of 
the United States of America). No. 38, Chiosen Koku Zu (map of Corea). No. 39, 
Kotobano Sono. No. 40, Heisan Kaku Kiokesho (text-book of plain trigonometry). 
No. 41, Kokaihio (nautical almanac). The above-mentioned books were published 
by Shiriu Kogiokusha (private school named Kogiohusha), for the use of the students. 
No. 42, compositions by the students, in French, of the Tokio Foreign Language 
School. No. 43, drawings by the students, in German and French, of the above 
school. No. 44, compositions by the students, in Russian, of the above school. No. 
45, picture of Teika passing the Sano ferry, by a student of the Sumiyoshi private 
school of drawing in Toki^-fu. This is the picture of Fujiwara-no-Teika compos- 
ing some famous poetry, when passing Sano in the province of Shimotsake on a 
snowy day. No. 46, picture of Yoritomo in exile. This is the picture of Yoritomo, 
while in the province of Idsu, being persuaded by a priest named Mongaku, who came 
from Kioto to invade and overthrow the family of Taira. No. 47, picture of Hiromoto 
at Shijia-Kumon (gate of the imperial palace in Kioto). This is the picture of Mina- 
moto-no Hiromoto, when playing on the fuye (flute) moonlight night, obtaining the 
musical secret by hearing another also playing on the flute. No. 48, picture of Tsu- 
nemasa, playing on the biwa (a kind of lute). This is the picture of Taira-no-Tsune- 
masa playing on the biwa at the temple of Chikubushima in the province of Oami 
to the admiration of the god of the temple. No. 49, picture (oil painting) of the sun 
shining on Yoraeimon (the gate of the im]?erial palace in Kioto), drawn by a student 
of the Kitodo private school of drawing. No. 50, picture of Kurama-Tengu (imagi- 
nary, being supposed to have lived at Kurama, near Kioto) in no (dancing of the old 
time), by a student of the above school. No. 51, picture of a person playing the koto 
(a kind of harp), by a student of the above school. No. 52, picture of flowers and 
fruits, by a student of the above school. No. 53, picture of making tea from pow- 
dered leaves, drawn by a studeut of the above school. No. 54, picture of a maid 
of honor at the imperial palace, drawn by a student of the above school. No. 55, 
pictures drawn with the lead pencil. In Japan there are three kinds of draw- 
ing, namely, Japanese, European, and Chinese. In Japanese painting there are- sev- 
eral schools or styles, such as Kose, Tosa, Sumiyoshi, Kano, Shijo, etc. In European 
drawing there are water colors, oil paintings, free-hand drawings, etc. In Chinese 
painting, Nanjiu, Hokuiiu, etc. Among the pictures exhibited here, No. 26, of a 
mountain and stream, belongs to the Kano style; No. 28, of a woman visiting a Bud- 
dhist temple, and No. 29, of Tsukigase, to tlieNan.iiu; No. 45, of Teika passing the 
Sano ferry. No. 46,- of Yoritomo in exile, No. 47, of Hiromoto at Shijiaku-mon, and 
No. 48, Tsunemasa playing the biwa, to the Sumiyoshi style. These may indicate the 
different styles ot drawing. No. 56, gypsum statue of a child, made by a student in 
the private school of fine arts in Tokio-fu. No. .57, sculpture of three girls playing in 
the garden, by a studi-nt in the above school. No. .58, sculpture of a woman dressing, 
by a student in the above school. No. 59, cla,y bust of a woman, by a student in the 
above school. No. 60, bust of a farmer, by a student in the above school. This school 
of fine arts was founded by Bnuzo Fujita,\vho has completed the course of fine arts es- 
tablished by I he Department of Public Work, and provides fnstruction in drawing, 
human anafomv, and scnlpturt\ The statues No. .5".» and No. 60 represent the people 
of rural districts. No. 61, bnmboo rubs made by the students of a private school of 
tool making. This was founded by Tsuneoki Fnjishima, to instruct students in making 
tools, instruments, etc. No. 62, inap of Japan, drawn by a stud- nt of Osaka-fu Nau- 
tical School. No, 63, drawings ot the steam engine, by a student of the above school. 

179 



180 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

No. ('i, (•oui'-'osi lions of the otndpnts of the Yokohama private school of commerce in 

K:iii;i;.^i'- a kf'ii. No, (if), cxoi-oiscs in wrii lug l)y the stncientsof I he above school. No. 
()ii. (xainiii.':! ioi- iM'.i' ts orsindciits of I he Miya,gi-]cen Agricnl nral Institute. No. 
t>7. (h -iTi]); icji nfUi- Toki'i hidufitrial Soiiool (Jilnglish). The organization of the 
school, etc., iuc iiici.iioncii in I liis de^c.^i|.lion, No. 6H, calendar of th-' Toljio Foreign 
Langnag Schoul. No. i.'i, order of instruction in the practical subjects given in the 
Osalui-fu Nautical Schoid. No. 70, historical summary of the Yokohama private school 
of commerce in Kauagawa-ken. 

CLASS DCCCIII.— OUGANIZATIOX. SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION, ETC., FOR HIGHER 

EDUCATION. 

Uiiirersit!/. 

"No- 1, photographs of the several parts of Tokio University. No. 2, photographs of 
l£he several parts of Tokio University. Tokio University is situated in Tokio, and is 
Tinder the direct control of the Department of Education. It consists of four de- 
■partments, namely, Law, science, medicine, and litei'ature. The preparatory de- 
partment belonging to the university provides a course of instruction in those subjects 
■necessary for the preparation of a student entering the university. For detailed in- 
formation of every department and of the preparatory department, see the respective 
calendars. 

No, 3, calendar of tho departments of law, science, and literature of the Tokio 
University. No. 4, calendar of the departments of law, scieiice, and literature of 
the Tokio University (English). No. 5, calendar of the department of medicine of 
the Tokio University. No. 0, calendar of the preparatory department of the Tokio 
University (English). 

No. 7, manikin. This was made at Tokio University by Senji Kitagawa, mauufact- 
larer of the university, under the supervision of Assistant Prof. Iinada Tsnkane, in 
order to give means of obtaining anatomical kuowleilge to those living in places 
where there is a difficulty in obtaining bodies. This manikin has l)een greatly im- 
proved, if compared with the one jjrevionsly manufactured. The manikin is made 
lup of one hundred pieces of various sizes. The articulation between two y)ieces is 
effected by a hole in one piece and an iron rod in the other, or, in accordance with po- 
sition, hooks are used. Since every piece is marked with numerals, the structure of 
any part, or its relation to any other part, may be easily understood, if reference is 
made to the explanatory notes as to its disjunction. The order of disjunction, etc., 
is mentioned in the explanatory notes. No. 8, model of the gravid womb. This was 
also made by Kitagawa Senji for use in tocology, to show the developmeut of the em- 
bryo. 

No. 9. catalogue of the museum. This is the catalogue of the museum belonging 
to the Tokio University, aud all the specimens, apparatus, etc., mentioned in the 
catalogue, have been provided for the tise of the department of science of the uni- 
versity. No. 10, scientific memoirs. The memoirs contain the results of scientific 
investigations or researches of various kinds made in the department of science of 
Tokio University, and have been published for distribution among scientific institu- 
tions or societies. No. 11, botanical catalogue of the Tokio University. This is the 
catalogue of plants in the botanical garden belonging to the Tokio University, and 
these plants are provided for the use of those studying botany in the department of 
science. No. 12, explanatory notes on the manikin. 

CLASS DCCCVIII.— BOOKS AND PUBLICATIONS. 

'Periodicals. 

There are several periodicals in Japan, aud especially such newspapers as contain 
tfche notifications of the Government, editorial leading articles, current news and ad- 
-vertisements, are quite numerous. Besides, there are various kinds of magazines, 
such as relate respectively to education, politics, morality, religion, commerce, law, 
local productions, science, industry, literature, etc., of which the most important 
relating to education and science are here exhibited. 

No. l,Dai Nippon Kiyoikukwai Zashi (Transactions of the Educational Society of 
Japan). No. 2, Tokio Kiyoiku Shinshi (Tokio Educational Magazine). No. 3, Tokio 
Chigaku Kiokwai Hokoku (Report of Tokio Geographical Society). No. 4, Tokio 
;Sugakakwai Zashi (Transactions of Toiiio iMathemalical Society). No. 5, Sunrishoin 
<5oppo (Monthly Mathematical Magazine). No. 6, Shibu Nippon (Literary Magazine). 
180 V 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. ' 181 

No. 7, N»ippon Snisankwai Hokoku (Japanese Society of Marino Products). No. 8, 
Tokio Gakugei Zasshi (Tokio Scieutific Magazine). No. 9, Horitsii ZassLi (Law Mag- 
azine). No. 10. Tokio Kagakukaishi (Proceedings of Tokio Chemical Society), ^o. 
11, Tokio Iji Shinsbi (Tokio Medical News). No. 12, Yakngaku Zasslii (Pharmaceutic- 
Magazine). No. 13, Kodokai Soshi (Magazine relating to morality). No. 14, Ckiugaii 
Kogio Simpo (Engineering Magazine). No. If), Dai Nippon Nokwai Hokoku (Re- 
ports of Japanese Agricultural Society). No. 16, Tokei Shinsbi (StatisticalMagaziue),. 
No. 17, Hogaku Kiokwai Zasshi (Proceedings of the Law Association). No. 18, 
Kanauo Shirabe. No. 19, Dai Nippon Bijilsii Sbimpo (Japanese Fine Arts Maga- 
zine). No. 20, Tokio Keizai Zassbi (Tokio Economical Magazine). 

CLASS CVIII. — MUSICAL INSTKUMENTS. 

Music in Japan is of several kinds, namely, music of the ancient and modern styles, 
European music, and. Chinese music. The instruments here exhibited are those of 
both the ancient and. the modern styles, which have been mostly examined by an 
office called the Institute of Music, for conducting business concerning inquiries as to 
singing and. the improvement of music. For these purposes a certain number of stu- 
dents was admitted to be instructed in all the subjects of musical science, so as to 
enable them in future to take up the work of investigating the best means of im- 
proving the current music. The same office has been sending, from time to time, 
teachers of music to the Tokio Normal School and also to the I'okio Female Normal 
School, to teach songs and music to the students and to instruct them in the use ot 
Japanese musical instruments of the ancient style, to which some modifications have 
been made, and to teach the use of European musical instruments. Each of these 
Japanese instruments has been examined as to the harmony of its sounds, etc., anrl 
the results of such, examinations may be seen in No. 20, Gagaku Zokugakki Cho-on- 
lio Kaisetsuzu, and the combinatiotis and successions of sounds, etc., may be seen im 
No. 21, Ongaku Torishirabegakari Seiseki Hokoku Bassui (extracts from the reports. 
on the result of the work done by the Institute of Music). 

No. 1, regulations of the Institute of Music. No. 2, regulations as to the instruction! 
of the students in the Institute of Music. No. 3, hosho, 1. No. 4, hichiriki with gishi,. 
1. No. 5, rinteki komafuye (flute), 1. No. 6, kagurabfuye (llute), 1. No. 7, wufroto 
(har[>) with ji, 1. No. 8, koto (harp), 1. No. 9, biwa(lute) with bachi, 1. These are 
the musical instruments of the ancient style used chieiiy on ceremonial occasions, and 
therefore their sounds are noble and mild. No. 10, koto wiih ji, 1. No. 11, shamisen 
with bachi and koma, 1. No. 12, kokin with yumi, 1. No. 13, shakuhachi, 1. These 
instruments of the modern style were made after the model of the instruments of the 
ancient style, with some small modifications, and are very commonly played among 
the people. No. 14, Shogaku Sho-Kashiu (songs for the primary schools), 3 vols. No. 
15, Shoka-Kakezu, 3 vols. No. 16, Shoka-Kake-zu-dai and Kakewaku, 1 set. These 
songs have been composed by the Institute of Music. In composing a song we use 
either the ancient and modern words put together or the ancient words ouly. No. 17, 
Ongaku-moudo, 1 vol. No. 18, Ongaku-shinan, 1 vol. No. 19, Gakuten, 1 vol. No. 20, 
Gakuzoku Gakki Cho-on-Kaisetsu-Zu, with appendix. No. 21, Ongaku Torishirabe- 
gakari Seiseki Hokoku-sho Bassui. Extracts from the report on the results of the work 
done by the InsUtirte of Music, in English, 1 vol. No. 22, Calendar of the Institute 
of Music, in French, -1 vol. 

LIBRARIES. 

There are two libraries which are Government establishments, one being the library 
of the Department of Education, and the other that of the museum of the Depart- 
ment of the Interior. There are many libraries in fu and ken, of which some are in- 
dependent public libraries and some are libraries in certain schools, intended for 1 he 
use of the respective teachers and pupils, although the public are allowed to consult 
the books in such libraries. 

No. 1, xihotographs of the interior and exterior of the Tokio lib'ary. This library 
is under the control of the Department of Education, having been built during the 
time of the Tokugawa government and dedicated to Confucius ; it is constructed en- 
tirely after the Chinese style of building. The library contains books of every kind, 
both new and old. There arc books in Japanese, .European, Chinese, Coreau, and 
other languages, and it is always open to the public. Those who are uudertakiug to, 
-^rite or translate auy works whicli seenj beneficial to educatioUj may obtaiu permis-, 

181 



182 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

sion from the Minister of Education to borrow books from tbe library. The catalogue 
of the European books has not yet been completed, and so we are not able to exhibit 
it on this occasion. No. 2, Catalogue of the Japanese and Chinese books, 1 copy. 
No. 3, Historical summary of the library, English, 1 vol. 

EDUCATIONAL MUSEUMS. 

There are six educational museums, of which one is a Government establishment be- 
longing to the Department of Education, the other four are established in fu and ken. 
Besides, there are some institutions or schools which have for educational purposes 
collections of physical and chemical apparatus and specimens of natural history, etc., 
preserved in some part of their buildings, to which visitors are admitted. 

No. 1, photographs of the Tokio Educational Museum, 3. This museum is under the 
control of the Department of Education. In the museum the specimens, models, and 
all other things necessary for general education have been collected for the use of 
those who are connected with public instructiou, as well as for visitors. Duplicates 
of zoological, botanical, and mineralogical specimens, and also models of school ap- 
paratus and instruments^ are always made and collected at the museum, so as to 
furnish them to schools of every part upon tbeir request. The museum is always 
ready to give assistance to any school in procuring instruments, apparatus, etc., 
which have been made under the inspection of the officers of the museum, and so 
most of the apparatus, instruments, etc., which have been exhibited under the class 
801, have been made under the direction of the museum. Sometimes those who are 
interested in education are invited to meet at the museum and to hear some scientific 
lectures, illustrated by the specimens or apparatus so as to increase the knowledge of 
the audience. No. 2, Catalogue of the museum, 2 vols. No. 3, Catalogue of books 
in the museum, 4 vols. No. 4, Information as to the museum. 

KEEERENCE BOOKS FOR THOSE ENGAGED IN EDUCATION. 

Eeference books concerning elementary, middle, and higher education, and published 
by the Government, fu, ken, and private individuals, are very numerous, but they are 
all in the Japanese language and consequently not exhibited here. The following are 
a few of the books published by the Department of Education and the Tokio Uni- 
versity, in addition to those which have been exhibited from other quarters: 

No. 1, General Outlines of Education in Japan, 1 vol. No. 2, Japanese Education, 
English, 1 vol. No. 3, Wickersham's School Economy (translated), 9 vols. No. 4, Hart's 
In the School-Eoom (translated), 1 vol. No. 5, Quelques Mots sur I'lnstruction publique 
en France, par Breal (translated), 1 vol. No. 6, Kehl's Die Practische in Volksschulen 
(translated), 1 vol. No. 7, Spencer's Education (translated), 1 vol. No. 8, Philobileus' 
History and Progress of Education (translated), 1 vol. No. 9, Northend's Teacher's 
Assistant (translated), 1 vol. No. 10, Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching (trans- 
lated), 1 vol. No. 11, Calderwood's On Teaching (translated), 1vol. No. 12, Holbrook's 
The Normal, or Methods of Teaching (translated), 1 vol. No. 13, Calkins' Primary 
Object Lessons (translated), 2 vols. No. 14, Sheldon's Lessons on Objects (translated), 
2 vols. No. 15, Japanese Liberal Arts, classified and compiled, 8 vols. No. 1(5, Haven's 
Mental Philosophy (translated)^ 2 vols. No. 17, Thomson's Outlines of the Necessary 
Laws of Thought (translated), 1 vol. No. 18, Wayland's Elements of Moral Science 
(translated), 2 vols. No. 19, Moral Lessons, 1 vol. iSTo. 20, Outline History of Japan, 2 
vols. No. 21, Dictionary of Japanese Classical Words and Japanese Grammar, 14 vols. 
No. 22, Botany, 1 vol. No. 23, Treatise on the Polity of the European States, 4 vols. 
No. 24, Austin's Lectures on Jurisprudence (translated), 2 vols. No. 25, Rogers' Man- 
ual of Political Economy (translated), 8 vols. No. 26, Statistique, par Jonn^s (trans- 
lated), 10 vols. No. 27, Thorpe and Muir's Qualitative Chemical Analysis (translated), 
1 vol. No. 28, Thorpe's Quantitative Chemical Analysis (translated), 1 vol. No. 29, 
Anderson's Strength of Materials and Structures, 1 vol. No. 30, Eankine's Manual 
of Civil Engineering (translated), 2 vols. No. 31, Lockyer's ElemenJs of Astronomy 
(translated), 2 vols. No. 32, Complete Map of Japan, 2 sheets. No. 33, Map of Japan, 
4 sheets. No. 34, History of Japanese Products in the Provinces of Yamashiro, Musa- 
shi, Omi, Mino, and Shinano, 11 vols. No. 35, Crystallography, with the models of 
crystallism, 1 vol. No. 36, Yaite's Drawing lor Schools (translated), 1 vol. No. 37, 
Valentine's Girls' Own Book, 2 vols. No. 38, European Agriculture, 8 vols. No. 39, 
L'Esthetique par Varon (translated), 1 vol. No. 40, Luptou's Elementary Principles 
of Scientific Agriculture (translated), 1 vol. No. 41, Jevons' Money and the Mechan- 
ism of Exchange (translated), 1 vol. No. 42, Analytical Geometry, 1 vol. No. 43, 
Smith's Elementary Statics (translated), 1 voj. No. 44, Goodrich's Pictorial Natural 

J8? 



FOEEIGJT EXHIBITS JAPAN. 183 

History (translated), 10 vols. No. 45, Lendley's School Botany (translated), 1 vol. 
No. 46, Brief Account of Botany, 1 vol. No. 47, Gray's Lessons on Botany (trans- 
lated), 1 vol. No. 48, Parley's Universal History (translated), 1 vol. No. 49, Geogra- 
phy of the World, 7 vols. No. 50, History of Greece (translated), 9 vols. No. 51, 
Marsh's Book-keeping, 5 vols. No. 52, School Algehra, 12 vols. No. 53, Outline His- 
tory of France, 10 vols. No. 54, Goodrich's Pictorial History of France (translated), 
2 vols. No. 55, History of England (translated), 11 vols. No. 56, Outline History of 
Germany (translated), 10 vols. No. 57, Markham's History of Germany, 2 vols. No. 
58, Goodrich's American Child's History of the United States (translated), 4 vols. 
The above-mtntioned books have been published by the Bureau of Compilation of 
the Department of Education. "General Outlines of Education in Japan," written 
in the English language, describes the changes and affairs of education in Japan, and 
some-idea of the state of education in Japan may be got from it. But since that 
book has been written some changes have occurred in the organization of the Depart- 
ment of Education, and it is advisable to compare it with " Outlines of Japanese Ed- 
ucation." Let it also be remarked that the Bureau of Compilation often commands 
scholars to produce or translate books which serve as text-books of different branches 
of study, or as reference books for officers directly engaged in educational matters, 
school officers, etc. ; these Ijooks are sold cheaply or given to schools, libraries, edu- 
cational museums, etc., in fu and ken, to promote the cause of education. 

No. 59, Tables of the determination of minerals, 1 vol. No. 60, Dictionary of phi- 
losophy, 1 vol. No. 61, Table showing the results of the experiments on Japanese tim- 
ber, 1 vol. No. 62, Analytical report on drinking water in Tokio, 1 vol. No. 63, Short 
notice on Japanese minerals, 1 vol. No. 64, Handbook of metallurgy, 1 vol. No. 65, 
explanations of the plants of the Koishikawa Botanical Garden, 1 vol. No. 66, Ke- 
sults of experiments on drinking water in Tokio, 1 vol. The above-mentioned books 
have been published by the Tokio University as reference books. No. 67, Short 
sketches of ancient sages in Japan, 20 vols. No. 68, Dictionary of the English and 
Japanese languages, 1 vol. No. 69, Geography of the world, 6 vols. No. 70, Kanano- 
shiori, 3 vols. No. 71, Monowarinohashigo, 9 vols. No. 72, Yoyonoato, 6 vols. No. 
73, Shiu Shinnowuta, 3 vols. No. 74, Kanabunnokakikata, 5 vols. The above- 
mentioned books have been jrablished by private individuals. 

NOTIFICATIONS AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING EDUCATION. 

From these notifications and regulations a general idea of educational administra- 
tion in Japan may be got. The books in the English language are for the conven- 
ience of the visitor. 

No, 1, Japanese code of education, 1 vol. No. 2, ditto (English), 1 vol. No. 3, No- 
tifications issued by the Department of Education, 4 vols. No. 4, Standard outline of 
the course of study of elementary schools (English), 1 vol. No. 5, Standard outline 
of the course of study of normal schools (English), 1 vol. No. 6, General regulations 
of normal schools of fu and ken (English), 1 vol. No. 7, Standard outline of the 
course of study of middle schools (English), 1 vol. No. 8, General regulations of mid- 
dle schools (English), 1 vol. No. 9, Eegulations as to the admission to the Tokio 
Normal School of select students from fu and ken (English), 1 vol. No. 10, The 
third notification of the seventeenth year of Meiji (1884), issued by the Department 
of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 11, Eegulations for the establishment or abolition 
of fu or ken schools, kindergarten, libraries, etc. (English), 1 vol. No. 12, Eegu- 
lations for judging as to the moral conduct of teachers (English), 1 vol. No. 13, 
Specimen regulations for the establishment or abolition of ward, or village, or private 
schools, kindergarten, libraries, etc. (English), 1 vol. No. 14, Directions for grant- 
ing licenses to elementary school teachers (English), 1 vol. No. 15, Specimen regu- 
lations for compulsory attendance (English), 1 vol. No. 16, Specimen regulations Jbr 
the nomination of school committee (English), 1 vol. No. 17, The sixteenth uoLitica- 
tion of the sixteenth year of Meiji (1883), issued by the Department of Education 
(English), 1 vol. No. 19, The thirteenth notification of the fifteenth year of Meiji 
(1882), issued by the Department of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 20, General regu- 
lations of medical schools (English), 1 vol. No. 21, Eegulations for establishment of 
medical schools (English), 1 vol. No. 22, General regulations of pharmaceutical 
schools (English), 1 vol. No. 23, General regulations of agricultural schools (.Eng- 
lish), 1 vol. No. 24, General regulations of cominercial schools (English), 1 vol. No. 
25, The tenth notification of the foui'teenth year of Meiji (1881), issued by the Depart- 
ment of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 2(i, Specified articles for those clerks of gun 
or ku to whom is intrusted the transaction of educational business (English), 1 vol. 
No. 27, The sixi h notification of the thirteenth year of Meiji (1880), issued by the privy 
council (English), 1 vol. No. 28, The directions prescribing the limits within which 
elementary schools are to be established, and the number of schools to be thcv' iu 

183 



184 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION:. 

established (Euglish), 1 vol. No. 29, The thirteenth notification of the fifteenth yearr 
of MeiJL (188'2), issued by the Department of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 'iO, Thei 
third notification of the seventeenth year of Meiji (1884), issued by the Department of." 
Education (English), 1 vol. No. 31, The quasi-official ranks of the clerks of fu and •. 
kon schools (English), 1 vol. No. 32, The one hundred and thirty-first notification of ' 
the seventh year of Meiji (1874), issued by the Department of Education (Euglish), 1 . 
vol. No. 33, The directions prescribing the limits within which elementary schools 
are to be established (English), 1 vol. No. 34, Eegulations as to educational rewards, 
and regulations as to the reward of prizes for the encouragement of education (Eng 
lish), 1 vol. No. 35, Regulations for compulsory attendance of the Aomori-ken ele- 
mentary schools, 1 vol. No. 3(i, Regulations for educational meetings of school officers 
of fu and ken, 1 vol. No. 37, Eegulations for educational meeting in Yamagata-ken, 
1 vol. No. 38, Regulations of Tokio Academy, 1 vol. 

REPORTS, CALENDARS, ETC. 

We have to mention here the reports, calendars, etc., concerning education, from 
which one may get some idea of education in Japan. " General Outlines of EduG«- 
catiou" will specially show the general condition at the present time. This book Imsb 
been translated into the English language for the convenience of the visitor. 

No. 1, General outlines of Japanese education, 1 vol. No. 2, ditto (English), 1 vol,. 
No. 3, Eighth report of the minister of education (English), 1 vol. No. 4, Ninth re- 
port of the minister of education, 1 vol. No. 5, comparative table showing per cent., 
of school population, the number of these receiving or not receiving the prescribed! 
course of instruction for the fifteenth year of Meiji (1882), 1 roll. No. 6, table showing, 
number of universities, colleges, and schools, and instructors, teachers, and students,, 
1 roll. No. 7, table showing the number of middle schools, and instructors and stu-- 
dents, for the fifteenth year of Meiji (1882), 1 roll. No. 8, comparative table showing 
the income and expenditure of the public schools for the fift^nth year of Meiji (1882), 
1 roll. No. 9, table showing the amount of actual educational expenses, paid out of 
the city, district, ward, or village rates, for the fifteenth year of Meiji (1882), 1 roll. 
No. 10, table showing the estimated amount of educational expenses (among the lo- 
cal expenses) decided by the fu or ken assemblies, 1 roll. No. 11, comparative table 
showing the number of public and private elementary schools, and teachers and pu- 
pils thereof, and the amount of the public school income and expenditure, property, 
and contributions, from the sixth to the fifteenth year of Meiji (1873-'8-2), 1 roll. No. 

12, comparative table showing the average number of pupils and students, per cent., 
of population (English), 1 roll. No. 13, regulations concerning Government students 
in foreign countries. No. 14, table showing the present number of students sent 
abroad (English), 1 sheet. No. 15, table showing the number of government students 
sent abroad, who have returned, up to the month of October of the seventeenth year 
of Meiji (1884). No. 16, statistical table showing educational affairs in Gumba-ken, 
1 roll. * 

SUPPLEMENTAEY CATALOGUE. 
GROUP VIII. 

CLASS DCCCI. 

Plans and photographs of schools. — 1. Photographs of the YaAvata Higashi and Yawata- 
Nishi public elementary school, Shiga-ken, 1 copy. 2. Plan of the Kaichi public ele- 
mentary school, Shiga-keu, 1 roll. 3. Photograph of the Seitats and Siusei public 
elementary school, Hiroshima-ken, 1 copy. 4. Plan of the same, 1 vol. .5. Plan of 
the Yoshii public elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 6. Plan of the Chigio 
Nishi public elementary school, Fakuoka-ken, 1 roll. 7. Plan of the Kitagawa public 
elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 8. Plan of the Fukushima public elemen- 
tary school, Fukushima-ken, 1 roll. 9. Plan of the Shisa izumi public elementary 
school, Fuknoka-keu, 1 roll. 10. Plan of the Ukihara public elementary school, 
Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 11. Plan of the Kiirokir public elementary school, Fukuoka- 
ken, 1 roll. 12. Plan of the Ogura public elementary school, Fukuoka-Ken, 1 roll. 

13. Plan of the Sowe public elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 14. Plan of 
the Funakashi public elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 15. Photograph of the 
Iwaya and Oyabu public elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 copy. 

School farnituroandapparatKa. — 1(3. Hard slate, Hiroshima- ken, 2. 17. Slate-pencil, 
Hiroshiuia-keu, 1 case, la, ^Vater-writiug copies, Hiroshima-ken, 5, Ji^. Ink-Stones 
made of sulphur, 2, 

184 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 185 

Worh iy pupils. — 20. Compositions by pupils of the Kaichi public elementary school, 
Shiga-keu, 5 sheets. 21. Compositions by pupils of the Jishiu Kamono and Koto 
public elementary schools, Shiga-ken, 1 roll. 22. Compositions by pupils of Kash- 
iwabara public elementary school, Sbiga-ken, 1 sheet. 23. Compositions by pupils of 
the elementary school attached to the Fnkuoka kf>n normal school, 1 roll. 24. Com- 
positions by pupils of Yoshii, Hashiguchi, Katagawaui^hi, Funaki, Knroki. and Fuku- 
shima public elementary echools, Fnkuoka-ken, 1 roll. 25. Conipositious by pupils 
of the Aoki and Oyabu public elementary schools, Fukuoka-kou, 1 vol. 26. Conipo- 
eitious and drawings by the pupils of the Ogura Higashl public elementary school, 
Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 27. Compositions and drawings by pupils of the Sone public 
elementary schools, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 28. Drawings by pupils of the Kaichi pub- 
lic elementary schools, Shiga-ken, 5 sheets. 29. Penmanship by the same, 5 sheets. 

30. Needlework by pupils of the Kaichi public elementary school, Shiga-ken, 1 group. 

31. Drawings by pupils of the Koku, Benya. and Uchidehama public elementary 
schools, Shiga ken. 32. Drawings by pupils of the elementary school attached to the 
Fukuoka normal school. Fukuoka-ken, 1 tablet. 33. Drawings by pupils of the 
Yoshii, Furakawa, Funakoshi, and Oyabu public elementary schools, Fuknoka-ken, 
IroU. 

SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB AND BLIND. 

School furniture and apparatus. — 1. Chart illustrating the arrangement of desks and 
the method of teaching the blind the art of shampooing and the apparatus thereof, 
Kioto Blind and Mute lustitutiou, 1 sheet. 2. Chart illustrating the arrangement of 
<lesks tox leaching the mute, 1 shoot. 3. Chart showing the proper elope of the seat 
desks, 1 tlieet. 4. Models of desks used in the Kioto-fu Blind and Mute Institution, 
)i kinds. 

School apparatus. — 5. Chart of apparatus for instruction, 2 sheets. 6. Chartof writing 
on the palm and back of the blind, 1 sheet. 7. Chart- of finger arithmetic, 1 sheet. 
8. Chart of the bliud at play, 2 sheets. 9. Cliirt of musical InstrumeutB for the blind, 
Isheet. 10. Chart of the blindplayiiig music, 1 sheet. II. CharC of twisted paper- work 
and weaving by the blind. 1 sheet. 12. Illustrations of diflerent processes of twisted 
paper-work by the blind, 1 set. 14. Chart of visible speech for the dumb, 1 sheet. 
1.'). Chartof fifty sounds for the blind, 1 sheet. IG. Chart of fifty sounds by lingers for 
the blind, 1 sheet. 17. Chart of writing on the palm of the blind, 1 sheet. 18. Ap- 
pendix to writing on the palm of the blind, 1 sheet. 19. Chart of dumb pupils at 
play, 1 jihect. 20. Chart of tools used by the dumb for working in wood, 1 sheet. 
21. Chart of the dumb at wood-work, 1 sheet. 22. Illustrations of the different pro- 
cesses in teaching wood-work to the blind. 26 kinds. 23. Illustrations of the different 
processes of wood-work by the dumb, with a picture of arrangement of articles, IS 
kinds. 24. Chart of tools used by the dumb for carving, 1 sheet. 2,"). Chart of the 
dumb, at carving, 1 sheet. 26. Illustrations of different processes in teaching copper 
engraving to the (iuinb, 27 kinds. 27. Chart of apparatus for embroidery by the dumb, 
1 sheet. 28. Chart of the dumb, at embroidery work, 1 sheet. 29. Illustrations of dif- 
ferent processes in teaching embroidery to the dumb, 3. 

OEGANIZATION AND APPLIANCES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

(GROUP DCCCH.) 

Middle schools. — 1. Ground plan of the Iwate middle school, Iwate-ken, 1 roll. 2. 
Photograph of the Hiroshima middle school and normal school, 1 tablet. 3. Coui- 
positions by students of the Iwate middle school, Iwate-ken, 1 vol. 4. Compositions 
by students of the Kurume middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 vol. 5. Compositions by 
students of the Fukuoka. and Yanagawa middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 vol. 6. 
Drawing by students of the Iwate middle school, Iwate-ken, 1 roll. 7. Drawing by 
students of the Hiroshima middle school, Hiroshima ken, 1 roll. 8. Drawing by 
students of the Fukushima middle school, Fukushima-ken, 1 roll. 9. Drawing by 
the same, 1 roll. 10. Diawing by the same. 11. Drawing by students of the Yana- 
gawa mjddle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 12. Drawing by students of the Fukuoka 
middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 3 sheets. 13. Drawing by students of the Amaki mid- 
dle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 vol. 14. Drawing by students of the Kurum6 middle 
school, Fukuoka-ken, 2 rolls. 15. Drawing by' students of the Kurumd middle 
school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 

Normal schools. — 1. Picture of the Fukuoka normal bchool, 1 roll. 2. Painting by stu- 
dent of the Iwate normal school, Iwate-ken, 1 sheet. 3. Painting bvthe same, 2 sheets. 
4. Drawing by students of the Shiga-ken normal school, 12 sheets. •'<. Drawing 
by students of the Hiroshima normal school, HiroHhima-kcn, 1 roll. 6. Couiposi- 
tions by students of the Tokushima-ken normal school, 1 roll. 7. Compositions by 
gtudeuts of the Fukuoka normal school, Fukuoka-ken^ 1 vol, 8. Drawing by stu- 

185 



186 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

dents of the Fukuoka normal school, Fnkuoka-ken, 1 tablet. 9. Drawing by stu- 
dents of the Fukuoka normal school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 tablet. 10. Drawing by stu- 
dents of the Fukuoka normal school, Fukuoka-Ken, 1 tablet. 11. Drawing by stu- 
dents of the Fukuoka normal school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 tablet. 12. Needle-work by 
students of the sewing department of the Iwate normal school, Iwate-ken, 1 group. 
1:5. Ornamental box by students of the sewing department of the Fukuoka-ken nor- 
mal school, 4 groups. 14. Needle-work by the same, 1 group. 

Eighcr female school. — Specimens of child's cloth by student of the Tokushima- 
ken female school. 

Professional schools. — 1. Ground plan of the Aichi medical school and the Aichi 
hospital, 1 roll. 2. Photograph of the same, 1 sheet. 3. Histological specimens, 
Aichi medical school, 1 case. 

Reference hooks for schools. — Japanese and German dictionary, 1 toI. 



FEAKCE. 

SECTION I.— EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES. 

Sod4te des Creches (President, M. Marbeau, 27 Eue de Londres, Paris). — Reduced 
model of a creUte (one-tenth of its real size). Two plans of creches. Photograph of 
the Crecho des Ternes, Paris. Publications relative to creches by F. Marbeau. Bulle- 
tin des Cic'ches, 1876-1885. 

Socicie des J^colcs Enf an tines — Association for the proj)agation of new methods of 
teaching in primary and infant schools. Secretariat, 175 Rue St.-Honor^, Paris. — (1) 
Plan of a model infant school for 50 children. (2) Plan of a model infant school for 
100 children. (3) Model of an infant school. (4) Model of a seat adjustable to the 
children's size, for kindergarten classes. (5) Specimen of a series of Froebellian 
games and exercises for maternal schools (kindergarten). 

SodeUpour V Instruction J^Umentaire,!'^ Rue duFouarro, Paris. — Synoptic table of the 
works of the society. Statistical tables. Fifty-seven volumes of the Journal of the 
society. Work done by students in the normal courses. Specimens of needle-work, etc. 

Society for the Encouragement of Primary Instruction among French Protestants — 
Created 1829 ; the society has founded and maintained 1,300 schools, many of which 
have been adopted by the municipalities, including normal schools at Courbevoie 
(Seine) and Boissy-St.-L6ger (Seine et-Oise). President, M. Charles Robert; office, 4 
Rue de I'Oratoire du Louvre, Paris. — (1) Map showing the schools it has created in 
France. (2) Specimen of work done by students of the normal school at Courbevoie. 

(3) Specimen of work done by inmates of the Montauban Protestant Orphanage and 
of the Colonic P6nitentiaire de Ste.-Foy. 

Union Frangaise de la Jeunesse, 157 Boulevard St.-Germaiu, Paris. — Album of photo- 
graphs relative to the teaching of gymnastics in schools. List of free evening classes 
organized in Paris by this society. Specimens of drawing and other work done by 
the pupils attending tliose classes. 

Cercle Parisiendela ligue Frangaise deVEnseignemeni, 175 Rue St.-Honor6, Paris. — 
Documents and diagrams. This society, founded in the year 1867, was incorporated 
ill the year 1880. The society distributes books, maps, etc., to various libraries (pop- 
ular, communal, regimental, school), in France, Algeria, and French colonies, and 
organizes public lectures illustrated by dissolving views. The total number of adhe- 
rents to the Ligue de I'Enseigneme'nt is 200,000 membeirs, divided among 1,500 
branches spread all over France. The secretary of the Ligue is M. Emmanuel Vau- 
chez, 175 Rue St.-Honore, Paris. The Cercle exhibits, (ij specimens of the sets of 
books distributed to schools or barracks ; (2) specimens of the sets of gymnastic appa- 
ratus furnished to many country schools by the society ; (3) specimens of the sets of 
drill-guns (fusils scolaires) and carbines furnished to several schools for encouraging 
the practice of drill and target-shooting in elementary schools; (4) collection of the 
Bulletin du Cercle Parisien de la Ligue Fran^aise de I'Entseigrjement, 1867-1884. 

Society for Promoting the Professional Education of Womtn (I\)ndation Elisa Lemon- 
nier)— Secretary, Mademoiselle Toussaint, 3 Rue de Douay, Paris. The 4 schools or- 
ganized in Paris. — Exhibit: pupils' work; written work: bookkeeping, study of 
modern languages ; specimens of china-painting, glass-staining, dressmaking, paint- 
ing on silk (4 fans), drawing, wood engraving. 

SociStS Paternelle et Colonic Agricole de Mettray, near Tours. ln(;lre-et-Loire.— Album 
of the school, plans, photographs of groups of inmates in the class room, at field-work, 
in the gymnasium, at drill, etc. (No exhibit of scholars" work— only documents.) 

Societi des Fetes d' En/ants, 8 Ruelle des Stes.-Maries, Nlmes, Gard'. — (1") Statutes of 
the society. (2) The education of patriotism. (3) Publications by the society, etc. 

(4) Programmes of F6tes d'Enfants. 

186 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS FEANCE. 187 

Sociel6 des Musecs Canionaiix (regional museums) — President, Edm. Groult. Lisieux 
(Calvados). — (1) Six year-books of the society (Annuaire des Mus6e8 Cantonaux), 
1879-1885. (2) Table showing a type catalogue of a regional museum : list of the 
cantonal and regional museums already existing in France. 

SECTION II.— KINDEEGAETEN. 

:]6C0LES MATERNELLES. 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts, Paris. — (1) Regulations for the organiza- 
tion of normal courses for the training of governesses in maternal schools. (2) Doc- 
uments relative to the organization of maternal schools — decree of August 2, 1881, 
and minute of July 28, 1882. (3) Plans. (4) Statistics showing the number of ma- 
ternal schools actually existing in France. 

Amiens, maternal schools of the city of (Somme). — Collective exhibits of children's 
work. 

BelHer, Mme., IGEue Cabirol, Bordeaux. — (1) Le Moniteur du Jeune Age, a periodi- 
cal for kiudergartners (numbers for 4 years). (2) Prizes for infants' schools {hons 
points du jeune age). 

Collin, Mile. Laure. — La Lyre Enfantine, method for teaching vocal music to chil- 
dren of maternal schools. 

Garcet et Nisius, 76 Rue de Rennes, Paris. — (1) Froebel's counter and other objects 
for kindergarten. (2) Plan of a village infants' school . (3) Object lessons for infants' 
schools ; a calendar by Inspector-General Cadet, reproduced Irom the Dictionnaire de 
Pedagogic. (4) Apparatus for hanging maps. (5) Four types of school desks for ele- 
mentary schools. (6) Simple museum for object lessons for kindergarten pupils. 

Isere, maternal schools of the Department of. — Collective exhibit of children's work. 

Lietout, Mme., 13 Rue de Poissy, Paris. — (1) Instructive games for children; com- 
pendium for maternal schools. (2) Musical diagram, teaching simultaneously read- 
ing, writing, and singing. (3) Disk, showing the formation of compound colors. (4) 
The education of the senses. 

Marne, maternal schools of the Department of the. — Collective exhibit. 

Monternault, Mme. A. — French Intuitive Method (Hachette et Cie., Edifcenrs). Ma- 
terial for teaching form and color to young children according to the Froebellian 
method. 

Nord, Departement du. — Specimens of kindergarten work by children of town and 
-country schools. (See also p. 192.) 

Pact et Falquet, 16 Rue Cassette, Paris. — (1) Map of France for maternal schools, by 
Mile. Veyriferes. (2) Globe for similar schools. (3) Durand's Legislation des Ecoles 
Maternelles. (4) L'ficole Maternelle, periodical. (5) Table and bench for infants' 
schools. 

Seine-Inferieure. — Maternal schools of the Department of Seine-Inf6rieure. Collect- 
ive exhibit of children's work. 

SECTION III.— PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 

PART 1. — ARCHITECTURE, HYGIENE, AND DECORATION. 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. — Regulations relative to the construction 
of schools. Various documents bearing on school buildings and school furniture. 
Collection of documents relating to, (a) hygienic arrangements in schools, (h) medi- 
cal inspections, (e) physical training of children in and out of school. Rapport de la 
Cbmmission d'Hygi^ne, 1884. 6 plans prepared by the Comit6 des B4timents Scolaires, 
showing types of schools recently erected in France with the sanction of the Comite. 2 
portfolios containing plans of schools recently built in diifereut yjarts of France, also 
plans of class-rooms drawn by pupils. Plans of primary schools in the Departments of 
Deux-Sfevres, Loir-et-Cher, Lot-et-Garonne, Pas-de-Calais (schools of Marik, Mametz, 
St. Martin-au-Laerfc, etc.). 

Fine Arts Section. — (1) Specimens of casts and prints to form an art museum for 
elementary schools, prepared according to the regulations of the ministerial commis- 
sion on school decoration— (a) art museum for boys' schools, (b) for girls' schools. 
Report of M. P. Mantz, with programme of art museums for primary schools, training 
colleges, and lyc6es. (2) Typeg of school prizes {bons points scolaires) for elementary 
schools, sanctioned by the Commission de I'Imagerie Scolaire. Bons points, reward 
cards, and images, by Eavaisson,Quantin, Hachette, Prunaire, Suzanne, Goupil, Lebet, 
etc. Report by M. Havard, president of the Commission on School Prizes. (3) Collec- 
tion of casts for teaching drawing in primary training colleges and schools of secondary 
grade. Programmes of the course of studies. Drawing test in examinations for the 
higher certificate, Minute of January 23, 1881 (J. Ferry), fixing the programmes of the 

187 



188 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

teaching of drawing in elementary schools. (4) Examination for the certificate to 
teach drawing. Two frames showing specimens of time drawings done at the exam- 
inations— (a) for the 1st grade, (b) for the higher grade. Two drawings from arelief ex- 
ecuted in eight hours; perspective done in the same time. Three drawint;s from Ihe 
living model done in eight hours. Drawing of anatomy done without documents. 

(I) Law of January '27, 1880, declaring the teaching of gymnastics oMigatory in 
the establishments of public instruction. (2) Specimen of gymnastic apparatus "and 
appli-ances adopted for training colleges and primary schools bj the French Education 
Dei)iirtn)cnt. The appliances are provided by Messrs. ¥i6t6 and Co., Corderie Cen- 
trale, 12 Boulevard S^bastopol, Paris. (.'5).Photograph8 of school gymnasia and groups 
of children learning drill and gymnastics. (4) Handbooks for t'eaching gymnastics 
and drill. 

Arineiigaud, Aine', 45 Eue St.-S^bastien, Boulevard Voltaire, Paris.— School decora- 
tion—!") panels of pictures for schools, printed on the wall paper system. 

Bordeaux, City of. — Plans of several elementary schools. Eeports on medical inspec- 
tion in schools. 

Bilraille, Dr. C, ancien adjoint au Maire de Bayonne.— Documents on School 
Hygiene— (1) R&glement et Organisation de la Commission Municipale d'Hygi^ne et 
de Statistique do Bayonne. (2) Feuilles Mensuelles Constatant I'Jfifat Hygi^nique de 
chaque Classe. (3) Rapport des Travaux de la Commission d'Hygitine pour 1883, par 
]e Dr. Dflvaille. (4) L'Inspection Mddicale des Ecoles, par le Dr. Delvaille. 

Frefe^ et Cie., Corderie Centrale, 12 Boulevard S^bastopol, Paris, Fournisseurs du 
Ministero de rinslruction Pnblique.— (I) Specimens of appliances for teaching gym- 
nastics iu schools of primary and secondary grades. (2) Games connected with the 
teaching of gymnastics. (3) Appliances for teaching fencing— masks, gloves, foils. 
l)lastrons, etc., as supplied to several national and municipar/?/c^es and colleges. 

Genesle et Hersche); Engineers, 42 Rue du Chemin-Vert, Paris.— (1) Models and 
plans. (2) Album of plans and drawings of apparatus and appliances for the warm- 
ing and ventilating of schools and various public establishments of education. (See 
also p. 19). ) 

Laiiet, Dr., Professeur d'Hygi^ne k la Faculty de M6decine, 42 Eue du Palais de Jus- 
tice, Bordeaux. — Report on the medical inspection of communal schools at Bordeaux. 
Anthropometry in primary schools. 

IS'arjoux, F4lix, Architect, 3 Rue Littr6, Paris.- Works on school architecture— 
(1) Ecoles Publiques en France et en Angleterre, 1 vol. 8°. (2) Ecoles Publiques en 
Belgiqne et en Hollande, 1 vol. 8°. (3) Ecoles Publiques en Suisse, 1 vol. 8°. (4) 
Ecoles Normalee primaires en Europe, 1 vol. 8°. (5) Ecoles Normales et Salles d'Asite, 
1 vol. 18°. (6) Construction et Installation des Ecoles Primaires, 1 vol. 8°. (7) Rh- 
glement pour la Construction et TAmeublement des Maisons d'Ecole, 8°. (8) Ecoles 
Publiques en Europe, 1 vol. 18°. (9) Architecture Scolaire d'Ecoles de Hameaux, 1 vol. 
4°. (10) Paris, Edifices Consacr^s a I'lnstruction Publique, 1 vol. fol. 

Pei-driel, Charles Le, 11 Eue Milton, Paris.— Specimen of a school medical chest, con- 
taining the drugs and instruments most necessary in case of accidents. Price, 95 
francs. 

Itavaisson, F., Inspector-General for Higher Education.— Eeproductions of master- 
works of art, for school decoration and school rewards. 

Iliiher, FJmilc, Architect, 54 Eue Vavin, Paris.— Decorative panel— "La G6om6trie 
en Action," gymnastic bars and hoops ; also panels showing how school-rooms may be 
decorated by frescos done by the teacher and pupils. 

Trelat, iSmile, Director of the Special School for Architecture, Boulevard Mont-Par- 
nasse, Paris.— School lighting {<^clairage scolaire)— two plans, showing how class-rooms 
ought to be illuminated, heated, ventilated, etc., so as to avoid the injurious effects of 
direct sunlight and heated air. 

PAKT 2.— SCHOOL APPLIANCES AND DIDACTIC MATERIAL. 

Ministrij of Public Instruction, Paris.— (1) Samples of the collection of books adopted 
by the Department for communes for the formation of libraries of general information 
in the elementary schools. (2) Papers relating to the same. (3) Specimens of school 
appliances (maps, diagrams, etc.) supplied by the firms of Hachette et Cie., Ch. Del- 
agrave, Gautier, Ikelmer, Bertaux. Lan<Se, Challamel, Eothschild, Belin, Boyor, Duru, 
Masson, etc., and furnished gratuitously to the primary schools and training collegcB 
by the Education Department for the teaching of geography and the demonstration 
of the metrical system, as follows: 

{Hachette et Cie., 79 Boulevard Saint- Germain, Paris, t— This firm exhibits the follow- 
ing geographical works— Meissas (A. and G.) : A new map of France (78.7 inches by 
82.6 inches), giving the watercourses, mountains, administrative divisions, railwav 
lines. Meissas: A new map of Europe (78.7 inches by o2.6 inches), similar iu all 
respects to the above. Meissas : A ma)> of the world (43.3 niches by 67 inches), giving 
only the principal difisions of the worjd. Cortambert (E.): 4 small map of ^?'raRpe 
18§ >..... 4, . . 



FOllErGN EXHIBITS — FtlANCE. 18^ 

(35.4 inches by 47.4 inches). Cortarabert (E.): A small map of Europe (same size), 
both intended for small schools in rural districts. Vivien de Saint- Martin : A terres- 
trial globe (i:^ inches in diameter). They also exhibit other globes of various sizes, and 
the pricrs vary accordingly. School museum, by Dr. Saffray. School reward cards — 
(a) botanical, (6) geographical, (c) various trades. Level's Com[ieudiuni M6trique. 
Material for infant schools. 

(.67). Delagrave, Rue Soiifflot, Paris.) — Maps, drawn by Prof. Levassenr: (1) France 
Scolaire (scale -gWinjif)) &) Europe (scale 4oo^oiT ff)) C-^) ^'tie World (scale -rsTuhmrrs)- 
All these represent the principal physical features, agricultural products, coal mines, 
metallurgical centers, chief railways, telegraphic and submarine cables, lines of nav- 
igation, and leading political and economical facts. A map of Europe (scale xs^hmiTi) 
by Larochette, in chromo-lithography (91 inches by 49.2 inches), romarkable for its 
clearness of details. A terrestrial globe by the same (1.20 meters, or about 48 inches 
in circumference), showing at a glance the seas and rivers and mountains, as well as 
the lines of navigation and telegraphic and submarine cables. 

{Maison J, GaiUier, 55 Qnai cles G-rands Augustivs, Paris.) — Wall maps: map of 
France, map of Europe, and map of the world, drawn by A. Vuillemin. These maps, 
while containing all indispensable details, are remarkable for their clearness. The 
scale which has been adopted has made it possible to give greater importance to the 
lepresentation of the mountains. A table of weights and measures, by Henry des 
Vosges, sums in a c(mvenient form the advantages of the metrical system. 

(Ilehner, 47 Hue des Francs Bourgeois, Paris.) — A map of the world in hemispheres, 
measuring 1.85 meter by 95 centimeters (6.06 feet by :3.11 feet), and giving the results 
of the most recent discoveries, the great lines of navigation, th e chief railways, tlie 
submarine cables, the telegraphic lines on land in Asia and Australia, the sea ciii-rents, 
and showing the political divisions and the colonial possessions of the various states. 
A terrestrial globe, 1 meter (39.37 inches) in circumference, prepared by R. Barbot, 
giving the results of the recent discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley, Cameron, Dr. 
Sordenskjold, the telegraphic lines and cables, the great lines of navigation, the 
mountain systems, the sea currents, and showing the French colonial ])ossessiona. 

(E. Jiertavx, 25 Bue Serpente, Paris.)— A terrestrial globe, by E. Dubail. This globe 
is 14.96 inches in diameter. The author, late professor of geography at the Military 
College of St. Cyr, has, by a judicious use of various tints, rendered perceptible the 
difl'erence in level of valleys and table-lands. The globe represents also the sea cur- 
rents and the great lines of navigation and of communication by land. The details 
concerning political geography have been reduced to what is strictly necessary, and 
in no way interfere with a proper understanding of the physical geograpliy. 

(Lavee, 8 Pve de la Paix, Paris.) — Three wall-maps (France, Europe, the World), 
on which all important details are made conspicuous by a judicious use of a few 
tints; also a table giving the weights and measures of the French metrical system. 

{Challamel aw6, Paris.)— {1) A map of the colony of Senegal, or of the French pos- 
.sessions on the West Coast of Africa. This map, drawn by C. Mathieu, Includes all 
I lie country situate between Lake Taniahi6 and Sierra Leone. It shows the various 
indoiieudent and protected states, the position of French, English, and Portuguese 
liutis, and all administrative divisions. (2) A map of the Province of Oran, by Ad. 
Langlois (scale smhrcn))^ gives all the places, rivers and thalwegs, altitudes, admin- 
istrative divisions, roads, railways, telegraphic lines, steamboat lines, light-houses, 
cultivated portions, forests, mines, quarries, mineral springs, a plan of the city of 
Oran, a small mrtp of the neighborhood of Oran, and is accompanied by interesting 
statistics. 

(1) Synoptic table showing the detailed organization of primary studies, their 
objects, methods, and programmes. (2) Note pour servlr h I'^tude des programmes; 
extracts from the Instructions et directions p^dagogiques, par M. Gr^ard, vice-rector of 
1hcAcad6mie de Paris. (3) Specimen of diplomas (certificate of primary studies, 
&c.), and of merit awards and medals granted to teachers. (4) Collection of text 
books used in the primary schools of the department of the Seine. 

Bisson, Vandeuvre, Seine-Inf6rieure. — School museum — several cards showing a col- 
lection of samples of raw materials associated with their products. 

Bonnard, P., 49 Rue de Grenoble, Paris. — New system of writing music; (1) the 
" Last Musical Thought of Weber," written according to this new method ; (2) ton- 
ality of instruments compared, etc. 

Bonno, VAbM, Etr6pilly, Seine-et-Marne. — Large relief map of the department of 
Seine-et-Marne. 

Bouthiaux, Sombacour, Donbs. — Museum for a village school — numerous specimens 
of coins of France and other countries. 

Bridoux, Gaillefontaine, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Geographical maps made by boys of 13 
to 15 years of age. 

Cocheris, Mvie. Pauline, Boulevard St.-Marcel, Paris. — (1) Pedagogic desTravaux h 
rAiguille (On Teaching ox^ Sewing), 1 vol. in 12mo. This work is intended forteachers 
and pupils, and gives demonstrations of all kinds of needlo-work, accompanied by 

189 



190 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

diagrams, which reuder the explanations more easily understood. Hygieuic ad- 
vice holds an important place in this book. A portion of the work contains a re- 
view of the present teaching of sewing, cutting, and seaming, in the various parts 
of Europe, and especially in England. (2) Tableau Synoptique des Travaux 5. 
1' Aiguille. This table, intended to bo hung up in schools, is the indispensable com- 
panion of the above work. It gives all instruments used in sewing, etc., and explains 
the formation of all kinds of stitches. 

Caille, Sotteville-les-Baius, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Material for teaching the elements of 
natural jDhilosophy aud chemistry iu elementary schools (160 instruments or objects, 
allowing of upwards of 400 experiments). 

Cochet, Ugruy-le-Gay, Seine-Inferieure. — Arboricultural charts. Local flora (col- 
ored by hand). 

Covdray, Courville, Eure-et-Loir. — (1) Eelief map of the commune of Courville ; (2) 
relief map, canton of Courville ; (8) relief map of the department of Eure-et-Loir. 

Convey, I., Cond(S-8ur-Risle, Eure. — Herbarium— .5 portfolios in 1 case ; special ar- 
rangements for protecting the jilants from insects. 

David, Jf. , Grosrouvre par Nouvaut, Meurthe-et-Moselle. — Methods of teaching read- 
ing, writing, aud especially geography. 

Deyrolle, Emile. — Mus^e scolaire, for elementary schools — a sei'ies of wall pictures for 
teaching natural science. This series is divided into three parts. The first illustrates 
the elements of natural science, and is intended for small schools. The second part 
illustrates metallurgical processes, coal-mining, glass-making, animals useful and in- 
jurious to agriculture, mushrooms and fungi, and the most common poisonous plants. 
The third part, intended for girls' schools, illustrates the history of textile plants, 
such as flax, hemp, and cotton ; the ceramic processes, faience or earthenware, por- 
celain or china, stonewai'e, pottery ; the cereals, and the oleaginous and aromatis 
plants; the structure of a hen and changes of an egg during the process of incubation. 

Docquoy, Maromme, SeineInf(Srieure. — (1) Eelief map of the canton of Maromme. 

(2) Album of geometrical drawings. 

Dorangeon. — Scholastic Museum (Ch. Delagrave, publisher) ; this is an interesting 
collection illustrating the processes of 75 trades, and containing more than 1,200 sam- 
ples and specimens. Movable spheres for the study of cosmography, by A. Letellier; 
this apparatus, highly recommended by the eminent scientist Abb^ F. Moigno, rep- 
resents the real movement of the earth and of .Jupiter around the sun, or else the ap- 
parent movement of the sun on the ecliptic and the real movement of the earth around 
the sun at the same time. (See Delagrave's special exhibit, p. 201.) 

Gaudu, Goderville, Seine-Inf^rieure. — Charts of arboriculture for elementary schools. 

Gautier, Eoneu, Seine-Inf6rieure. — (1) Charts for the teaching of the elements of agri- 
culture in primary schools. (2) Charts for the teaching of the elements of horticulture. 

(3) Tables showing the organization of a school canteen (supply of warm food to chil- 
dren who cannot go home for their lunch). (4) Documents on the relations between 
the teacher and the children's parents. 

Hemeni, F6lix, Inspector-General of Public Instruction, Nanterre. — (I) A collection 
of 12 drawings by Cic6ri (23.6 inches by 15.7 inches), in chromo-lithography, and 
illustrating the following geographical terms : archipelago, canal, sluice or lock ; cape, 
cliff, railway, viaduct, tunnel, roads, streams, and rivers ; confluence, hills, streams 
and rivers, glaciers, strait, gulf, volcano ; isthmus ; lake, glaciers ; harbor ; valley, 
torrent. Delagrave edition. (2) Cosmographic diagrams designed by Fouch6. (3) 
Elementary works on the natural and mathematical sciences. 

Jeannoi, J^mile, Belleherbe, Donbs. — School agricultural museum — 10 charts of object 
lessons, showing the fabrications of cheese, oil, cider, honey, etc. 

Lavallee, Tourny, Eure. — School museum containing 35 object lessons. 

Leroy, Cautelen, Seine-Inf6rieure. — (1) Scholars' work ; (2) manual work; (3) school 
museum. 

Levasseux, E., Membre de I'lustitut (Ch. Delagrave, 6diteur). — Physical maps of 
France, Europe, French Colonies, etc. 

Menneglier, M., Navenne, Haute- Sa6ne. — Specimen of herbarium for schools. 

Mouchel, Criquetot, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Eelief map of the department of Seine-In- 
f6rieure. 

Muneret, Cusance, Donbs. — 6 cases containing insects ; 1 herbarium; 4 pedagogical 
works. 

Olivier, M., Brotteville-sur-Laize, Calvados. — School museum. Scholars' work 
(manual). 

Petit, Pierre, Photographer, Place Cadet, Paris. — Translucid window blinds for 
schools; photographic reproductions of masterpieces of art on linen, new process. 
Photographs of school buildings, class rooms, and pupils' groups. 

Pourchot, Mandeure, Donbs. — 2 very large aud complete herbariums. 

Prevost Orphanage, Cempnis, Oise (Director, M. Robin). — Work by scholars. This 
orphanage, originally founded iu Paris during the war of 1870-'71 by M. F. Buisson, 
was adopted a short time afterwards by a generous philanthropist, M. J. G. Pr6vost, 

190 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS FRANCE. 191 

who trausferred it to Cempnis, aud bequeathed his fortune to the departmental au- 
thorities of the Seiue-for the maintenance of it. Specimensof pupils' work : (1) copy- 
books; (2) specimens of jirinting by boys; the Orphanage issues a monthly journal, 
written and printed by the pupils : (3) specimens of other manual work in wood, iron, 
modeling, carving ; (4) needle-work by the girls. 

Ragemont, Berch^res-sur-Vergris, Eure-et-Loir. — Large map of the arrondissement of 
Dreux. 

Rainsart, ficole Bachelet, Rouen, Seine-Inf^rieure. — (1) School museum, showing 
the local iudustries— cotton manufacture, wool manufacture, and calico printing, 300 
bottles ; (2) pedagogical works ; (3) written and manual work by pupils. 

Regrain, A., Chamblet, near Montlugon, Allier. — Scholastic museum made by the 
pupils and master. 

Rousseau (Ancienne Maison, now termed Soci^t^ Anonyme), 44 Rue des ficoles, 
Paris. — Materials for instruction in physics and chemistry (finishing course) in pri- 
mary, secondary, and training schools. 

SaMn, M., Teacher, 'Elheuf, Seine-Iuf6rieure. — (1) School museum, (2) Apparatus 
for teaching drawing. (3) Manual work by pupils. (4) Written work by pupils. 

Serrurier, HfLvre, Seine-Iuf6rieure. — Pupils' work, 10 vols. Pedagogical works. 
Magic lantern constructed with a view to economy for school use; can be used either 
"with blowpipe or with kerosene. Price not over $20. 

Tremeschini, Paris. — Globe showing the movements of the earth and moon arouud 
the 8un. Book with expanations. 

Fast, H., Professor, 9 Rue de Greffuhle, Paris. — Blank maps on slated cloth : France, 
Europe, Central Europe. 

PAKT 3. — SCHOIiAKS' WORK. 

Algeria, scliools of. — Specimens of children's work, Arab schools of Boufarik: Arab 
schools of St. Eugeue; Arab and French school of M. Delord. ficole de la Rne du 
Divan (girls), Algeria ; Orphanage atThaddest-ou-Fellah, district of Mustapha ; £coles 
indigenes (Kabytes) de Tamazert et de Lagouhat. 

Amiens, city of. — Primary schools — written work, drawings, and maps; 10 large vols. 
Documents on the school savings banks, and the school system generally. Maps by 
the students of the normal school. 

Banme-les-Dames, primary schools of, Doubs. — School work by pupils. 

Bayvel, Mile, (private institution), Rouen, Seine-Infdrieure. — Maps drawm by the 
pupils; specimens of writing. 

Berthoz, Audincourt, Doubs. — Manual work (wood carving on stone and wood). 

Besan^on, primary schools of, Doubs. — Pupils' work, collectire exhibit. 

Buquet, Oissel, Seine-Inf^.rieure. — Specimeus of needle-work by pupils. 

Chalons-sur-Marne, primary school of, Marne. — Written work by pupils. 

Caulle, Rouen, Seine-Inf^rieure. — Original sketches and compositions by a pupil; 
7 pedagogical memoirs. 

Clerc, Pontarlier, Doubs. — 4 panels of manual work — wood, stone, net, string, clay 
work, etc., by pupils. 

Coulet, T., Villers la Montague, Meurthe-et-Moselle. — Carnet de Correspondance 
between schools and families, school drawings, exercises, etc., 1883. School work, 
drawing. 

Creuse, elementary primary schools of the deptartment of. — Specimens of work done by 
pupils. Preliminary training in manual work (toys made by children under 10 years 
of age). 

Delaruelle, Elbeuf, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Manual wood work done by the pupils. 

Delaruelle, Rouen, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Manual work done by pupils. Moral and civic 
tuition. 

Dijon (Cote-d'Or), collective exhibit of primary schools of the city of (Inspector, M. 
Deschamps, Dijon). — Collective display of school work, showing the work of.childreu 
during one month and one year. (1) Work done in a school with a single class-room 
(ficole de Bringes). (2) Work done in boys' and girls' schools containing several 
class-rooms. Manual work (clay modeling) by the boys of the elementary school of 
Dijon. 

Douis, collective exhiiit of the elementary schools of the department of. — Maternal schools, 
elementary primary, aud higher primary schools. 

Dupont, Mme., Maromme, Seine-InfSrieure. — Specimens of needle-work by pupils. 

Emonot, Mme., Naujancourt, Doubs.— 1 doll dressed by pupils. 

Faivre, H6rimoncourt, Doubs. — Manual work (iron, wood). 

Gautier, Rouen, Seine-Inf^grieure. — (1) Album of geographical maps, by pupils. 
(2) Album of drawings. (3) Manual work by children of the different classes. (4) 
Plans of the class-room, by pupils. 

Gihert, Grande Rue Fontaincbleau. — Results of a two years' course of drawing on 
the Cassagne method. Elementary modeling. 

191 



19^ EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEAI^S SxpOSITION. 

Hanniet, Neuilly-en-Thelle, Oise. — Drawings by pupils. Written cescriptions of 
prints collected by pupils (chiefly on French history). 

Hdvre, elementary schools of ike city of, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Collective exibit of pupils' 
work. 

Huard, Mme., Rouen, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Needle-work, herbarium, and bookkeep- 
ing, Ity pupils. 

Laloiipe, higher primary school of, E u re- et-Loir. — Written work by pupils, draw- 
ings, etc. 

Lamesle, Mme., Bareniin, Seine-Inf^rieure. — Specimens of needJe-work by pupils. 

Leclerc, Estevi'ilc, Seiuc-lnf<5rieure. — Manual work, cider press. 

Lefranc, Mme, &a;u,r, Anmalc, Seine-lnf(Srieure. — Specimens of needle-work bypupils. 

Lemort, St. Martin dc Boscherville, Seiue-Inf6rieuro. — Written work by pupils. 

JJlle, city of. — Collective exhibit of iiublic primary and higher primary schools for- 
boys and girls. 

Loxjy, Paul, Dasle (pujiil of the primary school of Dasle). — A case containing in-- 
sects collected and arranged by himself. 

Marans, school of, Charente-infdrieure. — Fifteen copy-books 

Mifjnot, Mile, Poutarlier, Doubs. — Needle-work by pupils. 

Miserey, school of, Doubs. — One album containing very good needle- work by scholars:. 

Movtbhliarcl, 2>rwiary schools of, Doubs — Collective exhibit of scholars' work. 

Nord, Departement dii, M. Brunei, Inspecteur, Director do I'Instruction Pjimiiire dm 
Nord. — (1) Plans of schools. , (2) Copy-books (primary schools). (3) Manual work: 
executed in schools: (A) Boys — Ironwork, woodwork, modeling, bookbinding ; (B)) 
Girls — Needle-work and embroidery. (4) Similar work from schools of a little Tiigber 
grade. 

Remarks on the exhibit of primary education in the Departement du Nord. -The* 
D6partemeut du Nord (area, 2,195 square miles; population, 1,60.3,2.59 inhabitants)! 
contains 2,1^.5 public or private elementary schools (ecoles primaircs), with a staff of 
5,475 masters and mistresses. The public elementary schools number 1,670, and their 
staff consists of 3,697 masters and mistresses. The objects which are exhibited arei 
classified into 4 groups: (1) Intellectual and manual work of the higher priniary 
schools (boys and girls) ; (2) intellectual and manual work of the elementary primary 
schools (boys and girls); (3) plans of schools; (4) detailed syllabi of the eubjectst 
taught in the primary schools of the D6partemeut dn Nord; JBulletin Admiiiistratif 
(a periodical issued by the departmental administration), and Bulletin P6dagogirLUje> 
(a special review for primary schoolmasters). 

I. Higher primary schools (boys). — There are 16 schools of this description in -iTi& 
said department. All receive boarders and day scholars. To all of them arc attaciiied 
a number of entrance exhibitions. The syllabus includes, as a rule, the following 
subjects: ethics, the French language, penmanship, history, geogjaphy, modern 
languages, mathematics, bookkeeping, experimental physics, chemistry, natural his- 
tory, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and workshop instruction. Each school has its 
own syllabus, modified so as to meet the local requirements. The pupils receive in- 
struction in adjusting pieces of apparatus in carpentry, in turnery, in modeling, in 
sculpture, and are taught to work in iron, wood, stone, marble, and plastic materials. 
The advantage is twofold : the pupils learn the use of tools, and discover their natural 
bent. 

Objects exhibited by 3 of these schools: copy-books containing pupils' exercises,, 
drawings (geometrical and free-hand), and specimens of work doLC in the workshops;, 
syllabus of subjects taught in each school. 

II. Higher primary schools (girls). — Written work and specimens of needle- work. 

III. Elementary primary schools (boys and girls). — Written work and manual worku 

IV. Plans of schools and documents. — Pedagogical Bulletin, etc. 
Ornans, primary schools of, Doubs. — Collective exhibit of school work. 
Pardonnet, if/^e., Colombier-Fontaiue, Doubs.— Needle-work by pupils. Doll dressed 

in 18 hours by a child of 10 years. 

Pas-de-Calais, Departement du. — (1) Collective exhibit of scholars' work from the 

Erimary schools of Contes, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Etaples, Sanity, Auchy-les-Haudin, 
>uzi-le-ChS.teau, Billy-Bercleau, Croisilles, Hermies, Buire-le-Sec, Licques, Samer, 
Lumbres, Campa^ne-15s-Hesdin, Montreuil, St.-Pierre-lfes-Calais. (2) Plans of the 
schools of Marck, Mametz, and Martin-au Lacy. 

Paitthier, Mme., ficole de Granvelle, Besan^on, Doubs. — Needle-work by pupils. 

P6chin, Mme., Audincourt, Doubs. — Needle-work by scholars. 

Planty ^- Girardot, Doubs. — Specimens of stone carving and clay modeling by pu- 
pils of elementary schools. 

Pollei, Presles-et-Thierry, Aisne. — Maps drawn by the pupils of an elementary school ; 
also written work. 

Pontarlier, primary schools of, Doubs. — Collective exhibit of school work. 

Rouen, elementary schools of the city of. — Collective exhibit of pupils' work. 

Boy, Glamordans, Doubs. — Manual work illustrating the principles of architecture.- 

192 



■ FOREIGN EXHIBITS — ERANCE. 193 

}lu88tiiJi primttrtj schools of, Donbs.— Pupils' work, collective cxhibii. 

Seine-Inferieure, coileciive exhibit of the Deparlment of. — Plans of sclioolis, te|)0ciniei),s of 
manual and written work by pupils of primary, higher primary, and maternal schools, 
of the cities of HS,vre, Rouen, Elbeuf, &c., Boscherville, and several rural schools; 
also school museums and memoirs on pedago<jjy, by teachers. 

Thierry, ^me., Montb61iard, Doubs. — Model school attached to the normal school of 
Montb^liard (Ecole Annexe del'ficole Normale) ; needle- work by scholars. 

Tunis, schools 0/ (Regency of Tunis schools inspectorate, M. Machuel, inspector).— 
Work of scholars in the French and Arab schools at Tunis: Christian Brothers' 
(boys); College St. Charles (boys) ; College Sadiki (boys) ; Alliance Israelite (boys); 
Ecole Centrale de Tunis (girls) ; Sceurs de St. Joseph de PAnnonciation (girls) ; ficole 
de Bab Carthagene (girls); ficole de la Goulette (girls). 

SECTION IV.— HIGHER PRIMARY AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 

Bischoffsheim Foundation (Working school for young Jewesses), 13 Boulevard Bour- 
don, Paris (M. Maurice Block, director). — Work by the scholars— (1) Work done in 
the school and workshops attached to it : 1 basket of flowers ; 1 baby's gown ; 1 che- 
mise; 1 shirt (reduced model); 4 exercise books (bookkeeping); 2 exercise books 
(music); 3 geographical maps; 1 ditto (larger size) ; .5 exercise books (English edi- 
tion); 10 school exercise books (first division) ; 6 ditto (second division) ; 6 ditto (third 
division). (2) Plan of the school. Documents on the school. 

Bordeaux, hoys' higher primary school of (ficole primaire sup^rieure de gargons; 
M. Larjeteau, directeur). — Specimens of work done by pupils. 

Bordeaux, girls' higher primary school of (Ecole primaire sup6rieure do filles b, Bor- 
deaux). — Specimens of work done by pupils : needle- work; artificial flowers ; time- 
table ; written work. 

Boulogne-sur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais), hoys' higher primary school of. — Specimens of writ- 
ten work and manual work in wood and iron by pupils. 

Bouvard, J., architect of the city of Paris, 5.5 Rue de Verneuil, Paris. — Plans of the 
national higher primary school of Voiron (Isfere) : (1) General plan — ground floor — 
first floor, front ; (2) ground floor of the primary and infant schools ; (3) first floor 
of the same; (4) higher primary school, elevations, plan of ground floor; (5) first 
floor of the same school; (6) outside buildings, kitchens, refectories. 

Cernesson, Leopold Camille, architect, late president of the municipal council of 
Paris, 23 Rue Michel- Ange, Paris. — Plan of the higher primary school of Montbard. 

Christofle,'Fa,Tis. — Specimens of drawing bj"- apprentices of the school of M. Christofle 
(gold- and silver- smitb workshop ). 

Deyrolle, £mile. — School museum for higher primary schools. This collection has 
been prepared in order to meet the requirements of the higher primary schools. It 
consists of a wall picture (75 inches by 35 inches), representing the human skeleton ; 
of another picture representing the skeleton of a bat ; a collection of 100 useful and 
noxious insects, all indigenousto France ; representatives of the myriapoda, arachnida, 
Crustacea, anuelida, vermes (amongst which there is to be found the trichina), mol- 
lusca, echinodermata, polyps, and sponges. Geology is illustrated by a collection of 
rocks, one of fossils, and one of minerals. Botany is illustrated by two herbaria, one 
of 100 plants, the other of 50 cereals. There are also instruments for collecting and 
preserving specimens, and a guide-book for carrying on these operations. 

Dijon, city of (C6te d'Or). — Higher primary school for boys, specimens of written 
work, drawing, &c., by pupils. Higher primary school for girls, specimens of written 
work, drawing, &c., by pupils. 

Evreux, technical school of. — Work of the scholars — (1) Album of graphic work 
(descriptive geometry and mechanics) ; (2) mechanical models executed by the pupils 
in the school workshops : (a) apparatus to show eifects of eccentrics, &c.; (b) module 
de petit tour; (c) Oldham joint; (d) model of crane ; (c) modele d'assemblage. 

Havre, apprentice school of (Lefebvre, director). — Pupils' work in wood and iron, 
drawings, class-work, &c. 

Havre, higher primary school of (Perier, director). — (1) Pedagogical work by M. 
Perier ; (2) written work by pupils; (3) iron work by pupils; (4) wood work by 
pupils; (5) albums of drawings; (6) programmes and documents. 

Livet Institute (M. Livet, director), Nantes. — (1) Plan of the institution; (2) docu- 
ments relating to the school, its progress, and methods of teaching ; (3) work by the 
pupils, watchmaking. This institution has more than 400 pupils (boarders and day 
scholars), and occupies at otal area of \^ acres. In the principal building are the 
dormitories, dining halls, infirmary, &c. ; opposite to this is the portion containing 
the class rooms. These buildings are connected on one side with the workshops, and 
on the other with the various offices of the administration. The institution, which 
receives pupils from six years of age, aims at preparing young people for industry, 
trade, the navy, and various public administrations. There are five workshops : (l) 
mechanics; (2) joinery and models ; (3) laboratory of chemistry; (4) foundery ; (5) 

7950 COT — ^13 ' 193 



194 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

clock nufl watch making and meclianica] work of precision. The machinery is sot 
in motion by a .steani eugiue (ti-horse). The pnpils make their own tools, as well 
aw thfs school fnruitnre and models for indnsTrial drawing. Chemical analyses are 
nudertakeu in the laboratory for private persons and the trade. The state a.nd some 
of the conncilfi general maintain a nirfnber of exhibitioners at the institntiou. By a 
decision of the President of the Republic, May Iti, 1874, the pupils of the institution 
are admittable to the rank of mechanical engineering students of the navy. 

Melun, girW professional school o/(Mm6. Valet, head mistress), Seine-et-Marne.— (1) 
linen; (2) robes;' (3) hats; (4) artificial flowers ; (5) photographs. 

Patronage dex E'nfants de V£Mnisterie (apprentices' school, founded in 1866 by H. 
Lomoinoj, Paris.— A carved frame in beech, done by the pupils of the Patronage. 

Poulain, M., ficolo primaire snp6rieure, lUiers, Eure-ct Loir.— Diajjram of speci- 
mens of manual work. Course of design. L'jfiducation Physique k TEcole Primaire. 

Rouen, city of (Seine-Inf^rienre), :^cole Professionelle et Menaghre (Mme. Lassire, 
head mistre'ss).— Specimens of needle- work and other work by the pupils— cutting 
ont, costumes from historical prints; specimens of bookkeeping and general school 
work, maps, &c. 

Rouen (Seine-InfMeure) Apprentices' school (Lecaude, director), 53 Rue du Pr6. — This 
institution is i\, municipal school for the training of apprentices for the trades of 
blacksmith, turner in metals, locksmith, fitting engineer, joiner, engine driver, wood 
turner, &c. The apprentices^ have the opportunity of completing u general course of 
studies whilst being trained in manual work. The pupils attend the class work four 
hours a day and the workshop six hours. They remain in the school precincts from 7 
a.m. to 7 p. m., and have to bring their dinner. The tuition is free, but the pupils 
must be fully twelve years ohl to be admitted, and show that they have received the 
elementary primary instruction. 

(1) Album containing ornamental and industrial drawings by pupils ; (2) albums 
containing free-hand drawings; (,3) forged iron work by pupils; (4) locks made by 
pupils; (.5) wood joining by pupils. 

Rouen, hither primary and professional school of (M. T. Delarue, director).— Collec- 
tion of work by pupils of the third, second, and first classes. 

Specimens of drawing, class work, notes and sketches of machinery, graduated 
series of iron and wood work, by the xjupils. 

St. -Pier7-e-Us- Calais (Pas-de-Calais), higher primary school for lays. — Specimens of 
written and manual work by pupils. 

Vierzon, primary schools of. — Work of the scholars (art teacher, M. C^lerier, sculptor). 
The entire range of instruction in this school is intended to be introductory to special 
apprentice schools like the ficole des Arts et Metiers. Work exhibited: 4 Barbotino 
frames, .5 plates decorated drawing, &.c. Several of these are exhibited by permis- 
sion of the owners. 

Voiron (Isfere), higher primary school of (M. Berthuin, director). — Work from the 
school workshops: i crane, 1 galvanometer, 1 catch, 1 electric bell. 

This school was founded in October, 1882, in order to make preparation for the crea- 
tion of the national school of higher primary education preparatory to apprenticeship, 
which the town will soon possess. The school, meanwhile, aims at providing the in- 
dustries and trades of the district with young men possessing the necessary theoretical 
knowledge, as well as valuable practical knowledge. The course of studies consists 
of lectures on ethics, i-eading, penmanship, grammar, composition, literature, history, 
geography, modern languages, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, trigonometry, descrip- 
tive geouiiefcrv, mechanics, physics, chemistry, natural history, geometrical drawing 
applied to the industries, artistic drawing', bookkeeping, music, and gymnastics. 
The workshop instruction includes modeling and moulding (clay, plaster, and ce- 
ment), stone-cutting, joinery, carpentry, turnery (wood and metal), and blacksmiths' 
work. It is proposed to introduce weaving as a subject for workshop instruction. 
Special classes are conducted for ca^udidates preparing for the training colleges of pri- 
mary instruction, the ficoles des Arts et Metiers, and the veterinary colleges, as well as 
for those who wish to enter the administration of public ways, such as the post-office 
and telegraph departments. 

SECTION v.— NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

Miniitry of Puhlic Instruction and the Fine Arts.—{1) Catalogue and specimens of ob- 
jects relating to scientitic instruction furnished to normal schools, as supplied by the 
following firms : Rousseau (ancienno maison), Tramond, Deyrolle (musde for higher 
primary schools and natural history diagrams for normal schools), Auzoux Vve. (clastic 
anatomy), Lomercler Vve., Liitz (optical Instruments for training colleges), and Da- 
gnerre. (2) Collection of artificial fruits for instruction in pomology in training col- 
leges, supplied by M. Courtois, 12 Ruo Monton-Duvernet, Paris. (3) Apparatus for 
instruction by means of luminous projections in normal and second-grade schools. Pro- 
jection examples drawn by M. Amaud Durand, 69 Rue du Cardinal Lemoine. (4) Shed 
194 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS — FRANCE. 195 

for meteorological instruments, as supplied to all normal schools by tlie Education De- 
partment, through the Bureau Central M6t6orologiqae, 60 Rue de Crenelle, Paris (di- 
rector, M. Mascart), for the teaching of meteorology in normal schools. 
■ Normal ySc/foo/s.— Collective exhibit of students' work, as follows : 

1. Higher normal school for the training of professors of normal schools, newly or- 
ganized atSt. C]ond,M. Taconlet, director.— Plans of the school and geometrical draw^- 
ings by the student^', with a paper on the school by M. Tacoulet. 

2. Drawings, maps, herbaria, meteorological observations, specimens of mannal 
and written work, by the students of the normal schools of Alengon, Angers, Auteuil 
(near Paris), Besangon, Bloie, Bourges, Caen, Chartres, Chalons-sur-Marne, Limoges, 
Le ManB, La Grande Sauve (near Bordeaux), Melon, Moutb61iard, Nice, Orleans, 
liouen, Versailles. 

3. Sptciraeus of manual work done by the students of the Ecole Normale Speciale 
de Travail Manuel, formerly 10 Rue Thuillier, Paris. This school, organized under 
the <lirPction of M. de Salicis, was intended to train ordinary schoolmasters in the 
]>rinciplea of manual work, so far as it was to be taught in primary schools. The ex- 
liibit contains specimens of wood and iron work, turning, fitting, wood carving, 
stone carving, clay modeling, bookl)inding, photography, dtc. 

N. B. — Lately this school has been tranaferreil to St. Cloud, where it is a part of 
the iii.uhcr normal school for the training of professors of normal schools, above 
mentioned. 

Jivergniat Frcres, Paris. — Instruments for teaching natural philosophy (accwistics, 
hydrostatics, electricity, &c.), in normal schools. 

Jvzoiix. Mine. Veuve, <f Montaudon I^ne|ihew and successor of Dr. Auzoux), 56 Rue de 
Vaugirard, Pari."^. — \)v. Auzonx's Clastic Anatomy— collection of anatomical models 
cojuposed of solid pieces which can he easily adjusted or separated, and removed piece 
by piece as in actual dissection. (Clastic, from xXdo), I hrcuk ojf'.} Since 1842 till his 
death (18.-i0) Dr. Auzoux had been steadily working at this collection, which actually 
contains no less than 150 models of human or comparative anatomy and of botany. 
These delicate and minutely accurate scientific specimens are fabricated in the village 
of Si. vVubin d'Escroville (Lure). Specimens exhibited: (1) Clastic Man, iucomplete, 
3 ft. 10 in., for colleges and middle-class public schools. (2) Egg of Hen, 148 times 
the size of ordinary egg (size of Epyornis tgg — Is. Goefl'roy Saint-Hilaire), on which, 
by means of four difierent sections, thestructure of birds' eggs can be studied, and the 
formation of the germ followed to its complete development. This colossal model en- 
ables the metamorphoses of the vitellus and vitelline vesicle and the formation of the 
allantoid to be traced. It not only simplifies the study of the embryology of birds, but 
also facilitates that of mammals. (3) Heart of adult, divided in halves, showing the 
disposition of the cavities, the muscular fibers, vessels, nerves, valves, and orifices of 
the vessels. (4) Eye, complete, very large. On Ibis new model are seen, as in the 
preceding, not only the muscles, vessels, nerves, membranes, vitreous Jiumnr, crystal- 
line lens, &c. (each part removable), but also the difierent micro.scopic layers of the 
retina, choroid, and iris, described bj^ modern anatomists. (5) Ear (temporal 2 ft. 
long), new model, showing the internal, external, and central parts in their minutest 
details, the enlargement of the auditory nerves. &c. This model reproduces the recent 
studies of Corti, Rosenthal, Lewenberg, and Reissner, and shows the action of the 
ossicles, the necessity of the fenestra ovalis, the fenestra rotunda, the membranous 
canals, the endolymph and perilymph, the double wall of the cochlea, the infundibu- 
lum, nnd the action of the air inclosed in the central ear, thus representing the won- 
derful mechanism of bearing in a nianner that can be understood liyall. ((i) Larynx, 
showing the cartilagrs, uniscles, vessels, nerves, tracheal artery, and divisions of the 
broncliitc to their minutest ram itications. (7) Foot of Horse with the pastern, showing 
the hoof, podophyllous tissues, plantar pad, vessels, nerves, &c., all of which parts 
can be detaclied separafely ; the hoof is divided as by Bracy-Clark, and the Charlier 
slio.e is placed on it. (8) Stock (Cherianihns clwiri) — stalk, leaves, and flowers at dif- 
ferent degrees of development ; complete flower and ripe fruit, showing the two valves 
(silique), dehiscence commencing: (a) floweronly ; (/>) pod. (9) Grain of Wheat (Tn'- 
ticam rt'.'ttivum, L. ), 30 times the diameter, with its envelopes, embryonic layer, farin- 
aceous iiuisw, the embryo and its dependencies, which cau be detached and replaced by 
an embryo in conrseof development by germination, and on which is seen all that con- 
stitutes the plantlet. (10) Sj)\^elet of Wheat (Tritioum (rsHvum), very large, showing, 
1st, the glumes ; 2d, the glumelles : 3d, the ovary and the two styles with their stig- 
ni;is; 4tii, the stamens; 5th, the uectarial glands, before and after fecundation, from 
the researches of Prof. Bidard. (11) Cherry, ripe, showing the different layers of the 
pericarp, the ovule and its envelopes. (12) Wood, piece of dicotyledonous woody 
stem (Qucrcns communis), three years old, greatly enlarged, upon which is shown the 
central pith, spiral vessels or trachea?, medullary sheath, medullary rays, composition 
of woody layers, the annular vessels— rayed and dotted, lacunae, the duramen and 
sap wood, cambium seiiaratiug the woody layer from the cortex ; on this last, the 

195 



196 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

leaflets being separate, can be seen tbe epidermis, the suberose and berbaceous layers, 
the laticiferous vessels, and the fibers of the liber. 

These specimens are supplied to normal schools by the French Education Depart- 
ment. 

Courtois, Paris. — Collection of artificial fruits for the teaching of pomology in 
normal schools. 

Deyrolle, ^mile, 23 Rue de la Monnaie, Paris. — (1) Natural history diagrams. (2) 
Typical collections of vertebrate and invertebrate animals, with appliances used for 
teaching natural history in normal schools. 

Lemercier, Mme. Veuve, 7 Eue Vavin, Paris. — Illustrations of structural anatomy, by 
the late Dr. F. G. Lemercier. Models for normal school collections. 

(The numbers are those of the Lemercier catalogue.) (1) Structural anatomy of 
Man, by the late Dr. F. G. Lemercier, who was long assistant of Dr. Auzoux ; (2) 
stomach expanded, 2 parts; (3) structure of the stomach; (4) gastric peptic gland; 
(5) the same, withered ; (6) a cystose gland; (7) gastric mucous gland; (8) glands of 
Brunner; (9) structureof the small intestines; (10) glands of Lieberkiihn; (11) villus 
of the small intestines ; (17) anatomical model — VEcorche de Houdon ; (19) maxilla, 
Avith its support; (20) big molar tooth; (22) typical foot of the horse; (24) a bean; 
(25) a germ; (26) a small nut; (27) two grains of pollen. 

Liitz, optical instrument malier, 82 Boulevard St.-Germain, Paris. — (1) Collection 
of optical instruments in use in the training colleges. (2) Lamps and lanterns for 
dissolving views ; appliances specially adapted for primary schools. 

MM. Nicolas et Marcotte, architects, Caen. — Plans of the training college for male, 
teachers (ficole Normale d'Instituteurs) of Caen (Calvados). 

Paris, model school for girls annexed to the Paris Female Normal School. — 9 books 
of children's work; quarterly examination papers; one book of maps from memory. 

Teachers' Institutes. — A collective exbibit of pedagogical memoirs and didactic works 
by schoolmasters, including essays on pedagogical questions by M. Serrurier, of 
Havre, and local monographs on all the villages and hamlets of the arrondissement of 
St. Omer (Pas-de-Calais) by public school teachers. 

Tramond, M., 9 Rue de I'ficole de M^decine, Paris. — Objects for teaching natural his- 
tory in normal schools, as supplied to the French Education Department. 

SECTION VI.— SPECIAL EXHIBIT OF THE CITY OF PARIS. 

I. School architecture. — Plans of schools : (1) Training college for teachers at 
Auteuil, near Paris ; architect, M. Salleron ; finished in 1882 ; outlay, 2,025,000 francs, 
including the cost of the school furniture, which amounted to 175,000 francs. (2) 
Higher primary school, Arago, Place de la Nation, Paris; cost, 980,000 francs. This 
building contains 12 class-rooms, 2 large amphitheaters, 1 examination ball, a library, 
3 drawing clas's-rooms, 1 modeling-room, &c.; architect, M. Deconchy. (3) Boys' 
primary school, Avenue Duquesue, Paris; M. Leroux, architect. (4) Infant school 
(asile) Jtbr 220 children, Rue Jourdain, Paris; architect, M. Salleron. (5) Elementary 
school for boys and girls, Rue Blanche; architect, M. Salleron. (6) Specimen of tem- 
porary schools; architect, M. J. A. Bouvard. In order to insure the immediate exe- 
cution in the metropolis of the law of March 28, 1882, making attendance at school 
compulsory, the town of Paris was obliged to construct in great haste several tem- 
porary buildings designed to receive the children for whom there was no accommo- 
dation in the schools. A system of light construction in wood, with double-existing 
partitions, was adopted, and enabled the municipality to open, within five months 
after the promulgation of the new act, 58 new schools, accommodating 15,000 children. 
(7) School group (containing a school for boys, a school for girls, and an infant school). 
Rue Oudinot, Paris ; architect, M. Deconchy. 

(For fuller details, see the Special Catalogue of the City of Paris.) 

II. Education — (Direction de I'Enseignement primaire). — M. Carriot, directeur; M. 
Duplau, sous-directeur. (1) Documents relative to the organization of the institu- 
tion of public instruction of Paris (see specially the Notice sur les ^tahlissements d'en- 
seignement ptihlic de la Ville de Paris, 1864). (2) Pedagogical works of the male and 
female teachers. 

Primary schools. — Teacher's desk; school table (2 seats), combination table for the 
writing, drawing, or needle-work class, slated blackboard, metrical compendium, 
counter, geographical appliances; specimen of a school museum organized by the 
teachers and pupils; pbotograpbs; work done in school, «&c. Specimen of school 
rewards. Honor List prize, reward cards, &c. 

In flint sc/iooZs.— School furniture; views of school-rooms and dependencies, photo- 
graphs, &c.; work done in ini'ant schools. 

Higher primarii schools (boys 12 to 17 years old). — Specimens of work done by pupils; 
teai^hinji ot physical ami natural sciences; photographs showing a manipulation room, 
a school musenm, and a school workshop. 
196 



FOEEIGN EXHIBITS FRANCE. 197 

Higher primary, schools (girls 13 to 17 years). — Specimen of school work, time 
table. Specimens of bookkeeping work ; views of class-room, of amphitheater, and 
a model kitchen. 

Instruction of adults (night schools for scholars more than 15 years old). — Pro- 
grammes of commercial teaching for young men and young girls. Specimens of work 
done in classes. 

Teaehing of drawing in elementary, higher primary, and night schools. — Specimen of 
the progressive series of moilels. Drawings by the scholars. Photograph showing a 
plan of drawing and modeling. 

Teaching of gymnastics and drill in schools. — Specimens of the apparatus employed 
for the teaching of gymnastics. — Photograph of scholars during a gymnastic lesson. 
Model of uniforms of school battalions. Photograph showing boys at drill. 

Handicraft teaching in elementary schools for hoys (6 to 13 years old). — Series of work 
done by boys. Views of workshops. 

Handicraft teaching in elementary schools for girls (6 to 13 years). — Teaching of needle- 
work. Specimens of work; cutting out. 

Professional teaching for young men (13 to 17 years) — ficole Municipale Diderot, 60 
Boufevard de la Villette, Paris. — Specimens of work done in the school smithy, car- 
pentering, turning, and fitting-up shops ; locksmiths' and other work ; photographs 
of school workshops and refectories. 

Professional teaching for young girls (12 to 17 years). — Specimen of work done in the 
china painting studio Corset making, embroidery, artificial flowers, &,c. -Photo- 
graphs of the workroom of the Eue Violet School. Specimen of drawing by girls of 
the schools of Eue Violet, Eue Bossuet, and Eue Ganueron. 

jScole Municipale de Physique et Chimie Induxtrielles, 42 Eue Lhomond — Work by 
students, 14 to 19 years. — Photographs of the laboratories. 

SECTION VII.— AET EDUCATION. 

Ministry of PuMic Instruction and Fine Arts, Five 'Arts Section. — (1) Plans of the 
National School of Decorative Arts at Limoges (Haute-Vieune) ; architect, M. Jourdain. 
This school was established by the municipality for instruction in art bearing on ibe 
ceramic manufactures for which Limoges has long been famous, and has been recently 
placed upon an entirely new footing by the decree dated November 5, 1881. It will 
henceforth be called I'Ecole Natiouale des Arts D6coratifs de Limoges. M. Louvrier de 
Lajolais, the director of the ficole Nationale des ArtsD6coratifs, is also the director of 
this school. 

(2) Collective exhibit of work done in the principal national and municipal schools 
of arts in France. 

(3) Specimens of drawing done by the candidates for the diploma of drawing master. 

(4) Specimens of the drawing done by the candidates for the diploma of primary 
school teachers ( brevet supdrieur). 

(5) Eegulations concerning the teaching of drawing in primary, higher pri mary, and 
normal schools. 

(6) Collection of casts, used as drawing models in normal schools and secondary 
schools (lyc4es). 

(7) List of the special inspectors of drawing appointed by the Education Depart- 
ment, and various documents on art education in France. 

AKT SCHOOLS. 

Alger, National Art School of. — Drawings, by students — heads, flowers, architecture, 
1 panel and I portfolio. 

Bordeaux Municipal School of Drawing, Painting, and Architecture. — (1) Studies in 
oil painting ; (2) original compositions In oil, decorative panels ; (3) flowers and fig- 
ures from nature ; (4) studies of anatomy ; (5) drawings of animals from old masters ; 
(6) specimens of steel engraving and etching ; (7) original architectural designs, proj- 
ect for an odeon ; (8) portfolio of drawings. 

Bourges, National School of Art at. — (1) Panel of drawings ; (2) portfolio. 

Clermont-Ferrand, School of Art of. — (1) Panel drawings; (2) portfolio. 

Dijon, National School of Fine Arts at.— {l) Drawing from the living model; (2) 
water colors (flowers); (3) original design and decorative compositions; (4) original 
composition in architecture, &c. ; (5) portfolio of drawings and original designs. 

Douai, academic schools of art at. — (1) Panel of drawings"; (2) portfolio of drawings. 

Lille, academic schools of art at. — (1) Studies in oil painting — expressive heads, mu- 
sical instruments, still life, figure from the living model; (2) portfolio of drawings. 

Limoges National School of Decorative Art. — (1) Panel of drawings, flowers. 

Lyons National School of Fine Arts. — (1) Figure painting in oil ; (2) flowers in water 
colors ;■ (3) specimens of steel engraving and etching ; (4) original design iu decora- 
tive a,rt, &c. : (5) portfolio of drawings. 

197 



> 

198 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OK LEANS EXPOSITION. 

Marseilles, Mmiidpal Svhool of Fine Arts at. — (I) Studies in oil naiutiug (head of a 
womau, lisores from llviu,t>; models); (2) pauel of di'aAviugs from casts and living 
model; (o) portfolio of graduated series of drawings. 

Nice, National School of Becoratire Art at. — (1) Panel of drawings; (2) archifectural 
drawings; (3) portfolio of drawings. 

Paris National School of Decoraiive Art, 5 Rue do I'ficole de Mcdeciuo, director, M. 
Louvrier do Lajolais. — This school, a continuation of that founded by J. J. Bachelier 
in 17G5, is entirely free. It contains day and evening classes, and holds also public 
classes on Sunday. Work exhibited : (1) Specimens of original design m decorative 
art: design for a"bath-room, a fountain, a clock, a fan with its t)ox, a casket, candle- 
sticks, &c. ; (2) figure drawing from the living model; (3) portfolio conlaiuiug a 
graduated series of drawings and designs (figure, decorative art, architecture, anat- 
omy, &c. ). 

Paris National Drawing School for Girls, Eue de Seine. — Specimens of drawing from 
nature: heads (chalk), flowers, water colors, etchings, engravings, original design 
(necklace with pearls), &c. 

Poitia-8, School of Art o/.— Specimens of students' work: (1) Panel of drawings, 
etchings, steel engravings, &c. ; (2) portfolio of drawings. 

lioubaix, National School of Industrial Art at. — (1) Panel of drawings; (2) portfolio. 

St. Pierre-les- Calais School of Industrial Art. — Specimens of drawing and designs lor 
lace. 

Toulouse, Municipal School of Fine Arts of.— {I) Figure studies in oil painting, from 
the living model; (2) architectural design ; (3) studies in ornament; (4) portfolio of 
drawings. 

Tovrs, Municipal School of Fine Arts at (especially intended for the training of 
architects and artisans in the building trades). — (1) Specimens of architectural design, 
study of perspective ; (2) stereotomy, drawings, and models in plaster, done by stu- 
dents and pupils; (3) T>-ait de bois, wood models, by students; (4) portfolio of draw- 
ings. 

Vaienciennes, academic schools of art at. — (1) Studies of decorative painting — flowers, 
vase, figure, &c. — in oil; (2) ^anel of drawings; (3) portfolio of drawiugs. 

APPLIANCES. 

Avoine, Paris. — Three casts— the three orders of architecture. 

Cernesson, Leopold Camille, architect, 23 Eue Michel-Ange, Paris. — Elementary- 
Grammar of Design (Grammaire El6mentaire du Dessin), 2 vols. 4°, Paris (Duclier, 
publisher) ; pupils' drawing charts. 

Delrie, G., Paris. — 11 anatomical figures (casts). 

Genestet de Chairao et Ce$iy, Bordeaux, Gironde. — Plaster casts to serve as models for 
geometrical and industrial drawing. 

Banvier, Paris. — Drawings (geometrical), designs in zinc. 

Thomas, Paris. — Geometrical outlines and developable solids. 

SECTION VIII.— SECONDAEY AND HIGHER INSTRUCTION. 

Lycees et Facult]i;s. 

ministry of public instruction and fine aktp. 

Directors of secondary instfvclion, — (1) Map of France, showing the lyc^es and com 
munal colleges, and higher normal schools for the training of teachers of lycees 
for boys and girls. (2) Eeports and documents on secondary instruction in France. 
(3) Specimens of work done by pupils of the lycees; essays which have been re- 
warded in the concourse genSral, or competitive examination, held annually in Paris 
between the best pupils of the Parisian and provincial lyc6es of France. (4) Speci- 
mens of architecture of secondary schools (see below the names of MM. DeBaudot, 
Lambert, Lecceur, Proust, Vaudremer) ; jihotographs of lyc6es ; album o( jjhot igraphs 
taken at the higher normal school at Sevres for the training of lady xirofessors for 
the girls' high schools (It^ce'es defilles'). 

Directors of superior inslruction. — (I) Statistics and reports on higher education in 
France. (2; Specimens of plans and photographs of buildings for faculties, schools 
of medicine, law, and theology. (3) Regulations of, and programmes for admission 
to, the higher professional schools ; programmes of the examinations for jicademie. de- 
grees iu the faculties of 'Avt {lettres et sciences), medicine, kiw, and divinity. (4) Speci- 
mens of original work by members of the schools of independent research at Ronae 
and Athens (ficoles Frangaises de Rome et d'Athcn ) ; work by membess of the Scole 
des Hautes Etudes, Paris ; Bulletin des Sciences Math^matiques. 
198 



FOREIGN EXHIBITS FEANCE. 199 

ECOLE LIBRE DES SCIENCES POLITIQUES. 

Paris. — Programme of class-books, 1884-'d5. 

SCHOOL ARCHITECTUEE. 

Bordeaux, city of. — Plans of the faculties of theology, science, and letters, M. Du- 
rand, architect. Plans of the School of Medicine, M. Pascal, architect. Plaii of the 
High School (Lyc^e) of Bordeaux. 

College Sainte-.Barbe, director, M. Dubief, Place du Panthdon, Paris. — Photographs 
and plana of the school, clabs-rooms, gymnasium, &c. 

De Beaudot, architect, 3 Place de Kennes, Paris. — Plans of the Lyc^e Lakanal h 
Sceaus, near Paris (Seine), 7 panels. This lyc^e (national school for secondary in- 
struction, constructed for 700 boarders, 50 day boarders, and 100 day scholars) is con- 
structed in a space of 22 acres. The buildings are surrounded by a park ; the dis- 
position of the buildings is such tbat the play grounds are sheltered against the west 
and north winds ; they are open to the east, and look on the park. The refectories or 
dining-halls are near the kitchens, which are isolated from the rest of the buildings. 
The establishment is warnled by steam. "The system of warming is combined with 
that of the ventilation necessary in the class-rooms, studies, and dormitories. For 
this purpose vertical openings are placed in the wall and united with the horizontal 
shafts placed at the bottom of the rafters, and placed in communication with the ven- 
tilatin"- lanterns on the roofs" (note by the Architect). The Sanatorium is turned 
towards the east in a completely isolated building. A special building for contagious 
diseases is connected with it by an open gallery. The school gymnasium and covered 
courts (prdaux) face the park. Great care has been given to the hygienic arrange- 
ment of the lavatories and closets. They are supplied with a great abundance of 
water, and by means of reservoirs de chanse and other dispositions marked on the plans, 
the diluted matters are speedily carried away through a special drain which reaches 
the river Bi^vre at the point where it meets tbe main drain {egout collecteur) of the 
left bank of the Seine. 

JScole Alsacienne (head-master, M. Eieder, Agr6g6 de I'Universit^), 128 Eue d'Aasas, 
Paris. — (1) Plan of the gymnasium; (2) plan of the school ; (3)- documents relative to 
the school ; (4) album of photographs. 

Hcole Monge (director, M. Godart), 145 Boulevard Malesherbes, Paris. — Photographs 
of the school, class-rooms, play-yards, gymnasium, dormitories, refectories, &c. Groups 
of pupils and documents. 

Lambfrt, Marcel, architect, 8 Place du HS.vre, Paris. — Design for a lyc6e d'enseigne- 
ment special, 3 panels. 

Lecoeur, architect, 128 Rue de Crenelle, Paris. — (1) Type of a secondary school in a 
country town. Plans of the lyc^e of Bayonne. Bird's-eye view of the buildings, 
courts, and gardens. (2) Types of secondary schools in the most populated part of 
the metropolis : (A) Plans of the Petit Lyc6e Condorcet, corner of Eues d' Amsterdam 
and de Hambourg at Paris. This lyc^e, an annex to the largest Paris public school 
(Ly c6e Condorcet), situated between the Place du H&vre and the Rue Caumartin, is spe- 
cially devoted to junior boys. Number of scholars, 766, of whom 230 are day boarders 
and 53G day scholars {extenes) . Terms for the year: Grammar division, day board- 
ers, 850 francs ; day scholars, 250 francs. Lower division, day boarders, 700franc8 ; day 
scholars, ISO Irancs. Warmed by steam at low pressure (system of Geneste et Herscher). 
Methodical circulation of steam, heating surfaces direct into the room, the said sur- 
faces placed at the foot of the cold-air chamber, emission of pure air moderately hot, 
evacuation of foul air by opening into the collecting shafts. Direct ventilation all 
through the year. (B) Plans of the Petit Lyc6e Louis-le-Grand, in course of erec- 
tion opposite to the Jardin du Luxembourg, Paris, inaugurated in October, 1883. 
(C) Lyc6e de Moutlufou (Allier), area, live acres. The play grounds are open to 
tbe south. Underground drains carry all pluvial and other waters to the Cher. Spe- 
cial taps placed in the drains facilitate their trequent cleansing. Warming by ceramic 
calorif eres with heated air, system of Genesto ot Herscher. Actual number of pupils, 
30y ; boarders, 98. (D) Design for a normal school with detached boarding houses, tu- 
torial system. 

I'roubt, architect, Paris. — Plans of the reuuicipal college atFontainebleau. 

Taudrcmcr, architect, 110 Rue de Grenelle, Paris.— (1) Plans of the Lyc6e at Ajaccio 
(Coi'sica) ; (2) ])laua of the Lyc6o de 1' Avenue Duquesue, Paris ; (3) plans of theLyc6e 
de Grenoble (Isere). 

SECTION IX.— EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Ministry of Pvllic Instructioii. — (1) Table giving extracts from the laws rendering 
elementary education in France free, compulsory, and secular. (2) Documents relative 
to teaching in France. (3) Rei)orts, i)apers, &c., relating to technical and profes- 

100 



200 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

sional educatiou. (4) Catalogue of books published under the sanction of the De- 
partment. (5; Specimen of a collection of books supplied by the Education Department 
to every normal school, to form a special library for the use of professors and assistant 
masters and mistresses. These libraries receive from the Ministry of Public Instruc- 
tion, as a nucleus, the works named in the list of the exhibits. There are at present 
86 male normal schools and 66 female normal schools in France. All have received 
th^se grants of books. There are also in the chief towns or cantons libraries provided 
for the use of teachers. The number of these libraries was, according to the latest 
statistics, 2,507, possessing together 662,319 volumes. They receive also a nucleus of 
the works mentioned in the catalogue of exhibits. (6) Documents relative to elemen- 
tary education : Statistics of the schools, masters, and budget of primary instruc- 
tion (1884, O. Gr6ard); Grande Statistique sur I'Enseignement Primaire de la Seine; 
decrees and minutes by the conseil sup6rieur; reports of school inspectors; 6tats de 
situation, 1879-'84 ; projets de resolutions vot^s dans les conferences d'instituteurs. (7) 
Large statistical charts ; table showing the number of primary schools in France, num- 
ber of teachers, number of maternal schools, number of pupils in primary schools 
(kindergarten), number of normal schools, results of teaching, expenditure for edu- 
cation. (8) Fifteen placards, containing the summary of the latest returns concerning 
primary instruction, school savings banks, school libraries, teachers' institutes, i^en- 
aions, &c. (These charts and placards have been prepared especially for the New 
Orleans Exposition by the ministerial commission of statistics, president, M. E. Le- 
vasseur). (9) Collection of the local bulletins (periodic publications) on primary edu- 
cation issued in each department. 

Pedagogic Museum, 10 Rue Louis Thuillier (formerly in Rue Lhomond), Paris (di- 
rector, M. Berger, inspecteur-g6neral de I'instruction publique). — This museum has 
been erected in pursuance of a decree of the President of the Republic, on the motion 
of M. Jules Ferry, minister of public instruction, May 13,.1879. It constitutes a per- 
manent scholastic exhibition, and a center of information on primary instruction in 
France and foreign countries. 

This establishment includes five sections: (1) School furniture (maidrieZ scolaire). 
Plans of schools, types of class-room furniture. (2) Teaching apparatus (appareils d'en- 
seignement) — diagrams, models, geographical, scientific, and technological collections; 

(3) Collections of work done by pupils (boys and girls) in the class-room and workshop. 

(4) Documents bearing on the history of education in France. (5) Central Library — 
books for teachers, books for pupils, school libraries, popular libraries. The Museum 
Library, containing at present about 17,000 works, 6,848 of which are derived from a 
valuable collection of the best treatises on education in all languages, formed by In- 
spector-General Rapet, and acquired by the State in virtue of the law of June 5, 1880. 
In January, 1882, there was established a circulating library intended to supply helps 
for study to the teaching staff; 230 different sets of works compose the three sections 
of it — literature, science, pedagogy — and are sent, free of expense, to all parts of France 
and Algeria. One hundred and twenty-four newspapers (53 published in France, 71 
published abroad), mostly relating to education and teaching, are received at the Peda- 
gogic Museum, and put at the disposal of the public. A monthly scholastic publica- 
tion, the Revue P^dagogique, has since July, 1882, become the organ of the Mus^e 
P6dagogique, and is edited under the supervision of an editing committee appointed 
by the Minister of Public Instruction. The Museum is open daily from 10 a. m. to 4 
p. m. to persons provided with students' tickets (cartes de travail), and to the public 
on Sundays and Thursdays. The cartes de travail are issued at the Mus6e P^dago- 
gique, and at the Ministry of Public Instruction (direction of primary instruction, fifth 
bureau). 

The Mus^e P6dagogique is exhibiting : (1) A notice explaining the origin of the Mu- 
seum, its organization, and the services it renders. (2) A specimen of its catalogue. 

(3) Three boxes, containing specimens of the works sent out by the circulating library. 

(4) Two photographs, representing traveling caravans (or excursions for special stud- 
ies by students of training colleges). 

Cercle de la Lihrairie, de L'Imprimerie, et de la Papeterie,^ 117 Boulevard St. -Germain, 
Paris. — Collective exhibition of educational and scholastic publications, documents, 
and books on primary, secondary, higher, technical, and artistic education, school 
administration, and authorized prize-books, school rewards, &c. 

Thirty-four publishers have taken part in the collective exhibit, viz : 
Alcan, F61ix (works on science and medicine), Bailifere, J. B., & fils (works on science and medicine), 
Baschet, L. (artistic publications), Belin Veuve &flls (scholastic publications), BonasaeLebel (images and 
prints), Charavay frferes (educational works), Claesen (technical publications), Colin (Aimand) &Cie. 
(scholasticpublicationa), DelahayeetLecrosnier (medical publications), Delalainfi O'.res(8chola8tio publi- 
cations), DesPossez &Cie. (architectural publications), Ducher &Ci6. (architectural publications), Dnc- 
rocq (educational publications), D. Dumoulin &Cie., Dupont, Paul (educational publications), Firmin, 
Didot & Cie. (scholastic and educational publications), Hachette & Cie. (scholasLic and educational 
publications), Henmiycr (educational works), Hetzel & Cie. (educational publications), Jouvet &. Cie. 

' A detailed catalogue of the publications exhibited by the Cercle de la Librairie has been issued. 
200 



FOEEIGN EXHIBITS FEAIJCE. 201 

^scholastic publications), A. Maine& Cie. (mufic), Masson, Georges (medical and scientific publications), 
v. Palm 6 (scholastic works). Em.Penin (scholastic works), Picard Bernheim, Plon, Nouirit & Cie! 
(educational publications), Pou^tsielguo freres (educational publications), Quaciin (artistic library), 
Koi'et (collection of books on technical education), "V. Sarlit (scholastic works), Suzanne, (geographical 
material). 

Delagrave, C/;., publisher, 15 Rue Soufflot, Paris. — Special exhibit of (1) educalioual 
publicatious aud text-books used in primary aud higher primary schools, also in lycees 
and colleges. (2) Geographical maps and globes. (3) Special works and models for art 
education, including a collection of ten casts derived from the antique by Professor 
Sobre ; geometrical outlines by M. Thomas ; a course of drawing in sixty- four sheets ; 
orders of architecture, by M. Avoine — a collection of casts illustrating the Corinthian, 
Doric, Ionian, and Tuscan orders of architecture ; Method of Anatomy, by Paul Colin 
and Debrie — this consists of nine basso-relievos (height 39.37 inches), illustrating os- 
teology, myology, aud general anatomy; museum collection, by L6on Ch6deville, 
under the direction of MM. Claude Sauvageot, Auguste Eacinet, and Louvrier de 
Lajolais — this consists of models executed, first, according to geometrical formulae ; 
second, according to types selected from antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Eenaissance, 
aud the 17th and 18th centuries. 

Fiche, 31., 8Eue Montpensier, Pau.— (1) Documents relative to the educational foun- 
dations of the late M. Tourasse. (2) Documents relating to the Cercle populaire d'^d- 
ucation atLun6ville, presented by the sou8-pr6fet at Lun6ville, M. E. Lafargue. 

EotJiseMld, M., 13 Eue des Saints Pferes, Paris. — Scientific works for school libraries 
and rewards. 

201 



AWARDS BY THE JURY ON EDUCATION, 

WORLD\S INDUSTRIAL AND COTTON CENTENNIAL 

EXPOSITION, 

NEW ORLEANS, LA., 1884-'85. 



Depaktment of the Interioe, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington, D. 6'., July 31, 1885. 
Dear Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith tbe list of awards 
made by the jury appointed to examine educational exhibits at the 
World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition. 

ORGANIZATION. 

The jury commenced work on the 13th day of April, and about six 
weeks were required for the completion of their labors. The chairman 
was designated by the chairman of the Committee on awards, Col. Gus. 
A. Breaux, and a secretary was elected by the jury. The members of 
the jury were Hon. J. W. Hoyt, ex-governor of Wyoming; Hon. J. 
George Hodgins, LL.D., deputy minister of education, Ontario, Canada; 
Mon. B. Buisson, of France ; Mr. Ichizo Hattori,of Japan; Eev. Walter 
Hillman, LL.D., president of Central Female Institute, Clinton, Miss.; 
and William O. Rogers, Esq., for many years superintendent of city 
schools, Xew Orleans. 

CLASSIFICATION OF EXHIBITS. 

The first subject considered by the jury was the classification of ex- 
hibits. Certain classes of exhibits were assigned to them. These classes 
contained an enumeration of many articles that would naturally be found 
in an educational exhibit, but it was diflicull to say to which class much 
of the material belonged. Grouping the exhibits in three classes cor- 
responding with the principal educational divisions adopted by the ex- 
position management seemed more difficult than the ijreparation of a 
new classification based on the divisions commonly used in the collec- 
tion of educational statistics. The following classification proved of 
service in bringing exhibits to a common plane for comparison: 

1. City schools. 2. Kindergarten. 3. Normal school.s. 4. Business colleges. 5. 
Private and public schools for secondary instruction. 6. Institutions lor the higher 
202 



LETTER ACCOMPANYING LIST OF AWAEDS. 203 

instruction of women. 7. Colleges and universities. 8. Schools of science. 9. Man- 
ual training schools. 10. Schoolsof medicine and nurse-training schools. 11. Library 
collections and appliances. 12. Schools of art. 13. Schools for the blind. 14. Schools 
for the deaf and dumb. 15. Schools forfeeble-minded children. 16. Eelbrniatory in- 
stitutions. 17. Charitable institutions. 18. Subjects for ^specicll consideration : (a) 
Drawing; (fc) ornamental pen work ; (c) sewing work; ((2) instruction in practical 
mechanics ; (e) herbaria; (/) museums. 19. Appliances: (a) Furniture; (/;) maps, 
globes, and casts; (c) drawing models, charts, aud copies; {(1) pedagogical, literarj"-, 
and scientific works; (e) object lessons, material, etc.; (/) gymnastic apparatus; 
{g) special devices. 

It is to belioped tbat a committee of expert educators will determine 
upon an American classification of educational exhibits, tbat it may be 
used in tbe arrangement of pedagogical museums, aud adopted by sucb 
future expositions witbiu our national boundaries as give attention and 
place to school exhibits. 

STANDARD OF JUDGMENT. 

It was found impossible to a(lo})t absolute standards of comparison. 
There is no list of points of excellence tbat should appear in each ex- 
hibit of an educational nature, nor any estimate of tbe relative impor- 
tance of qualities necessarily possessed by such exhibits. It was voted 
at one of tbe first meetings of tbe jury tbat, without instituting aformal 
com])arison between one exhibit and another, all sbould he carefully 
considered and awarded recognition according to merit. The judgment 
and experience of tbe jurors enabled them to set a value upon exhibits 
according to intrinsic merits, and to see in them either tbe results of 
wise instruction, or material for aiding the teacher, or means for devel 
oping the pupil. The conclusions reached by the several members of 
the jury showed that the standards of judgment developed by their ed- 
ucational experience produced similar results when applied to exhibits 
not possessing marked peculiarities. 

GRADES OF AWARDS. 

The extent and variety of educatioual exhibits made necessary quite 
a number of different awards. Collective and individual displays, com- 
mercial and instructive exhibits, could not be brought into two or three 
classes without ignoring many fundamental distinctions. The awards 
provided for by tbe committee in charge of jui-y work were not suffi- 
cient, and the jury on education was ]jermitted to make its own classi- 
fication and nomenclature of awards. Five grades of award were agreed 
upon as follows: Grand diploma of honor, diploma of honor, diiilouia, 
certificate of merit, and honorable mention. Large, com[>lete, and sat- 
isfactory coUectiA'^e exhibits received the grand diploma of honor. Ex 
hibits of considerable magnitude or peculiar excellence, whether indi 
vidual or collective displays, were award(^d the diploma of honor, or 
dipljoma, according to degree of merit. This arrangement of awards 

203 



204 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

harmonized with those made under similar circumstances at i:)revious 
great expositions. 

JUEISDICTION. 

The extent of the field of labor assigned to the educational jury caused 
some discussion, and was the subject of a conference with the chairman 
of the committee on awards. The opinion prevailing was that all ex- 
hibits having educational importance might properly be considered 
with reference not to their business, but to their educational worth. For 
exami)le, scientific collections were examined with reference rather to 
their adaptation for and place in a course of study, than their extent 
and pecuniary value. As other juries were restricted to the buildings 
set apart for commercial exLibits, it was desired that the educational 
jury should include as much material as possible in the building con- 
taining State and national exhibits. Personal communication with the 
Woman's Department and the Department of Colored Exhibits brought 
to the notice of the jury the educational material exhibited by these 
departments. In order to be informed of every educational exhibit, the 
very comprehensive request was inserted several times in the morning 
papers, that "all persons in charge of educational exhibits, or material 
of any sort pertaining to or illustrative of education in its varied forms," 
should give " notice of the location and nature of such exhibits." It is 
to be presumed that all vahiable exhibits were found by this means, 
and have a recognition in the accompanying list of awards. 

REPORT. 

The list of awards indicates in very brief terms the nature of the 
exhibits receiving recognition. This is scarcely more than a table, of 
contents, which gives hardly more than a catalogue of articles exhibited, 
and does not reveal the grounds of award. Quantitj^ is shown by it, 
but that more important factor, quality, is not made evident. Only by 
a report from the members of the jury can the merits of the exhibits, the 
causes producing best effects, and the lessons most emphatically taught, 
be made useful to those that were without opportunity to examine for 
themselves. In such a way many services rendered and favors granted 
can be deservedly recognized. 

FAVORS RECEIVED. 

It may not be improper to mention two instances in which the jury 
formally expressed a desire to recognize favors done the Department 
of Education. One was the loan of a Weber piano of fine tone and 
elegant finish. It was sent prouaptly at the opening of the Exposition, 
and was indispensable in connection with the kindergarten and kitchen 
garden classes. The otner constant benefactor was Tulane University. 
Its officers welcomed all educators and learned societies, and plac.ed its 
privileges at their disposal. The International Congress of Educators 

204 



LETTER ACCOMPANYING LIST OF AWARDS. 205 

and other gatherings occupied its hall for their meetings. Strangers 
were invited to use its library, and were t'he recipients of kindnesses 
that would have been thought of only by broad minds and generous 
hearts. 

The value of the accompanying list of awards as educational litera- 
ture is too apparent to need any comment, and the advantage of pla- 
cing it in libraries and centers of information for present use and- to be 
referred to in the future is beyond doubt. 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

LYNDON A. SMITH, 
Secretary Jury on Education^ 
World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial JExjposition. 

General John Eaton, 

Commissioner of Education. 

205 



AWAEDS. 



BELGIUM. 

Diploma. 

Lebou, L6ou, Brussels: Documents and works on public instruction. 

Certificate of merit. 

Abrens, Frere Antoine, Alost : Aritbmoineter. 

FumiJire, Tli6opbile, Brussels: Art publications. 

Soci6t6 Anonynic de la Construction Industrielle, Brussels : Adjustable scbool desks. 

ENGLAND. 

Diploma of honor. 

Birmingham Scbool Board : Model of scbool building, work by pupils, home-made 
physical apparatus, needlework. 
City of B»th: Models of ancient and modern baths. 

Nordenfeldt, Th., London ; School gymnasium on the Swedish (Ling's') system. 
Eigg, James, London : Model.i for teaching mechanic arts. 
Eoth, Dr., London : Models of appliancfS for physical training of children. 
Sheffield Board Schools: Manual work, drawings, &c., by pupils. 

Diploma. 

Association for the Oral Instruction of tho Deaf and Dumb, London : Educational 
appliances. 

British and Foreign Blintl Association, London: Books, relief maps, appliances 
for the blind. 

Stayne, Henjj^, Technical College, Loudon: Models and drawings of wood con- 
structions. 

HONDURAS. 

Diploma. 

Spanish Honduras: Educational exhibit. 

JAMAICA. 
Diploma of honor. 
Jamaica : Collective educational exhibit. 

JAPAN. 

Grand diploma of honor. 

Educational Department of Japan : Collective exhibit, collection of teaching ap- 
pliances, school results, statistical charts, educational documents, books and journals 
of learned societies. 
206 



LIST OF AWARDS MEXICO. 207 

Diploma of honor. 

Agricultural College of Kouiaba, Tokio : Complete collections of -lapa-iiese agricult- 
ural seeds, collection of insects and of dye stuffs, analysis of agricultural products, 
&c. 

Engineering College, Tokio: Models of steauislii))s, testing ujacliiue, marine boiler, 
etc., thirteen in number, all made by students; collection of Japanese minerals; 
eighteen volumes of students' drawings, and a number of the college publications. 

Kitaga\ra, G., of Tokio : Manikin and special anatomicftl models. 

Musical Institution of Tokio : Musical charts, musical instruments, and publica- 
tions of the institution. 

Pedagogical Museum of Tokio: Educational appliances. 

School for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, of Kioto-fu : Large number of charts illustrating 
methods of teaching; also art and industrial ^vork of pupils. 

Tokio Female Normal School : Students' drawing, prose and poetic compositions, 
sewing, embroideries, paintings, kindergarten "work, and simple chemical apparatus 
and books. 

Tokio Normal School: Desks, chairs, blackboard, students' drawings, statistical 
charts, books, and simple physical apparatus, &.c. 

University of Tokio : Photographs of museum, botanical garden, and university 
buildings; thirteen volumes of memoirs containing results of scicutifnc investigations 
by professors and students, manikin and anatomical models. 

Furukawa, E., of the School for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, of Kioto-fu; Methods of 
teaching the deaf, dumb, and blind. 

Diploma. 

Educational Appliance Manufacturing Company, Tokio: Chemical and physical 
apparatus. 

Kindergarten attached to Tokio Female Normal School : Teaching appliances, play- 
things, and children's work. 

Kioto-fu Female School : Embroideries, relief work, laces, and water-color paint- 
ings, &.c. 

Naka, T., of Tokio Female School : Apparatus for teaching fractions. 

Pedagogical Museum of Tokio : Folding geometrical figures. 

School of Gymnastics, Tokio: Gymnastic apparatus and publications. 

Tokio Female Normal School: Simple chemical apparatus. 

Tokio Normal School : Simple physical apparatus. 

Ushigome Fine Art School, Tokio: Work of students. 

Ccrtijlca'te of werit. 

Awonori-kei^, Gifu-kcn, Gumba-ken, Hakodate-ken, TsbikaAva-ken, Kanagawa-ken, 
Kumamoto-ken, Miye ken, Miyapi-ken^ Nagano-ken, Shiga-ken, Tochigi-ken, To- 
kio-fu, Hiroshima-ken, Fuknoka-ken, Tokushimu-kcu, Iwate-ken: School plans and 
pupils' work. 

MEXICO. 

Grand diploma of honor. 

Geographical and Exploring Commission, "Vera Cruz, State of Jalapa : Natural his- 
tory collections. 

Diploma of honor. 

Academy of Fine Arts: Free-hand and architectural drawing. 

Cubas, Antonio Garcia, City of Mexico: Maps showing instruction in agriculture, 
hydrography, and political divisions. 

207 



20S EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Diploma^ 

D'Acrosto, Lorenzo, City of Mexico : Natural lii story collections (auitnals and rep- 
tiles). 
Fournier Lyceum, City of Mexico : Specimens of penmanship and drawing. 
National Preparatory School of Art, City of Mexico : Drawings from copies. 
Nieto, Jose A., Cordova, Mexico : Entomological collections. 
Nuntes de Oca, Eaphael, City of Mexico : Herbaria, animals, &c. 

Certificate of merit. 

Clemente, Antonio, Neve, Mexico : Pedagogical chart and specimens of penmanship. 
Gobierno del Estado, Vera Cruz, Mexico : Collection of shells. 

MEXICAN EXHIBIT IN WOMAN'S DEPARTMENT. 

Diploma of lionor. 

City of Mexico : Representation of its national, municipal, and private schools. 

Diploma. 

Cordova Girls' School, State of Vera Cruz : Ornamental needlework. 
La Paz College, City of Mexico : Plans and views of college buildings. 
Mexico, Girls' Art and Professional School of City of: Art work, laces, embroid- 
ery, &c. 
Mexico, municipal schools of City of: Industrial and ornamental work. 
Mexico, national schools of City of: Views, embroidery, lacework, &c. 
Oaxaca, Girls' Academy of City of: Industrial and ornamental needlework. 
Zacona, Girls' School of City of : Ornamental needlework. 

FEANCE. 
Grand diploma of honor. 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : Collective display illustrating public 
instruction generally, and especially primary, higher primary, and art education in 
France. 

City of Paris: Collective exhibit illustrating the methods, appliances, and results 
of primary and higher primary instruction and system of evening classes in Paris. 

Diploma of honor. 

Algeria, schools of: Collective exhibits from the French and Arab schools. 

Alvergniat Fr^res, Paris: Instruments for teaching natural philosophy (acoustics, 
hydrostatics, electricity, &c.) in normal schools. 

Amiens, Somme: Collective exhibit of primary schools. 

Auzoux (Madame Veuve) et Montaudon (nephew and successor of Dr. Auzoux), 
Paris: Models of clastic anatomy as supplied to all normal schools. 

Bordeaux School of Drawing, Painting, and Architecture : Drawings and paintings 
by students. 

Bordeaux, Gironde : Plansof municipalbuildingsforprimary, secondary, and higher 
instruction. 

Bordeaux Girls' Higher Primary and Professional School : Specimens of written 
work, needlework, embroidery, and artificial iiowers by pupils. 

Bouvard, J., Paris: Plans of the national higher primary school of Voiron, &c. 

Cercle de la Librairie, Paris: (1) Collective exhibit of text books and educational 
works. (2) Collective exhibit of books on art. (3) Collective exhibit of maps and 
school appliances. 
208 



LIST OF AWARDS FRANCE. 209 

Cernessou, L. C, Paris: Plans of higher primary school of Montbard, grammar of 
design and pupils' drawing charts. 

De Baudot, architect, Paris: Plans of French high schools (lyc^es). 

Debrie, G., Paris: Anatomical models for art schools, 11 casts. 

Delagrave, Ch., Paris: Collective exhibit of books, maps, globes, and drawing 
models. 

Deyrolle, fimile, Paris : Charts for object lessons in primary and higher primary 
schools; collection of models of natural history of normal schools. 

Diderot School, School of Apprentices, Boulevard de la Villette, Paris : Specimens 
of manual work by the pupils. 

Dijon, primary schools of: Collective exhibit of pupils' work. 

Doubs, elementary schools of the department of : Collective exhibit. 

Ecole Nationale de Dessin pour les Jeunes Filles, Paris : Drawings, water-color 
sketches, engravings, original designs, &c., by pupils. 

iScole Normale Sp^ciale de Travail Manuel, formerly at Paris, tiow at St. Cloud : 
Specimens of manual work and drawings by students. 

Geneste et Herscher, engineers, Paris : Plans illustrating the system of ventilation 
and heating in schools. 

H4vre Apprentices' School (M. Lefebvre, director): Wood and iron work and mechan- 
ical drawings by the pupils. 

HSivre elementary schools : Collective exhibit of pupils' work. 

Hdvre Higher Primary School (M. P6rier, director) : Specimens of industrial and 
other work by pupils. 

Institution Livet, Nantes : Specimens of industrial work, including watchmaking 
by pupils. 

Levasseur, E., Paris: Physical and political maps of Europe, France, French colo- 
nies, &c. 

Ligue Frangaise de I'Enseignement, Paris branch : Specimens of books, gymnastic 
appliances, drill guns, &c., distributed to schools by this society. 

Lille, academic schools of art of: Drawings and paintings by students. 

Lille, city of: Collective exhibit from public, primary, and higher primary schools 
for boys and girls. 

Limoges Normal School : Students' work. 

Limoges National School of Decorative Art : DraAvings, water-color sketches, and 
engravings by pupils. 

Lyons National School of Fine Arts : Drawings, paintings, and engravings by stu- 
dents. 

Marseilles, ficole Municipale des Beaux Arts : Drawings, paintings, &c., by stu- 
dents. 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts, Paris : (1) Collective exhibit of draw- 
ings and other work, from students in the normal schools of St. Cloud, Paris, Eouen, 
Montb61iard, Besan^on, La Grande Sauve (Bordeaux), «&c. 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : (2) Selections of plans of several pri- 
mary, higher primary, and normal schools, plans of lyc^es, colleges, and faculties 
(universities). 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : (3) Specimens of the didactic mate- 
rial, books, maps, globes, scientific apparatus, &c., distributed to primary and nor- 
mal schools. 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : (4) Statistics and documents bearing 
on primary, scv'iondary, and higher education in France. 

Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : (5) Types of art museums and re- 
ward cards for elementary schools, collection of casts for teaching drawing, drawings 
by candidates for the certificates of drawing master, collective exhibit of drawings 
and paintings by students of several schools of art. 

209 



210 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Mus^e P^dagogique, Paris : Documents illustrating its origin and collections, speci- 
mens of circulating librarj', and monthly periodical {Revue FMagogique) issued by the 
authorities of the museum. 

Nice, ficole Nationale des Arts Decoratifs : Drawings and original designs by stu- 
dents. 

Nord, department of: Collective exhibit of primary and higher primary schools. 

Paris, city of: (1) Specimens of manual and other -vrork done by pupils in element- 
ary schools. 

Paris, city of : (2) School work and drawings by pupils in higher primary schools 
for boys. 

Paris, city of: (3) School work, drawings, specimens of needlework, embroidery, 
artificial flowers, painting on silk and china, by pupils in higher primary and profes- 
sional schools for girls. 

Paris, city of: (4) Specimens of drawings, modeling, and other work done by pu- 
pils of the free evening classes and commercial courses (cours d'adultes). 

Paris, Ecole Nationale des Arts D6coratifs : Drawings and original designs by stu- 
dents. 

Ravaisson, F., Paris : Series of reproductions of master works of art. 

Roubaix, [Gcole Nationale des Arts Industriels : Pupils' work, drawings, and origi- 
nal designs for laces, &c. 

Rouen, Ecole Manuelle d'Apprentissage (M. Lecaud6, director) : Wood and iron- 
work, and drawing by the pupils. 

Rouen, elementary schools: Collective exhibit of pupils' work. 

Rouen, Higher Primary and Professional School for Boys (M. Delarue, director): 
Specimens of industrial and other work by pupils. 

Rouen, higher primary schools for girls: Specimens of needlework, dressmaking, 
millinery, &c., by pupils. 

Seine-Inf^rieure, department of the : Collective exhibit of primary schools — plans, 
scholars' work, documents, &c. 

Soci6t^ des Creches, Paris : Model of a crfeche, plans, photographs, and documents 
relating to the French creches. 

Soci^t^ des Ecoles Enfantines, Paris: Model and plans of infant schools, appli- 
ances, and methods. 

Soci6t^ pour I'Encouragement de I'Instruction Primaire parmi les Protestants de 
France, Paris: Documents, specimens of drawing, and other work by students of the 
Protestant". Normal School at Courbevoie. 

Soci6t6 pour I'Enseignement Professionel des Femmes, Fondation Elisa Lemonuier, 
Paris : Collective exhibit of art work by pupils. 

Soci€t6 ijour I'Instruction £l6mentaire, Paris: Specimens of work done by stu- 
dents in the normal courses organized by the society. 

Toulouse, Ecole Municipale des Beaux Arts : Drawings and original designs by stu- 
dents. 

Tours, £cole R6gionale des Beaux Arts : Drawings and architectural models in wood 
and plaster by students. 

Tr61at, Emile, director of the Special School for Architecture, Paris : Plans illustra- 
ting the lighting and ventilation of school-rooms. 

Tunis, Schools of: Collective exhibit from French and Arab schools. 

Union Frangaise de la Jeunesse, Paris: Documents, specimens of work, and draw- 
ings by students. 

Vaudremer, architect, Paris: Plans of French high schools (lyc6es). 

Diploma. 
Algiers, iScole Nationale des Beaux Arts : Students' work, drawings, &c. 
Amiens, city of: Documents and statistics showing the system of school savings 
banks. 
Armengaud Ala6, Paris : Panels for the decoration of class-rooms. 
210 



LIST OF AWARDS FRANCE. 211 

Auteriil, Normal School of, near Paris : Linear drawing by students. 

Besangon, primary schools of : Collective exhibit. 

Bontheaux, Sombaconr, Doubs : School museum. 

Boulogne-sur-Mer, higher Primary Boys' School of: Specimens of manual and other 
work. 

Bourgee, ficole Nationale dea Beaux Arts : Drawings by students. 

Bridoux, Gaille-Fontaine, Seine-In f^rieure : Geographical maps by pupils. 

Christofle, silversmith, Paris : Drawings by apprentices of the school attached to hia 
workshop. 

Clermont-Ferrand, ificole R^gionale des Beaux Arts : Drawings by students. 

Creuse, primary schools of the department of: Specimens of pupils' work and pre- 
liminary training in manual work. 

Dijon, ficole Nationale des Beaux Arts : Original designs and paintings by students. 

Dijon, elementary schools of: Manual work and clay modeling by boys. 

Dijon, higher primary schools of: Drawings and manual work. 

Dorangeon, Mus^e Industriel, Paris : Charts for teaching object lessons in elemen- 
tary schools. 

Douai, academic schools of arts of : Drawings by students. 

Doubs, maternal schools of: Collective exhibit. 

Doubs, girls' primary schools of: Collective exhibit of needlework — (1) School at 
Miserey ; (2) school at Naujaucourt (Mme. Emonot) ; (3) school at Pontarlier (Mme. 
Mignot); (4) Colombier-Fontaine (Mme. Pardonnet) ; (5) Granville School, at Besan- 
gon (Mme. Peanthier) ; (6) school at Audincourt (Mme. P6chin) ; (7) school of Mes- 
dames Planty and Girardot. 

]6cole de Travail, Bischoffsheim Foundation (working school for young Jewesses), 
Paris : Scholars' needlework and artificial flowers. 

Fr^t6 «fe Cie, purveyors to the ministry of public instruction, Paris : Specimens of 
gymnastic apparatus for primary and normal schools. 

Garcet et Nisius, Paris : School desks and material for object lessons in infant 
schools. 

H6ment, F^lix, et Cic^ri, Paris: Collection of twelve drawings illustrating the 
principal terms of geography. 

Ikelmer, Paris : Terrestrial globe for schools. 

Isfere, maternal schools of the department of: Collective exhibit. 

Jeannot, fimile, Belleherbe, Doubs : School museum (agricultural). 

LeccBur, architect, Paris : Plans of high schools for boys (lyc^es). 

Lecoq, Paris : Model of an adjustable drawing table and seat, and apparatus for dis- 
playing maps. 

Lemercier, Mme. Veuve : Illustrations of structural anatomy ; models supplied to 
normal schools. 

LUtz, Paris : Instruments of optics as supplied to normal schools. 

Marne, maternal schools of the department of : Collective exhibit. 

Melun, Girls' Higher Primary and Professional School of (Seine-et-Marne) : Speci- 
mens of needlework and millinery by pupils. 

Menneglier, Navenne, Haute-Sa6ne : Herbarium. 

Montauban Protestant Orphanage : Specimens of industrial work (printing) by the 
orphans. 

Montb^liard, Doubs : Collective exhibit of the Montb^liard primary schools. 

Narjoux, F61ix, architect, Paris : Works on school architecture. 

Nicolas et Marcotte, architects, Caen, Calvados : Plans of the Normal School at 
Caen. 

Nord, department of: Specimens of the work done in the infant schools. 

Nord, higher primary schools of the department of (Fournes and Hautbourdin) : 
Specimens of manual work by pupils. 

Paris, Model School of the Female Normal School : Pupils' work. 

211 



212 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Patronage des Enfants de I'fib^aisterie, Paris : Ornamental ■wood carving by ap- 
prentices. 

Petit, Pierre, Paris : Photographs of school buildings, class rooms, &c., and trans- 
lucid photographs on canvas for window blinds in schools. 

Poitiers, Ecole E^gionale des Beaux Arts : Drawings and engravings by students. 

Pontarlier, Doubs : Collective exhibit of school work. 

Poulain, M., Higher Primary School at Illiers, Eure-et-Loir : Specimen of manual 
work by pupils. 

Provost Orphanage, Cempuis,' Oise : Specimens of school work and industrial work 
by orphans of both sexes. 

Eainsart, Eouen, Ecole Bachelet : School museum showing the local industries. 

Eanvier, Paris : Geometrical drawing models in zinc. 

Eeiber, iSmile, architect, Paris : Panels of school decorations and drawing method. 

Eoussean (Ancienne Maison, now termed Soci6t6Anonyme de ProdnitsChimiques), 
Paris : Apparatus for teaching physics and chemistry in primary and normal schools. 

St. Omer, Pas-de-Calais : Local histories by elementary school teachers. 

St. Pierre-lfes-Calais, ^ficole Municipale d'Art D6coratif : Drawings by students. 

Ste. Foy, Colonie Protestante de : Specimens of written and industrial work by in- 
mates of the reformatory. 

Seine-In fdrieure, elementary schools of: Collective exhibit of needlework : Mme. 
Bnsquet, Oissel ; Mme. Dupont, Maromme ; Mme. Huard, Eouen ; Mme. Lamesle, Ba- 
reule ; Mme. Soeur Lefranc, Aumale. 

Seine-Inf6rieure, maternal schools of the department of: Collective exhibit. 

Serrurier, HAvre: Pupils' work, pedagogical works, scientifio material, «fec. ; speci- 
mens of magic lanterns for use in schools. 

Technical School, Evreux : "Work in wood and iron, and drawings by pupils. 

Thomas, Paris: Geometrical outlines and models showing the development of 
solids. 

Tramond, Paris : Models for teaching natural history in normal schools. 

Valenciennes, academic schools of art of: Drawings and paintings in oil by stu- 
dents. 

Vierzon Higher Primary School : Specimen of drawing and china painting by pu- 
pils. 

Certificate of merit. 

Amiens, maternal schools : Collective exhibit of children's work. 

Avoine, Paris : Casts of the three orders of architecture. 

Baume-les-Dames, Doubs, primary schools of: Collective exhibit of scholars' work. 

Bayvel, Mile., Montivilliers, Seine-Inf6rieure : Large maps and specimens of pen- 
manship by girls. 

Bellier, Mme., Bordeaux : Periodical for kindergartners, specimens of reward cards 
for children, and specimens of work done in the infant schools of Gironde. 

Berthoz, Audincourt, Doubs : Wood carving and sculpturing in stone by pupils. 

Bisson, Vaadeuvre, Calvados : School museum. 

Bonno, Abb^, Etrfepilly, Seine-et-Marne : Large relief map of the department of 
Seine-et-Marne. 

Caille, Sotteville-les-Bains, Seiue-Ini6rieure : Simple material for teaching the ele- 
ments of natural philosophy, chemistry, &c., in primary schools. 

Caulle, Eouen: Original sketches, compositions, &c., by pupils. 

Clerc, Pontarlier, Doubs : Manual work in wood, stone, clay, «fec. 

Cocheris, Mme. Pauline, Paris: Method and charts for teaching needlework in 
tchools. 

Cochet, Ugruy-le-Gay, Aisne : Charts for teaching agriculture, local flora. 

Collin, Mme. Laura, Paris : Method of teaching music in infant schools. 

Coulet, Villers la Montague, Menrthe-et-Moselle : School work, drawing, &c. 
212 



LIST OF AWAEDS FEANCE. 213 

Courtois, Paris : Models for teacMog pomologj\ , 

Couvey, J., Cond6-sur-Eisle, Eure: Herbarium. 

David, Grosrouvre, Meurthe-et-Moselle : Method of teachiug geography. 

Delaruelle, Elbeuf : Manual -wood work done by the pupils. 

Delaruelle, Eouen, Seine-Inf6rieure : Manual work by pupils. 

Docquoy, Maromnie, Seine-Inf6rieure: Eelief maps of the canton of Maromme; 
album of geometrical drawings. 

Faivre, H6rimoncourt, Doubs: Work in iron and wood by the pupils. 

Gaudu, Goderville, Seine-Inf^rieure : Charts on arboriculture. 

Gautier, Eouen : Album of maps, manual work by pupils, pedagogical documents, 
charts for teaching agriculture and horticulture. 

Genestet de Chairac et Cesty, Bordeaux : Plaster casts, models of geometrical and 
industrial drawing. 

Groult, Edmond, Lisieux, Calvados : Documents on the organization of district mu- 
seums (musses cantonaux). 

Hanniet, Neuilly-en-Thelle, Oise : Descriptions of historical prints by pupils. 

La Loupe (Eure-et-Loir), Higher Primary School of : School work and drawings by 
pupils. 

Lavall6e, Tourny, Eure : School museum. 

Leclerc, Est6viUe, Seine-Inf^rieure: Manual work by pupils. 

Le Perdriel, Paris : Medicine chest for schools. 

Leroy, Canteleu, Seine-Inf^rieure : Scholars' work, manual work, andschool museum. 

Li^tout, Mme., Paris: Instructive games for children, &c. 

Marans, Communal School of, Charente-Inf^rieure : Pupils' work. 

Marne, primary schools of the department of : Work done by scholars. 

Monternault, Mme. A., Amiens : Material for teaching form and color to young chil- 
dren. 

Muneret, A,, Cusance, Doubs : Collection of insects, herbarium, «fec. 

Oruans, Doubs, primary schools of : Collective exhibits of scholars' work. 

Pas-de-Calais, primary schools of the department of : Collective exhibits of scholars* 
work. 

Pollet, Presles-et-Thierry, Aisne : Map drawing by pupils. 

Pourchot, Mandeure, Doubs : Herbarium. 

Eact et Falquet, Paris: Material for kindergarten and periodical for kindergart- 
ners. 

Ragemont, Berchferes-sur-Vergris, Eure-et-Loir: Wall map of the arrondissement of 
Dreux. 

Eegrain, Chamblet, AUier: School museum. 

Eoy, Glamondans, Doubs : Model of architecture by pupils. 

Eussey, Doubs, primary schools of: Collective exhibit of scholars' work. 

St. Pierre-l^s-Calais, Higher Primary School of : Industrial and other work by pupils. 

Salein, Elbeuf: School museum, manual work by pupils, etc. 

Thiery, Mme., Montb^liard, Doubs, model school attached to normal school of Mont- 
b^liard : Needlework by scholars. 

Tremeschini, Paris : Globe showing the movement of the earth. 

Vast, H., Paris: Blank maps on slated cloth. 

Voiron, Is^re, Higher Primary School of, M. Berthuin, director: Specimens of in- 
dustrial work by pupils. 

Honorable mention. 

Bonnard, P., Paris: New system of musical notation. 

Condray, Courville, Eure-et-Loir: Eelief maps for teaching local geography. 
Gibert, Fontainebleau : Specimens of modeling in elementary schools. 
Lemort, St. Martin de Boscherville, Seine-Inf6rieure : School work by pupils. 

213 



214 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Lovy, Paul, jjupil of the elementary school of Dasle, Doubs : Collection of insects. 

Mouchel, Criquetot, Seine-Inf^rieure : Eelief maps of the department of Seine- 
Inf^rieure. 

Olivier, Bretteville-sur-Laize, Calvados: Mauualworkby pupils and school museum. 

Soci^t6 des Ffites d'Enfants, M. Sabatier Plantier, president, Nlmes, Gard : Docu- 
ments. 

UNITED STATES BUEEAU OF EDUCATION. 

Grand diploma of "honor. 

Bureau of Education : Logical exhibits of education in the United States. 
John Eaton, Commissioner of Education : Eeports and documents on education, 
embodying the important results of sixteen years of public service. 

Diploma of honor. 

Barnard, Henry: Pedagogical literature. 

Bureau of Education : (1) Statistical charts ; -(2) collective exhibit of educational 
works, contributed by the following publishers: John Allyn, Appleton «fe Co., A. L. 
Bancroft &. Co., A. S. Barnes & Co., E. H. Butler & Co., J. H. Butler, Cassell& Co., 
Giuu, Heath & Co., Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor Sl Co., J. B. Lippincott Co., Mac- 
millan & Co., Thomas Nelson & Sous, Porter & Coates, Potter, Ainsworth & Co., 
George Sherwood & Co., Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 

Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle : Efforts and methods of assisting pop- 
ular education through systematic reading. 

Exposition Kindergarten, conducted by Mrs. Anna B. Ogden and Miss May Crosby: 
Exhibition of a kindergarten in operation. 

Fitch Creche, Buffalo, N. Y. : Photographs of building and rooms, and appliances 
and material used in care of children. 

Illinois Institution for Educating the Deaf and Dumb, Jacksonville : Work done in 
literary, art, and industrial departments. 

Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, New York City : Work done 
in art and industrial departments. 

Kentucky Institution for the Education and Training of P^'eeble-Minded Children, 
Frankfort, Ky. : Industrial work of pupils — clothing, shoes, tables, brooms, ham. 
mocks, &c. 

"Kitchen Garden," conducted by Miss Olivia Tracy : Exhibition of a kitchen gar- 
den in operation. 

Maryland State Normal School, Baltimore : Pupils' work, photographs, plans for 
schoolhouses, &c. 

Normal School, Washington, D. C. : Object lessons, material, botanical work, draw- 
ings, &.C. 

Philadelphia School of Design for Women : Drawings, designs, art work. 

Diploma. 

Bureau of Education : (1) models and plans of school building; (2) encouraging the 
formation of pedagogical museums. 

Cherokee Orphan Asylum, Salina, Ind, T. : Kindergarten work. 

Mississippi Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Jackson : Industrial and art work. 

Mississippi Institution for the Education of the Blind, Jackson : Bead work, cro- 
chetting, &c. 

New York Institution for the Blind, New York City : Books and appliances for the 
blind, girls' handiwork, &c. 

Nurse Training School, Charity Hospital, New York City : Photographs. 
214 



LIST OF AWAEDS WOMAN's DEPAETMENT. 215 

Nurse Training School, Woman's Hospital, Philadelphia, Pa. : Photographs. 

Ohio Institution for the Education of the Blind, Columbus: Bead-work, machine 
sewing, kindergarten work, geometrical blocks. 

Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia, Pa. : Drawings, 
designs, and casts. 

Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble-Minded Children, Elwyn, Pa. : Album of 
photographs illustrating the work of the school. 

Schroeder, T., Darmstadt, Germany: Models of descriptive geometry, architect- 
ure, «fcc. 

Sheldon Jackson Institute, Sitka, Alaska: Plans of building, photographs, indus- 
trial work. 

Spring, E. A., Perth Amboy, N. J. : Clay modeling. 

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia : Engineering structures in miniature. 

Washington (D. C.) High School : Photographs, students' work, text books, 

Washington (D. C.) public schools: Complete exhibit of pupils' work, text books, 
photographs of buildings. 

Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls, Milwaukee : Photographs, kindergarten, and 
industrial work. 

Certificate of merit. 

Colorado State Industrial School, Golden, Colo. : Photographs, shoes, brooms, cloth- 
ing. 

Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, New York City: Drawing 
and painting. 

Maryland State Normal School, Baltimore : Sewing. 

Minnesota Eeform School, Saint Paul : Wood work. . 

National Kindergarten and Primary School, Washington, D. C: Kindergarten 
work. 

Newark City Home, Verona, N. J. : Clothing, toys, brushes. 

Peirce College of Business, Philadelphia, Pa. : Students' work for full course. 

State Eeform School, Meriden, Conn. : Photographs illustrating family system. 

Tresch, J. F. J., New York City : Paintings. 

Tschudi, Henry, Corinth, Miss. : Musical compositions. 

Washington (D. C.) Public Schools : Eelief maps in putty made by pupils. 



BUEEAU OF INDIAN AFFAIES. 
Diploma of honor. 

Carlisle Indian School, Carlisle, Pa. : Drawings, compositions, industrial work, 
harness, tinware, shoes, clothing, «fec. 

Fletcher, Miss Alice C, Washington, D. C. : Illustrations of Indian progress, ad- 
dresses, &c. 

WOMAN'S DEPAETMENT. 

Diploma of honor. 

LITERAEY DIVISION. 

Miss Maude Howe, Boston, Superintendent : Collective exhibit, embracing nearly 
1,400 volumes of published works, in the English language, by women. 

215 



216 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

SCIENTIFIC DIVISION. 

Mrs. Evelyn M. Walton Ordway, New Orleans, Superintendent : Collective exhibit, 
inclnding illustrated examples of the scientific work done by women in astronomy, 
botany, chemistry, mineralogy, zoology, entomology, architecture, and ethnology, as 
detailed below : 

Botany. 

Mrs. L, V. Morgan, Cincinnati, Ohio : Paintings of fungi, with notes. 

Miss M. T. Saunders, Salem, Mass. : Collection of North American ferns. 

Mrs. A. L. Davis, Gloucester, Mass. : Collection of marine algse. 

Miss A. L. Page, Danvers, Mass. : Ferns from vicinity of Boston. 

Miss Walker, Spencer, Mass. : Collection of flowering plants. 

Miss RosaBuUis Watson (deceased), Cambridge, Mass. : Collection of grasses. 

" Botany Group " of New England, Women's Club, Boston, Mass.: Collection of 
mosses from vicinity of Boston. 

Miss A. Symms, Winchester, Mass. : Paintings of fungi. 

Miss M.E.Jack, Chateaugay" Basin, Canada : Seeds of forest trees, with paintings 
of the flowers. 

Miss S. Carter, Wilmington, Mass, : One hundred and forty varieties of seeds for mi- 
croscopic study. 

Miss A. L. Page, Danvers, Mass. : Book, Flower Object Lessons ; translation from the 
French of M. Emm. C. Mount. 

Ohemistry. 

Miss L. Peabody and Miss Minns, Massachusetts Institute of Technology : Samples 
of articles of food examined for adulteration. 

Miss M. O. Glover, Brooklyn, N. Y. : Samples of laudanum tested for strength (amount 
of morphia). 

Miss J. Baldwin, Boston, Mass., Massachusetts Institute of Technology : Chemical 
preparations. 

Miss H.Howes, Boston, Mass., Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Chemical 
preparations. 

Miss A. Palmer, Boston, Mass., Massachusetts Institute of Technology : Preparation 
of aniline from crude benzol. 

Miss L. Linton and Miss A. Stantial, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Sam- 
ples of silk, tested for foreign fibers and weighting. 

Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass. : The chemistry of cooking and cleaning. 

Miss A. Palmer and E. H. Richards, Boston, Mass. : Notes on antimony tannate, 
two papers. 

Margaret S. Cheney and E. H. Richards, Boston, Mass. : A new and ready method 
for the estimation of nickel in pyrrhotites and mattes. 

Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass. : Notes on the composition of some of the mineral 
species accompanying the lead ore of Newburyport, Mass. 

E. H. Richards, Boston, Mass. : Analysis of samarskite from a new locality. 

Evelyn M. Walton Ordway, Boston, Mass. : Liquefaction and cold produced by the 
mutual reaction of solid substances. 

Architecture. 

Mrs. R. Bethune, Buffalo, N. Y. : Two designs. 

Astronomy. 

Maria Twitchell, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. : Notes on the satellites of 
Jupiter and Saturn. 
216 



LIST OF AWARDS STATES OF THE UNION. 217 

Entomology. 

Miss C. H. Clarke, Boston, Mass.: Collection of galls. 

Mrs. A. B. Comstock, Ithaca, N. Y. : Drawings of inserts from life (mucli magnified). 
Miss C. H. Clarke, Boston, Marss. : Collection of caddis, cases, flies, and larvaj, witli 
a published account. 
Miss E. D. Boardman, Boston, Mass. : Study of echinidse. 
Mrs, Agassiz, Boston, Mass. : A first lesson in natural history. 
Miss M. A. Booth, Longmeadow, Mass. : Prepared slides for the microscope. 
Miss S. Minns, Boston, Mass. : Prepared slides for the microscope. 

Geology. 

Miss S. Burnham, Boston, Mass. : Book — Limestone and Marble. 
Miss S. Burnham, Boston, Mass. : Collection of rare marble. 

/ Mineralogy. ^ 

Mrs. N. H. Perry, South Paris, Me. : Collections of minerals from Maine. 
Miss E. H. Kichards, Boston, Mass. : First Lesson in Minerals. 

MiseManeous. 

Grace Anna Lewis, Clifton Springs, N. Y. : (1) Charts of the vegetable and animal 
kingdoms; (2) drawings from microscope and drawing of " Water Veil." 

Associated Artists, 115 East Twenty-third street, New York City: Case of embroid- 
ery. 

LouisTiUeSchoolof Pharmacy for Women, Louisville, Ky. : Numerous pharmaceuti- 
cal preparations by students. 

Vassar College (astronomical department, Miss Maria Mitchell, professor) : Photo- 
graphs of heavenly bodies, done by the lady pupils. 

Woman's Institute for Technical Designs, 112 Fifth avenue. New York City: De- 
signs for wall paper; samples of repouss^ work, in silver and bronze. 

STATES OF THE UNION. 

ALABAMA. 

Diploma of honor. 

Jndson Female Institute, Marion : Bound volumes, examination papers, drawings, 
paintings, and decorative work. 

CALIFORNIA. 

Diploma of honor. 

Mr. and Mrs. J. G. Lemmon, Oakland : Herbaria and paintings illustrating the 
flora of California. 

Diploma. 

California Kindergarten Training School, San Francisco : Kindergarten work, paper 
cutting, paper folding, weaving, drawing, sewing, pricking, slat-work, and paper 
twining. 

Pacific Kindergarten Normal School, San Francisco: Illustrations of system of 
teaching. 

Stanford Memorial Kindergarten, San Francisco : Photographs. 

COLORADO. 

Diploma of honor. 

State Agricultural College, Fort Collins : Work in mechanic arts ; 298 varieties of 
grain. 217 



218 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Certificate of merit. 

Institution for the Education of the Mute and the Blind, Colorado Springs : Indus- 
trial work. , 

FLORIDA. 

Diploma. 

State of Florida : Collective educational exhibits, mostly pupils' work. 

Certificate of merit. 

East Florida Seminary, Gainesville : Collection of pupils' work. 

Jacksonville public schools : Pupils' work. 

Orange County public schools : Pupils' work. 

Saint John's County p ublic schools : Pupils' work. 

Saint Joseph's Academy, Saint Augustine : Compositions, map drawing, &e. 

Summerville public schools : Pupils' work. 

West Florida Seminary, I'allahassee : Pupils' work, largely in mathematics. 

Honorable mention. 

Duval High School, Jacksonville : Examination papers and compositions. 
Leon County public schools : Pupils' work. 
Marion County public schools: Pupils' work. 

GEORGIA. 

Certificate of merit. 
Atlanta public schools : Examination papers. 

ILLINOIS. 

Diploma of honor. ^ 

Illinois Industrial University, Urbana : Work from schools of engineering, architect- 
ure, botany and horticulture, agriculture, and chemistry. 

Diploma. 

Aurora public schools : Pupils' work. 

Chicago public schools : Home work and drawings through school course. 

Peoria public schools : Drawing and class work. 

Voice and Hearing School, Chicago : Kindergarten work, drawing, &c. 

INDIAKA. 

Diploma of honor. 

State of Indiana: Collective exhibit, especially of rural school work. 
La Porte public schools : Pupils' work and kindergarten exhibit. 

Diploma. 

Indiana Asylum for Feeble-minded Children, Knightstown : Industrial work. 
Indiana Reformatory School for Women and Girls, Indianapolis : Industrial work. 
La Fayette public schools : Drawing, designing, graded, and high school work. 
218 



LIST OF AWARDS STATES OF THE UNION. 219 

Mancie public schoola : Pupils' work. 

Eichraond public schools : Pupils' -work. 

Southern Indiana Normal Institute, Mitchell: Business forms and literary work. 

Terre Haute public schools : Pupils' work, drawing. 

Waraaw public schools : Botanical, ornithological, and general school work. 

Certificate of merit, 

Anderson public schools : Pupils' work. 

Columbus public schools : Pupils' work. 

Crawfordville public schools : Selected examination papers. 

Delphi public schools : Pupils* work. 

Kennedy, A.M., Eockport : Geometrical blocks. 

Princeton public schools : Pupils' work. 

St. Joseph County schools,: Memory maps and drawings of schoolhouseB. 

Tell City public schools : Pupils' work, especially in grammar. 

Thornton public schools : Pupils' work. 

Van/Wie, D. D., Indianapolis : Anatomical charts. 

Vevay public schools: Pupils' work. 

IOWA. 

Diploma of honor. 

State of Iowa : Collective educational exhibits. 

Iowa State University, Iowa City : Theses, laboratory, note-books, drawings, cabinet 
of paleontology. 

Diploma. 

Bond, Frank, Iowa City : Thesis on blue jay. 

Burlington public schools : Class work from graded and high schools. 

Charles City public schools : School work, &c. 

Clinton public schools : Pupils' work, kindergarten charts, &c. 

Davenport public schools : Manuscript work, teaching charts, drawing. 

Des Moines public high schools: Manuscript work, clay and worsted maps, her- 
baria. 

Eldora public schools : Drawings and class work. 

Hardin County public schools : Pupils' work, map drawing, «fe.c. 

Iowa College for the Blind, Vinton : Papers in geometry, bead work, brooms, &c. 

Iowa Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Council Bluffs : Shoes, desk, art work, &c. 

Iowa State Normal School, Cedar Falls : Theses, examination papers, note-books, 
herbaria, charts, &c. 

Ottumwa public school : Pupils' work. 

Certificate of merit. 

Ackley public schools : Language, drawings, and maps. 

Atlantic public schools : Pupils' work. 

Bell Plaine public schools : Maps, drawings, and language. 

Blackburn, Miss S., Vinton : Teachers' examination questions, reviews. 

Cedar Rapids public schools : Pupils' work. 

Cochrane, Hattie, Iowa City : Thesis on leaves, illustrated. 

Columbus Junction schools : Pupils' work. 

Creston public schools : Manuscript work and charts. 

Grand Junction public schools : Pupils' work. 

Green County public schools : Pupils' work. 

Iowa Agricultural College, Ames : Herbaria. 

Iowa Falls High School : Geometry and physiology. 

219 



220 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Jefferson public schools : Pupils' work. 

Le Mars public schools : Pupils' work. 

Marble Eock public schools : Maps and class work. 

Marengo public schools : Class work. 

Monroe public schools : Pupils' work. • 

Polk County public schools : Pupils' work. 

Eockford public schools : Class work. 

Shenandoah public schools : Pupils' work. 

Sidney public schools : Class work. 

Shimek, Bohumel, Iowa City : Thesis on fresh-water moUusks. 

Sioux City public schools : Maps, drawings, and class work. 

Tama County public schools : School work. 

Water County public schools : Pupils' work. 

Honorable mention, 

Albia public schools : Manuscript pupils' work. 

Cass County public schools : Class work. 

Marble Eock public schools : Pupils' work. 

Marshall County public schools : Class work. 

Marshalltown public schools : Manuscript work in language. 

McGregor public schools : Class work. 

Nora Springs public schools : Pupils' work. 

Norris, W. H. : Herbaria of Iowa flora. 

Pocahontas public schools : Class work, maps, &e. 

Scranton public schools : Manuscript, class work, all grades. 

Searsborough public schools : Pupils' work. 

Sheldon public schools: Class work in arithmetic, geography, «&c. 

Steamboat Eock public schools : Kindergarten, maps, &c. 

Union public schools : Class work. 

West Liberty public schools : Pupils' work. 

KANSAS. 

Certificate of merit. 

Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan : Printing by students. 
Leavenworth public schools : Bound volumes of examination papers. 

KENTUCKY. 
Diploma of honor. 

Louisville public schools : School work and appliances. 
Smith's Business College, Lexington : System of bookkeeping. 

LOUISIANA. 

Diploma of honor. 
State of Louisiana : Collective educational exhibit. 

New Orleans public schools : Collection of views and plans of buildings ; school 
work. 
Tulane University, New Orleans : Industrial class work at Exposition. 

Diploma. 
Boys' High School, New Orleans : Class work, charts, and drawings. 
Chestnut Street Special Primary School, New Orleans : Kindergarten work, maps, 
&c. 

220 



LIST OF AWARDS STATES OF THE UNION. 221 

Girls' High School, New Orleans : Drawings, botany, &c. 
Leland University (colored), New Orleans : Class and industrial work. 
Louisiana State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Eouge: Industrial 
work and drawings. 
Mansfield Female College, De Soto Parish : Pupils' work. 
Saint Alphonsns Boys' Day School, New Orleans: Drawings, -writing, &c. 
SouM's College, New Orleans: Appliances. 
Southern University (colored), New Orleans : Pupils' work. 

Certificate of merit. 

Clinton Academy, East Feliciana Parish : Pupils' work, clay models, &c. 
Hill, S. L., New Orleans: Charts of history. 

Honorable mention. 

Alexandria public schools : Pupils' work. 

Monroe public schoals : Pupils' work. 

New Iberia public schools : Pupils' work. 

New Orleans public schools : Industrial work, sewing. 

Shreveport public schools : Pupils' work. 



Diploma. 

Portland public schools : School work well written, drawing. 

Certificate of merit. 

Lewiston public schools : Pupils' work. 

Maine State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Orono : Industrial and en- 
gineering drawings. 

MAEYLAND. 

Diploma. 

Baltimore public schools : Drawing. 

Manual Training School, Baltimore : Drawings and manual work, illustrating 
course in manual training. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Diploma of honor. 

State of Massachusetts : Collective educational exhibit, statistics, reports, «fec. 
• Boston Free Evoning Drawing School : Free-hand and industrial drawings. 

Boston public schools : Pupils' work of all grades. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston : Mechanical and architectural draw- 
ings, original designs, wood and iron work. 

Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded Youth, South Boston : Kinder- 
garten work, drawing, industrial work. 

Massachusetts State Normal Art School, Boston : Drawings, paintings, and casts, 
from classes A, B, C, and D. 

Perkins Institute and Massachusetts School for the Blind, Boston : Books, maps, 

industrial work. 

Diploma. 

Boston public schools : Sewing. 

221 



222 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Certificate of mei'it. 

Girla' Latin School, Boston : Photographs for classical instruction. 
North Adams public schools : Album of school work. 

MICHIGAN. 

Diploma of honor. 

State of Michigan: Collective exhibit illustrating State educational system. 
Grand Eapids Public School : Extensive exhibit of school work of all grades. 

Diploma. 

Michigan State Agricultural College, Lansing : Forestry and grasses. 
Stale Public School, Coldwater: System of caring for destitute children. 

MINNESOTA. 

Grand diploma of honor. 

State of Minnesota : Comprehensive and quite complete exhibit, illustrating the 
general system and present status of education in Minnesota. 

Diploma of honor. 

Carleton College, Northfield : Photographs, class work, field work in surveying, 
astronomical and physiological charts, biological note books, electric clock and other 
instruments used at the institution in regulating the railway time service of the State. 

Minnesota School for the Feeble-minded, Faribault : Industrial work. 

State Normal School, Saint Cloud : Maps, charts of pedagogy, miscellaneous charts, 
students' work, &c. 

State Normal School, Winona: Industrial drawing, charts by pupils, botanical spec- 
imens, examination papers. 

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis : Drawings, wood and iron work, tools, charts, 
examination papers. 

Diploma. 

Minneapolis public schools : Pencil and crayon drawings, examination papers, 

Minnesota Institution for Education of the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind, Faribault : 
Drawing and industrial work by deaf-mutes, needle work and tidies by the blind. 

Olmstead County, county schools: Collective exhibit of pupils' work. 

Saint Paul public schools: Penmanship, modeling, and drawing, from graded and 
high schools. 

State Normal Sciiool, Mankato : Drawings, original designs, examination papers. 

Stillwater public schools : Home-made physical apparatus. 

Winona public schools : Pupils' written work by grades, children's work in designs, 
construction, &c., writing, and drawing. 

Certificate of merit. 

Hastings High School: Work in surveying and botany. 

Kindergarten (Miss Alice Boyden's), Saint Paul: Six charts, children's work. 

State Normal School, Winona : Kindergarten display. 

Honorable mention. 

Hamline University, Saint Paul : Photographs. 
Moorhead public schools : Slate work, maps, &c. 
Eochester public schools : Relief maps, drawings, &c. 
222 



LIST OF AWARDS STATES OF THE UNION. 223 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Diploma. 

Agricultural and Mechanical College of the State of Mississippi, Starkville : Illus- 
trations of agricultural instruction and products, charts of study. 
Spillman, Dr. Willianij Columbus : Geological collection, Mississippi fossils. 
Vicksburg public schools : Examination papers, &c. 

Certificate of merit. 
Whitworth Female College, Brookhaven : Art. 

MISSOURI. 

Diploma of honor. 
School x»f Fine Arts, Washington University, Saint Louis: Work from nature. 

NEBRASKA. 

Diploma of honor. 
State of Nebraska: Collective educational exhibit. 

Diploma. 

Beatrice public schools : Examination papers, all grades. 

Nebraska Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, Omaha : Sewing, embroidery, carpen- 
try, &G. 

Nebraska School for the Blind, Nebraska City : Brooms, fancy work, &c. 

Nebraska State Normal School, Peru: Zoological and botanical specimens, map 
drawing, examination papers, &c. 

Certificate of merit. 

Falls City public schools : Examination papers. 

Grand Island public schools : Examination papers, slate work. 

Nebraska City public schools : Examination papers, map and mechanical drawing. 

Omaha public schools : Written music. 

St. Catherine's Academy, Omaha : Drawing and painting. 

St. Clair Hall School, Lincoln : Pupils' work. 

Tenth Street Industrial School, Omaha : Industrial work. 

Worden, W. S., Holdrege : Penmanship device for drawing. 

Honorable mention. 

Academy of the Sacred Heart, Omaha: Presentation of course of study. 

Columbus public schools : Examination papers. 

Crete public schools : History of Schools. 

Fairbury public schools : Map drawing and manuscript work. 

St. Claire Convent, Omaha : Pupils' work. 

West Point public schools : Examination papers from grammar and high schools. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Diploma. 

Concord public schools : Examination papers, drawings, kindergarten work, pho- 
tographs. 

223 



224 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Certificate of merit. 

Manchester public schools : Drawings, plans of buildings, &c. 

Honorable mention. 

Franklin public schools : Pupils' work and photographs. 

Nashua public schools : Chemical preparations by high school scholars. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Diploma of honor. 

State of New Jersey : Collective exhibit of work from 3,450 public schools. 

Jersey City public schools : Pupils' work. 

Newark public schools : Pupils' work, scrap-books and drawing from high schools. 

New Jersey State Normal School, Trenton : Pupils' work, herbaria, cases of miner- 
als, chemicals, insects, &c. 

Paterson public schools: Pupils' work, kindergarten work, ornaments, and geo- 
metrical solids in wood. 

' Diploma. 

Camden public schools : Pupils' work. 

Davey's (Vernon L.) School, District 86, Essex County: Home-made philosophical 
apparatus. 
Elizabeth public schools : Pupils' work. 
Green, J. M., Long Branch : Pupils' work and photographs. 
Grossy, C. A., Landisville: Herbarium. 

Hasbrouck Institute, Jersey City : Students' work, framed drawings from casts. 
Hoboken public schools : Pupils' work. 
Morse, S. R., Atlantic County: Herbarium of marine algSB. 
Orange public schools : Pupils' work. 
Trenton public schools : Pupils' work. 

Certificate of merit. 

Bridgeton public schools : Pupils' work. 
Millville public schools : Pupils' work. 
New Brunswick public schools: Pupils' work. 
Plainfield public schools: Pupils' work. 
Rahway public schools : Pupils' work. 
Salem public schools : Pupils' work. 

NEW YORK. 

Diploma of honor. 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy : Industrial drawing, &c. 

Diploma. 
Albany public schools : Pupils' work. 
New York, State of: Statistics. 

Workingman's School and Free Kindergarten, New York City : Photographs, scroll- 
sawing, pasteboard work, casts, &c. 

Ceriificafe of merit. 

House of Refuge; Randall's Island, New York City : Industrial work. 
New York Trade Schools : Plumbing, model-making, stone- cutting. 
224 



LIST OF AWARDS STATES OF THE UNION. 225 

NORTH CAKOLINA. 

Diploma. 

Tileston Normal School, Wilmington : Kindergarten work, examination papers, 
photographs, maps, &c. 

OHIO. 

Diploma of honor. 

State of Ohio: (1) Collective educational exhibit; (2) collective college exhibit, 
arranged by Prof. A. H. Tuttle. 

Cincinnati public schools : Pupils' work, drawing, slate work, &c. 

Columbus public schools: Drawing, examination papers, essays and orations, pho- 
tographs. 

Diploma. 

Dayton evening schools : Drawing. 

Ohio State University, Agricultural Department, Columbus : Mining and engineer- 
ing drawings, iron and wood work. 

Springfield public schools: Pupils' work, penmanship, drawings, designs, scroll- 
sawing. 

Toledo public scliools : Drawing, designiug, and pupils' work. 

Certificate of merit. 

Chillicothe public schools : Examination papers, penmanship, and memory mai)s. 
Hamilton public schools : Pupils' work from graded and high schools. 
Oberlin public schools : Pupils' work from graded and high schools. 
Portsmouth public schools: Pupils' work from graded and high schools, views of 
buildings. 
Xenia public schools : Pupils' work. 

Honorable mention. 

Circleville public schools : Examination papers, photographs. 
Gallipolis public schools : Examination papers, map drawing. 
Oxford public schools : Examination papers, penmanship. 

OREGON. 

Diploma. 
Portland public schools : Drawings, maps. 

Certificate of merit. 
Indian School, Forest Grove : Industrial work. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Diploma of honor. 

Girard College, Philadelphia : Industrial work, chiefly in iron. 
Philadelphia Normal School for Girls : Needle work, drawing, and designing. 
Spring Garden Institute, Philadelphia : Wood, iron, and machine work, drawing. 
Wilkes Barre public schools : General exhibit of school work. 

7950 COT 15 225 



226 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Diploma. 

Northern Home for Friendless Children, Philadelphia : Drawing, wood and metal 
■work, artificial flowers, and class work. 

Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Pliiladclx)hia : Paintings. 

Certificate of merit. 

Soldiers' Orphans' Institute, Philadelphia : Industrial and school work. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Diploma of honor. 

State of Rhode Island : Collective educational exhibit. 

Providence public schools: Examination jiapcrs, letter writing, natural history, 
epecimehs, &c. 

Diploma. 

Kindergarten, Mrs. Alden, Providence : Children's work, including wood carving 
and brass hammering. 

School of Design, Providence: Free-hand and mechanical drawing, water-color time 
sketches. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Certificate of merit. 
Anderson Female Institute, Anderson : Paintings. 

TENNESSEE. 

Diploma. 

Columbia Athenaeum, Columbia: Paintings, crayon drawing, India ink sketches, 
decorative work. 

Jackson public schools : Examination papers. 

Montgomery Bell Academy, Nashville: Maps of United States at different periods, 
anatomical charts. 

Nashville College for Young Ladies: Examination papers, charts, maps of ancient 
Rome and Italy. 

Vanderbilt University (school of engineering), Nashville: Mechnnical drawing, 
&c. 

Cirtificaie of merit. 

Howell's Graded Academy, Clarksville : Examination papers. 

Knoxville schools : Examination papers. 

Peabody High School, Trenton : Pupils' work. 

St. Cecilia's Academy, Nashville : Examination papers, drawing, bookkeeping, and 
fancy work. 

Tennessee Female College, Franklin: Painting, drawing, exercise books, herbarium, 
examination papers. 

Ward's Seminary for Young Ladies, Nashville : Art work, charts of instruction. 

Bonorable viention. 

Beech Grove School for Girls, Spring Hill : Examination papers. 
Howard Female College, Gallatin: Examination papers. 
226 



LIST OF AWARDS STATES OF THE UNION. 227 



Diploma. 

State of Texas : Collective educational exhibit. 

Austin public schools : Pupils' work. 

Bryan public schools: Pupils' w'ork. 

Sam Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville : Examination papers. 

Trinity University, Tehuacaua : Chaxts illustrating instruction. 

Certificate of merit. 

Calvert public schools : Pupils' work. 
Galveston public schools : Pupils' vrork. 
Huntsville public schools : Pupils' work. 

VERMONT. 

Dijjloma. 
Vermont Academy, Saxton's River: Full representation of academic work. 

Certificate of merit. 

St. Johnsbury Academy, St. Johnsbury : Drawing, photographs, &c. 

State Normal School, Castleton : Cabinet of minerals, examination questions. 

VIRGINIA. 
Diplovia. 
State of Virginia : Collective educational exhibit. 

Certificate of merit. 

Miller Manual Labor School, Crozet : Mechanical drawings, &c. 

Honorable mention. 

Richmond public schools : Pupils' work, maps. 
Rockingham County i>ublic schools : Pupils' work. 

' _ WEST VIRGINIA. 

Diploma. 

Wheeling public schools: Pupils' work. 

"WISCONSIN. 

Diploma of honor. 

State of Wisconsin : Collective educational exhibit. 
Milwaukee public schools : Views of buildings, pupils' work. 

Diploma. 

La Crosse public schools: Pupils' work.' 
Milwaukee public schools : Kindergarten work. 
Oshkosh State Normal School : Examiuatiou papers. 
Platteville State Normal School : Examination papers, &c. 
Whitewater State Normal School: Examination papers, &c. 

Wisconsin State Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, Delavan: 
Pupils' work, 

227 



228 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Cefiificafe of merit. 

Janesville public schools : Pupils' work. 
Madison public schools: Pupils' work. 

AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION. 

Diploma of lionor. 

American Missionary Association : Collective educational exhibit. 

Diploma. 

Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga, : Class and industrial work. 

Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn. ; Class work, herbarium, and chemicals. 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Va. : Industrial wprk. 

Santee (Indian) Training School, Santee Agency,' Nebr. : Class and industrial work. 

Straight University, New Orleans, La, : Pupils' work. 

Tougaloo University, Tougaloo, Ma. : Class and industrial woik. 

Certificate of merit. 

Gregory Institute, Wilmington, N. C. : Examination papers and needle work. 
Talladega College, Talladega, Miss. : Class and industrial work, drawings, and kin- 
dergarten. 

Honorable mention. 

Avery Normal Institute, Charleston, S. C. : Class and industrial work. 

Beach Institute, Savannah, Ga. : Pupils' work. 

Le Moyne Institute, Memphis, Tenn. : Class and needle work. 

Lewis Normal School, Wilmington, N. C. : Class and needlework. 

Storrs School, Atlanta, Ga. : Class work and kindergarten. 

Tilloteon Collegiate and Normal Institute, Austin, Tex. : Class and needle work. 

Warner Institute, Jonesborough, Tenn. : Class and industrial work. 

BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 
Grand diploma of honor. 
Brothers of the Christian schools: For collective educational exhibit. 

Diploma of honor. 

Alexis, Brother : For geographical display. 

Christian Brothers' College, Memphis, Tenn.: Students' work, crayon drawings, 
anatomical models, &c. 

Christian Brothers (Brothers of the Christian Schools) : Plaster casts, charts, and 
series of copy-books for teaching drawing. 

De la Salle College, Philadelphia, Pa., : Students' work, and linear and architectural 
drawings. 

De la Salle Institute, New York City : Students' work, historical maps, «fec. 

Manhattan College, New York City : Students' work in languages, mathematics, 
and natural sciences. 

Normal Institute, Ammendale, Md. : Literary works, astronomical charts, linear 
drawings, studies, &c. 

New York Catholic Protectory (male department), Westchester, N. Y. : Students 
■work and industrial work — printing, slioemakiug, chair-caning, electrotyping, tailor- 
i:]g, silk weaving, maps, drawings, &c. 
228 



LIST OF AWARDS CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 229 

New York Catholic Protectory (female department), in charge of Sisters of Charity, 
Westchester, N. Y. : Pupils' industrial work in plain and fancy needle work, embroid- 
ery, and kid-glove making. 

Rock Hill College, Ellicott City, Md. : Students' work, linear and architectural 
drawings. 

St. Joseph's Normal College, Amawalk, N. Y. : Normal manuals, appliances, draw- 
ings (free-hand, linear, and architectural), maps, and studies from nature. 

St. Joseph's College, Clapham, London, England : Students' work, higher mathe- 
matics, physics, &c. 

St. Mary's and Sacred Heart College, San Francisco, Cal. : Students' work, draw- 
ings. 

Diploma. 

Brother professor of botany at St. Joseph's Normal College, Amawalk, N. Y. : Col- 
lections of plants and woods formed by him and his students for the museum. 

Brother professor of mathematics at De la Salle Institute, New York City: Album 
of development of solids. 

Brothers curator and librarian of Christian Brothers' College, Memphis, Tenn. : 
Comijlete museum of cotton and cotton-seed industry. 

Cathedral School, New York City: Students' work, albums of historical maps, 
drawings, «fec. 

Cathedral School, Philadelphia, Pa. : Students' work. 

Christian Brothers' College, Saint Louis, Mo. ; Students' work and drawings. 

Christian Brothers' schools, Saint Paul, Minn. : Pupils' work. 

Immaculate Conception School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

La Salle Academy, Providence, R. I. : Students' work and phonography. 

Roman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, Troy, N. Y. : Pupils' work, maps, and mu- 
seum. 

Sacred Heart Academy, Westchester, N. Y. : Pupils' work, maps, drawings, and 
museum for object lessons. 

St, James's School, Brooklyn, N. Y. : Students' work, phonography, and calligraphy, 
or type-writing. 

St. Joseph's Academy, Baltimore, Md. : Students' work and phonography. 

St. Mary's Academy, Troy, N. Y. : Students' Avork and phonography. 

St. Peter's School^ Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work, and linear and free-hand drawing, 

St. Peter's School, Philadelphia, Pa. : Pupils' work, and maps and drawing. 

St. Peter's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

Schools of the Christian Brothers, New York City ; Collective exhibit of linear 
drawing of De la Salle Institute, Sacred Heart Academy, and Annunciation, Im- 
maculate Conception, St. Bridget's, St. James's, St. Nicholas's, St. Peter's, St. Pat- 
rick's, and St. Teresa's schools. 

Certificate of merit. 

Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum, Peekskill, N. Y. : Pupils' work. 
St. James's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 
St. John's School, Syracuse, N. Y. : Pupils' work, maps, and museum. 
St. Joseph's School, Butfal >, N. Y. : Excellent museum.^ 
St. Mary's College, New Orleans, La. : Students' work and phouography. 
St. Mary's Training School, Feehanville, 111. : Industrial work, shoemaking, and 
tailoring. 
St. Patrick's School, Hartford, Conn, : Pupils' work. 

Honorable mention. 

Assumption Academy, Utica, N. Y. : Pupils' work. 
Christian Brothers' Academy, Albany, N. Y. : Pupils' work. 

2S9 



230 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Immaculate Conception School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. 
Manhattan Academy, New York City : Pupils' work. 
Sacramento Institute, Sacramento, Cal. : Pupils' work. 
St. Alphonsus's School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. 
St. Ann's School, Philadelphia, Pa. : Pupils' work. 
St. Bridget's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 
St. Gabriel's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

St. John's Collegiate Institute, Washington, D. C. : Pupils' work and drawings. 
St. John's School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. 
St. John's School, Chicago, 111. : Pupils' work. 
. St. Joseph's College, Buffalo, N. Y. : Students' work in languages. 
St. Joseph's School, Chicopee, Mass. : Pupils' work and museum. 
St. Joseph's Sahool, Detroit, Mich. : Pupils' work. 
St. Joseph's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

St. Michael's College, Santa F6, N. Mex. : Photographs and photography used in 
teaching. 

St. Michael's School, West Hohoken, N.J. : Pupils' work. 

St. Mary's School, Melrose, N. Y. : Pupils' work. 

St. Mary's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

St. Mary's School, Yonkers, N. Y. : Pupils' work and museums. 

St. Mary's School, Jersey City, N. J. : Pupils' work. 

St. Nicholas's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

St. Patrick's Commercial Academy, Chicago, 111. : Pupils' work. 

St. Patrick's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

St. Patrick's School, Newark, N. J. : Pupils' work. 

St. Paul's School, Philadelphia, Pa. : Pupils' work. 

St. Teresa's School, New York City : Pupils' work. 

St. Vincent's School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. 

DEPARTMENT OF COLORED EXHIBITS. 
Diploma. . 

Colored School of Washington, D. C. : Pupils' work, drawings, &c. 
Lowery's Industrial Academy, Huntsville; Ala. : Silk culture. . 
State University of Kentucky, Louisville, Ky. : Class and industrial work. 
Tuskegee Normal School, Tuskegee, Ala. : Students' class and industrial work. 

Certificate of merit. 

Colored schools of Little Rock, Ark. : Pupils' work. 
Colored schools of Wilmington, Del. : Pupils' work. 
Colored schools of New York City: Pupils' work. 
Roger Williams University, Nashville, Tenn. : Pupils' work. 

Honorable mention. 

Colored schools of Evansville, Ind. : Class work. 
Colored schools of Indianapolis, Ind. : Pupils' work. 
Colored schools of Brooklyn, N. Y. : Drawings. 
Colored schools of Charleston, S. C. : Maps, drawings, &c. 
Colored schools of Knoxville, Tenn. : Pupils' work. 
Mt. Vernon School, Camden, N.J,: Class work. 
Stark, Turner, Mobile, Ala. : Mechanical contrivance. 
Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, Ohio : Students' work and herbaria. 
230 



LIST OF AWARDS COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT. 231 

FREEDMAN'S AID SOCIETY. 

Diploma of honor. 

Freedman's Aid Society of the M. E. Church: Collective educational exhibit. 
Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenu. : Class and industrial work. 

Diploma. 

Claflin University and South Carolina Agricultural College and Mechanical Insti- 
tute, Orangeburg, S. C. : Class and industrial work. 
Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. : Class and industrial work. 

Certificate of merit. 

Baldwin Seminary, Baldwin, La. : Class work, maps, &c. 

Burrell Seminary, Selma, Ala. : Pupils' work. 

Houston Seminary, Houston, Tex. : Class work. 

Little Rock University, Little Rock, Ark. : Class work, maps, &c. 

Rust University, Holly Springs, Miss. : Students' work. 

Honorahle mention. 

Bennett Seminary, Greensborough, N. C. : Class work. 
Centenary Biblical Institute, Baltimore, Md. : Students' work. 
Cookman Institute, Jacksonville, Fla. : Pupils' work. 
East Tennessee Wesleyan Seminary, Athens, Tenn. : Class work. 
Holston Seminary, New Market, Tenn. : Students' work. 
La Grange Seminary, La Grange, Ga. : Pupils' work. 
Mount Zion Seminary, Carroll County, Ga. : Pupils' work. 
New Orleans University, New Orleans, La. : Class work. 
Philander Smith College, Little Rock, Ark. : Students' class work. 
Wiley University, Marshall, Tex. : Class work. 

COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT. 

Grand diploma of honor. 

H. A. Ward, Rochester, N. Y. : Collective museum of zoology, paleontology, and 
mineralogy. 

Diploma of honor. 

Bausch & Lomb, Rochester, N. Y. : Optical instruments. 

Foote, A. E., Philadelphia, Pa. : Museum and collections in mineralogy. 

Mackintosh, Dr., Chicago, 111. : Solar microscope, optical instruments, &c. 

Mason, L. W., Boston, Mass. : Music charts. 

New England Publishing Company, Boston, Mass. : Pedagogical works and period- 
icals. 

Queen, James W., &. Co., Philadelphia, Pa. : Physical apparatus. 

Sargent, D. A., Cambridge, Mass. : Gymnastic apparatus. 

Scribner's, Charles, Sons, New York, N. Y. : Astronomical charts (Trouvelot). 

Shilling, George, Washington, D. C. : Theodolites, surveying instruments. 

Union School Furniture Company, Battle Creek, Mich. : Collective exhibit of school 
furniture. 

231 



232 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Diploma. 

American Globe and School Supply Company, Seneca, N. Y. : Globes. 
Appleton, D., & Co., New York, N. Y. : School charts, 
Bancroft, A. L., & Co., San Francisco, Cal. : Charts and maps. 
Bardeen, C. W., Syracuse, N. Y. : Educational publications. 
Benjamine, E. B., New York, N. Y. : Chemical apparatus. 
Bradley, Milton, Springfield, Mass. : Kindergarten material. 

Buffalo School Furniture Company, Buffalo, N. Y. : Collective display of school 
furniture. 
Butler, E. H., «fe Co., Philadelphia, Pa. : Charts and maps. 
Colby & Co., New York, N. Y. : Historical chart. 
Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. : Charts (Monroe's). 
Ginn, Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. : Globe and charts. 
Hartshorn, Stewart, New York City. : Map roller. 

Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. : Special collection of publications. 
Johnson, A. J., & Co., New York, N. Y. : Cyclopaedia. 
Luckhardt ife Alten, Cassel, Germany : Surveying instruments. 
Musselman, D. L., Gem City Business College, Quincy, 111. : Penmanship. 
New York Silicate Book-Slate Company, New York, N. Y. : Slates and blackboards. 
Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, Scotland : Object lesson charts. 
Eand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 111. : Maps and atlas. 

Eitchie, E. S., & Sons, Boston, Mass. : Physical apparatus (common school set). 
Steiger, E., New York City : Kindergarten material. 

Union School Furniture Company, Battle Creek, Mich. : Dustless crayon. 
Whitall, Henry, Camden, N. J. : Tellurium and planispheres. 
Whitcomb, A. J., Boston, Mass. : School furniture. 

Certificate of merit. 

Cooper, J. Eamsay : Reading chart. 

Cram, George F., Chicago, 111. : Maps. 

De Garis & Paine, Milwaukee, Wis. : Aid to bookkeeping. 

Parmenter Crayon Company, Waltham, Mass. : White and colored crayons. i 

Pratt, D. C, & Co., New York. City : Erasers and school slates. 

Rocklofl', Johannes, Cassel, Germany : Relief maps. 

Zimmerman, C. F., Philadelphia, Pa. : Chart of -musical notation. 

232 



INDEX TO PART I. 



Academy of the Sacred Heart, Jersey City, C3. 
Academy of the Sacred Heart, Omaha, 22J. 
Accomac County, Ya., pnhlic schools, 72. 
Ackley, Iowa, public schools, 46, 219. 
Adelbert College of Western Reserve University, 

69. 
Apassiz, Mrs.,217. 
Ahreus, Fr^re Antoine, 206. 
Akers, John W., 20. 
Albany, N. Y., public schools, 74, 224. 
Albert Lea, Minn., public schools, 55. 
Albia, Iowa, public schools, 46, 220. 
Alcan, Felix, 200. 
Alden, Mrs. C.M.N., 71, 226. 
Alexandria County, Va., public schools, 72, 73. 
Alexandria, La., public schools, 50, 221. 
Alexandria, Va., public schools, 72, 73, 74. 
Alexis, Brother, 228. 
Algeria, schools of, 191, 197, 208, 210. 
Alleghany Countv, Va., public schools, 72. 
AUyn, John, 85, 2i4. 
Alverginat Fr6res, 195, 208. 
American Bible Society, 136, HI. 
American Globe and School Supply Company, 

232. 
American Missionary Association, 22. 149, 151, 228. 
American School Book Corapany, 85. 
American Unitarian Association, 136. 
Amherst College, 103. 

Amiens, city and schools of, 187, 191, 208, 210, 212. 
Ammendalo Institute of the Christian Brothers, 

162, 1:28. 
Anderson Female Seminary, 101, 226. 
Anderson, Ind., public schools, 219. 
Andrews Collegiate Institute, 167. 
Antioch College, 69. 
Appleton & Co., D., 85, 89, 137, 214, 232. 
Armeugaud, Ain6, 188, 210. 
Armstrong, H. Clay, 7. 
Art Union, Southern, 50. 
Ashland, Va., public schools, 72. 
Association for tlie Oral Instruction of the Deaf 

and Dumb, London, 147, 206. 
Assumption Academy of the Christian Brothers, 

107, 229. 
Atlanta, Ga., public schools, 74, 218. 
Atlanta University, 149,228. 
Atlantic Count5', N. J., public schools, 62,63. 
Atlantic, Iowa, puMic schools, 40, 219. 
Augusta County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Aurora, HI., public schools, 45, 218. 
Austin, Tex., public schools, 227. 
Auteuil, normal school of. 211. 
Auzoux, Mme. Veuvo. and Montaudon, 195, 208. 
Avery Institute, 150, 228. 
Avoine, M., 198, 212. 

Baili^re et Fils, J. B., 200. 

Baldwin, Miss J., 216. 

Baldwin Seminary, 162,231. 

Baldwin University, 69. 

Ballingall, P. G., 46. 

Baltimore Manual Training School, 221. 

Baltimore public schools, 221. 

Bancroft & Co., A. L., 85, 89, 214, 232. 

Banes, J. de, 46. 

Bardeen, C. W., 137, 232. 

Barnard, Henry, 37, 137, 214. 

Barnes & Co. ,'A. S., 85, 137, 214. 

Baschet, L., 200. 

Bath, city of, 206. 



Bath County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Baumc-l^s-Dames, schools of, 191, 212. 

Bausch & Lomb, 37, 127, 231. 

Baylies' Commercial College, 47. 

Bavvel. Mile., 191,212. 

Beach Institute, 150, 228. 

Beatrice, Nobr,, public schools, 60,223. 

Bedford County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Beech Grove School for Girls, 72, 226. 

Belin, Veuve et Fils, 200. 

Bellevue Hospital Training School for Nurses, 142. 

Bellevuo. O., public schools, 65. 

Bellier, Mme., 187, 212. 

Bell Plaine, Iowa, public schools, 40, 219. 

Belpre, O., public schools, 65. 

Benjamin, E. B., 37, 133, 232. 

Bennett Seminary, 102, 231. 

Benwood, W. Va., public schools, 73. 

Bergen County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 

Bertaux, E., 189. 

Berthoz, M., 191. 212. 

Besan^on, schools of, 191, 211. 

Bethune, Mrs. R., 216. 

Bichnoll. T. W., 7. 

Biddlo University, 164. 

Birmingham, England, school board of, 165, 206. 

Bischotfsheim Foundation, France, 193, 211. 

Bishop Seabury Mission, Minn., 59. 

Bisson, M., 189, 212. 

Blackburn, Miss S., 40, 219. 

Blind, institutions for the, 14, 147, 172. 

Blulitou, O., Tiublic schools, 65. 

Boardman, Miss E. D., 217. 

Bonasso, Lebel, 200. 

Bond, Frank, 219. 

Bonnard, P., 189,213. 

Bonno, Abb6, 189, 212. 

Boonton, N. J., public schools, 62. 

Booth Miss M. A., 217. 

Bordeaux, city and schools of, 188, 193, 197, 199, 208. 

Boston, llass., Librarv Bureau of, 16, 138. 

pubjic schools of, 84, 221, 222. 

ColFoge of Physicians and Surgeons of, 142. 

Free Evening Drawing School of, 221. 
Boulogne-sur-Mer, school of, 193, 211. 
Bourges, schools of, 19.5, 197, 211. 
Bouthiaux, M , 189,211. 
Bouvard, J., 19.i, 208. 

Boyden's Kindergarten, Miss Alice, 50,222. 
Bradlev, Milton, 94, 95, 232. 
Bridgeton, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. 
Bridoux, M., 189,211. 
British and Fcteign Blind Association, London, 

147, 165, 206. 
Brooklyn coloied schools, 164, 230. 
Brooks, T. H., 01. 

Btothers of the Christian Schools, 23, 151-162, 228. 
Brown, Lo Roy D., 21, 64, 70. 
Brown Seminary, 162. 
Brown's School, 55. 
Brown University, 71. 
Brunner, John H., 137. 
Brunswick County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Bryan, Tex., public schools, 227. 
Biichtel College, 69. 
Buckley, A. E , 21. 

Buffalo'School Furniture Company, 89, 232. 
Buisson, B., 27. 
Buquet, M.. 191. 

Bureau of Education, U. S., 9, 19, 34, 39, 89, 95, 103, 
127-131, 134, 136-137, 139-141, 142, 147, 214. 

233 



234 



INDEX TO PART I. 



Burke, E. A., 7. 

Burlington County, N. J., public schools, 62. 63. 

Burlington, Iowa, public schools, 46, 219. 

Burnham, Miss S., 217. 

Burrell Seminary, 231. 

Business colleges, 98. 

Butcher, B. L., 7. 

Butler, J. H., 86, 214. 

Butler & Co., E. H., 80, 89, 214, 232. 

Caen, normal school of, 195. 

Caille, M., 190, 212. 

California Kindergarten Training School, 95, 217. 

Calvert, Tex., public schools, 227. 

Cambridge, Minn., village schools, 55. 

Camden County, if. J., public schools, 62, 63. 

Camden, N. J.," public schools, 62, 224. 

Campbell County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Cape May County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 

Carleton College,' 55, 222. 

Carlisle Indian School, 41-42, 215, 

Carlstadt, N. J., public school, 63. 

Carroll County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Carter, Miss S., 216. 

Cass County, Iowa, public schools, 46, 220. 

Cassell & Co., 86, 214. 

Cathedra] and St. Mary's Schools, St. Paul. 154. 

Cathedral School, New York Citv, 154, 229. 

Cathedral School, Philadelphia, 154, 229. 

Caulle, M., 191, 212. 

Cedar Eapids, Iowa, public schools, 46, 219. 

Centenary Biblical Institute, 162, 231. 

Central Tennessee College, 162, 281. 

Cercle de la Librairie, de I'lmprinierio, et de la 

Papeterie, 200, 2o8. 
Cercle Parisien de la Ligue Erajigaise de I'En- 

aoignement, 180, 209. 
Cernesson, Leopold Camille, 193, 193, 209. 
Cballamel, Aiu6, 189. 
Chalons-sur-Marne, schools of, 191, 195. 
Charavay Frdres, 200. 

Charity JEospital Nurse Training School, 142, 214. 
Charles City, Iowa, public schools, 46, 219. 
Charleston, S. C, colored schools, 230. 
Charlotte County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Cbartres, normal school of, 195. 
Chatfield, Minn , vUlHge schools, 55. 
ChautauquaLiteraryand Scientiflc Circle, 141, 214. 
Cheney, Margaret S'., and E. H. Eichards, 216. 
Cherokee Orphan Asylum, 95, 214. 
Chicago, 111., 37, 74, 218. 
Chillicothe, O., public schools, 65, 225. 
Christian Brothers, 23, 1 51-102, 228. 
Christian Brothers' Academy, 157,229. 
Christian Brothers' College, Memphis, 158, 228, 229. 
Christian Brothers' College, St. Louis, 158, 229. 
Christian Brothers' schools. New York City, 229. 
Christian Brothers' schools, St. Paul, Minn., 229. 
Christofle, M., 193, 211. 
Cincinnati public schools, 65, 225. 
Cincinnati University, 69. 
Circleville, O., pubUo schools, 66, 225. 
Claesen, M., 200. 
Claflin University, 162, 231. 
Clark, Edward, 141. 
Clarke, Miss C. H., 217. 
Clarke County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Clark Institute for Deaf and Dumb, 144. 
Clark University, 163, 231. 
Clemenle, Antonio, 208. 
Clerc, M., 191,212. 

Clermont-Ferrand, school of art of; 197, 211. 
Cleveland, O., public schools, 66. 
Clinton Academy, 50,221. 
Clinton, Iowa, public schools, 46, 219. 
Cocheris, Mme. Pauline, 189, 212. 
Cochet, M., 190, 212. 
Cechrane, Hattie, 219. 
Colby & Co., 232. 
Colin et Cie., Armand, 200. 

College of Christian Brothers, St. Louis, 158, 229. 
College of Phvsicians and Surgeons, Boston, 

Mass., 142. 
Colldgo Saiiite-Barbe, 199. 
CoUin, Mile. Laure, 187, 212. 
Colorado Institution for the Blind, 147, 218. 
Colorado Institute for the Education of the Deaf, 

142, 218. 

234 



Colorado State Agricultural College, 217. 
Colorado State Industrial School, 38, 148, 215. 
Columbia Athenaeum, 71, 226. 
Columbia Institute and ifati(mal Deaf Mute Col 

lege, 144. 
Columbus Junction, Iowa, schools, 46, 219. 
Columbus, Ind., public schools, 219. 
Columbus, Nebr., public schools, 60, 223. 
Columbus, O., public schools, 66, 225. 
Comstock, Mrs. A. B., 217. 
Concord, N. H., public schools, 61, 223. 
Connecticut State Keform School, 38, 148, 215. 
Cookman Institute, 163, 231. 
Cooper, J. Eamsay, 232. 
Cordova Girls' School, Vera Cruz, 208. 
Cornell College, 46. 
Coudrav, M., 190, 213. 
Coulet,'T.,191,212. 
Courtois, M., 190, 213. 
Couvey, I., 190, 213. 
Cowperthwait & Co., 86, 89, 232. 
Crab Orchard, Nebr., school, 60. 
Craig County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Cram, George F., 232. 
Crawfordsville, Ind., public schools, 219. 
Creches, Soci6t6 des, 186. 
Creighton College, 61. 
Creston, Iowa, public schools, 46, 219. 
Crete, Nebr., public schools, 60, 223. 
Creuse, schools of the department of, 191, 211. 
C rosb V. Miss May, 9, 94, 2 14. 
Cuba Street School, Mobile, 164. 
Cubas, Antonio Garcia, 207. 
Culpeper County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Cumberland County, N. J., public schools, 62. 

63. 
Curtiss Business College, 56. 

Danville County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Danville, Va., public schools, 72. 

Davenport, lowji^public schools, 47, 219. 

Davey's School, Vernon L., 63, 224. 

David, M., 190, 213. 

Davis, Mrs. A. L., 216. 

Dayton, O., 68, 225. 

D'Acrosto, Lorenzo, 208. 

Deaf and dumb, schools for the, 14, 144, 172 

De Beaudot, M., 199, 209. 

Debrie, G., 198, 209. 

De Garis & Paine, 232. 

Delagrave, Ch., 189, 201, 209. 

Delahaye et Lecrosnier, 200. 

Delalai'n Fr6res, 200. 

Delaruelle, M., of Elbeuf, 191, 213. 

Delaruelle, M., of Bouen, 191, 213. 

De la Salle College, 159, 228. 

De la Salle Institute, 157, 228, 229. 

Delphi, Ind., public schools, 219. 

Delvaille, Dr. C, 188. 

Denison University, 69. 

Denver, Colo., 74. 

Deptford School, 63. 

Des Fossez et Cie., 200. 

Des Moines, Iowa, public schools, 47, 219. 

Detroit Eadiator Company, 89. 

Detroit, Minn., village schools, 56. 

Detweiler.L.. 69. 

Deyrolle, fimile, 190, 193, 196, 209. 

Diderot School, 209. 

Dijon, schools of, 191 , 193, 197, 209, 211. 

Dinwiddio County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Dobyns, Prof J. E., 14, 38. 

Docquov, 190,213. 

Dodge Center, Minn., village schools, 56. 

Dorangeon, M., 190,211. 

Douai, academic schools of art of, 197, 211. 

Doubs, 191,209, 211. 

Doucher et Cie., 200. 

Doughertj% Prof. N. C, 45. 

Dubuque, 47. 

Ducrocq, M., 206. 

Duluth, Minn., city schools, 56. 

Dumoulin et Cie., D., 200. 

Dupont, Mme., 191. 

Dupont, Paul, 200. 

Duval High School, 44, 218. 

Duvall, A., 27. 

East Florida Seminary, 44, 218. 



INDEX TO PART I. 



235 



East Jacksonville, Fla., graded school, 44. 

Easton, Warren, 50. 

East Tennesaeo Wesleyan University, 163, 231. 

Elton, John, 8, 31, 51, C4, 94, 202, 214. 

ficole Alsacienne, 199. 

licolfi Libre des Sciences Politiq-ues, 199. 

£cole Monse, 199. 

ficole Municipale de Physique et Chiniie ludus- 

ti ielles, Paris, 1 97. 
Ecole Rationale do Dessin pour les -Jeunes Eilles, 

209 
Ecole Norniale Sp6ciale de Travail Manuel, 195, 

209. 
Eldora, Iowa, public schools, 47, 219. 
Eldiedge & Bro.. 86, 137. 

Elizabeth City County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Elizabeth, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. 
EUijay Seminary, 163. 
finiouot, Mme., 191. 
English exhibits, 26, 166, 206. 
Enos, S. T.,89. 

Essex County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 
Evansville, Ind., colored schools; 164, 230. 
!fi vreus. technical school of, 193, 212. 
E yota, Minn., village schools. 56. 

F.nirbanks&Co., 136. 

Fairbury, Nebr., public schools, 60, 223. 

Fairfax County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Faivre, M., 191, 213. 

Falls Citv, Nebr., public schools, 60, 223. 

Farlow, Kate M., 144. 

Farmiugton, Minn., city schools, 56. 

Farnum Preparatory School, 6i. 

Fauquier County, Va., pubUc schools, 72. 

Fay, E. A., 144. 

Feeble-minded, schools for the, 149. 

Felicity. O.. public school, 68. 

Fergus Falls, Minu , city schools, 56. 

Firmin-Didot et Cie., 20i). 

Fisk University, 71, 103, 150, 228. 

Fitch Creche, 18, 35, 96, 214. 

Fletcher, Miss Alice C 42-43, 215. 

Florida, State of, 44. 218. 

Fluvanna County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Foote, A. E., 105, 138, 231. 

Forest Grove, Oreg., Indian School, 225. 

Fort Madison, Iowa, public schools, 47. 

France, exhibit by, 27. 

educational societies of, 186. 

Ministry of Public Instruction of, 187, 188, 194, 
197,198,199,208,209. 

higher normal school of, 195. 

Pedagogic Museum of, 200, 210. 
Franklin, N.H., 61, 224. 
Frazer, Kobert, 25. 

Frederick County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Fredericksburg, Va., public schools, 72, 73. 
Freedman's Aid Society of the M. E. Church, 22, 

162, 231. 
French & Choate, VAd. 
Fr6t6 et Cie., 188, 211. 
Friends' Boarding School, Providence, 71. 
Friends' Book Store, 138. 
Friends' Station, Tenn., public school, 71. 
Fournier Lj^ceum, 208. 
Fuller, Angle, 144. 
Fuller, Mrs. S.E., 84. 
FumiSre, Th6ophile, 206. 
Furukawa, E., 207. 

G-allipolis, O., public sehools, 68, 225. 

Galveston, Tex., public schools, 227. 

Garcet et JSTisius, 187, 211. 

Gandu, M.,190,213. 

Gautier, Maison J., 189. 

Gautier, M., 190, 191, 213. 

Gem City Business College, 98. 

Geneste'etHerscher, 188,209. 

Genestet de Chairac et Cesty, 198, 213. 

Georgetown University, 103. 

Geoigia University, 104. 

Gibbs, jr., Oliver, 51. 

Gibert,M., 191,213. 

GitToTd Bros., 136. 

Gilbert Seminary, 163. 

Ginn, Heath & Co., 87, 90, 138, 214, 232. 

Girard College, 225. 



Glencoe, Minn., village schools, 56. 

Gloucester County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 

Gloucester, N. J., public schools, 62. 

Glover, Miss M. 0., 210. 

Goochland County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Goodman's Business College, 71. 

Goodnough, W. S.,21. 

Gove, Anron, 7. 

Grand Island, Nebr., public schools, 60, 223. 

Grand Junction, Iowa, public schools, 47, 219. 

Grand Rapids, Mich., piiblic schools, 51, 222. 

Grayson County. Va., public schools, 72. 

Greeu.J.M., 0J,'224. 

Green bergcr, David, 14. 

Gre(-n County, Iowa, public schc ols, 47, 219. 

Greenville County, Va.. public schools, 72. 

Gregorv Institute, 150,228. 

Gross, C. A., 63, 224. 

Groult, Edmond, 213. 

Hachette et Cie, 188, 200. 

Hackney, W.F.,47. 

Halifax County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Hall County, ifebr., district schools, 60. 

Hamilton. O., public schools, 68,225. 

Hamline University, 56, 212. 

Hampton Normal and Agiicultural Institute, 150, 

228. 
Hancock, John, 21, 70. 
Hanniet, M., 192, 213. 
Hanover County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Hardin County, Iowa, public schools, 47, 219. 
Hartshorn, Stewart, 232. 
Hasbrouck Institute, 6:i, 224. 
Hastings, Minn., city schools, 56,222. 
Hastings, Nebr., public schools, 60. 
Havre, schools of, 192, 193, 2o9 
H6ment, Felix, et Cic6ri, 100, 211. 
Hennepin County, Minn., schools, 56. 
Hennuyer, M., 200. 

Henrico County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Henry County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Hetzel et Cie, 200. 
Hill, S. L., 221. 
Hiram College, 69. 

Hoboken. N. J., public schools, 62, 224. 
Holston [Seminary, 16'^, 231. 
Honduras, Spanish, 206. 
Houghton, Mifflin ifc Co., 37, 138, 232. 
House of Refuge, liandall's Island, 224. 
Houston Seminary, 163, 231. 
Howard Female College, 71, 226. 
Howard University, 103. 
Howe, Miss Maude, 215. 
Howell and Ward, 111-116. 
Howell graded schools, 71, 226. 
Howes, Miss H., 216. 
Hoyt,Rev. A. F.,162. 
Huard, Mme., 192. 
Hubbard, Lucius F., 51. 
Hudson County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 
Huiscamp, J. C., 47. 
Humboldt, Nebr., public schools, 60. 
Hunterdon County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 
Huutsville, Tex., public schools, 227. 
.Hutchinson, Minn., village schools, 56. 

Ikelmer,M.,]89,211. 

Illinois Industrial University, 45, 218. 

Illinois Institution for the Education of the Deaf 
and Dumb, 38, 144,214. 

Immaculate Conception Parochial School, Balti- 
more, 154, 230. 

Inunacuiate Conception Parochial School, New 
York City, 154, 259. 

Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pa., 25, 41-42, 
215. 

Indian Ofiace, 41-43. 

Indiana, State of, 21, 218. 

Indiana Asylum for Feeble minded Children, 218. 

Indianapolis, Ind., colored schools, 164, 230. 

Indiana Reformatory School for Women and 
Girls, 218. 

Institute of the Holy Angels, 63. 

International Missidnar\' Association, 22. 

Iowa, State of, 20, 46, 219'. 
State Department of, 49. 

Iowa Agricutural Colh'ge, 47, 219. 

235 



236 



INDEX TO PART I. 



Iowa College for tlie Blind, 47, 219. 

Iowa Falls schools, 47, 219. 

Iowa Institution lor the Deaf and Dumb, 47, 219. 

Iowa State Normal School, 47, 219. 

Iowa State University, 49, 219. 

Is6re, schools of the department of, 187, 211. 

Ivison, Blakenian, Taylor & Co., 88, 214. 

Jack, Miss M. E., 216. 

Jackson, 'I'enn., pablic schools, 71,226. 

Jacksonville Graded Grammar School for Whites, 

44, 218. 
Jamaica, 166, 20C. 

James City County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Janesville, "Wis., public schools, 73, 228. 
Japan, Educational Department of, 166-186, 206. 
Jeaimot, Emile, 190, 21J. 
Jefferson, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 
Jersey City public schools, 62, 224. 
Jesup, Iowa, public schools, 48. 
Jo.bu«ou & Co., A. J., 232. 
Jones, W. W. "W.,8. 
JouvetetCie.,200. 
Judson Female Institute, 25, 101, 103, 217. 

Kansas State Agricultuial Collefre, 220. 

Kearney City, Jlcbr., public schools, 60. 

Kennedy, A.' M, 219. 

Kentucky Deaf-Mute College, 144. 

Kentucky Deaf-Mute Office. Danville, 144. 

Kentucky Institute for Feoble-Minded Children, 

38,149,214. 
Kentucky State University, 164, 230. 
Kentucky University Business College, 98. 
Ken von College, 69. 
Kielile, D. L.,20, 51. 
Kimball, Thomas Rogers, 61. 
Kindergarten, 33, 35, 95, 167, 214. 
King, A. F. A., 15. 

King George County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Kingsley, Iowa, public schools, 48. 
Kingsley Seminary, 163. 
KiotM.fii, Deaf, Dumb, and Blind School of, 207. 

Female School of, 207. 
Kirkwood, Louisa J., 90, 
Kitagawa, G-.,207. 

Kitchen garden exhibit, 13, 36, 96, 214. 
Knoxville, Tenn., schools of, 71, 226, 230. 
Komaba, Agricultural College of, 207. 
Kossutb County, Iowa, public schools, 48. 

La Crosse, Wis., public schools, 73, 227. 

La Fayette Ind., public schools, 218. 

La Grande Sauve, normal school of, 195. 

La Grange Seminary, 103, 231. 

Lake Citv, Minn., schools, 56. 

Laloupe,' school of, 192,213. 

Lambert, Marcel, 199. 

Lamesle, Mme., 192. 

Lan^e, M., 189. 

Laneshoro, Minn., city schools, 56. 

La Paz College, 208. 

La Porfe, Ind , public schools, 218. 

La Salle Academy, 157, 229. 

Lavall6e, M., 190, 213. 

Layet, Dr., 188. 

Leavenworth, Kans., 74, 220. 

Lebanon, Ohio, public school, 68. 

Lebon, L6od, 206. 

Le Clair, Iowa, ])ublic schools, 48. 

Leckenbv, Mr.. 127. 

Leclerc, M., 192.213. 

Lecceur, M.; 199, 211. 

Lecoq. M., 211. 

Lee County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Lee University,- 73. 

Lefraiic, Mme., 192. 

Lelaud University, 164, 221. 

Le Mans, normal school of, 195. 

Le Mars, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 

Lemercier, Mme. Veuve, 196, 211. 

Lemmon, Mr. and Mrs. J. G., 217. 

Lemort, M., 192,213. 

Le Moyne Institute, 150, 228. 

Leon County, Fla , public schools, 218. 

Le Perdi iel.' Charles, 188, 213. 

Le Prince, Madame, 144. 

Le Piince, Prof. A., 145. 

236 



Lerov, M., 190,213. 

Levasseur, E., 190, 209. 

Lewis, Grace Anna, 217. 

Lewis Normal Institute, 150, 228. i^ 

Lewis, Iowa, public schools, 48. 

Lewiston, Me., public schools, 221. 

Lexington Normal Institution, 150. 

Library Bureau, Boston, Mass., 16,138. 

Li^bout, Mme., 187,213. 

Lille, schools of, 192, 197, 209. 

Limoges, schools of, 195, 197,209. 

Linton, Miss L., .-nd Miss A. Stantial, 216. 

Lippincott Co., J. B., 88, 214. 

Litchtield, Minn., city schools, .^6. 

Little Eock, Ark., colored schools, 164, 230. 

Little Eock University, 163, 231. 

Livet Institute, 193, 209. 

Louisiana, State of, 20, 50, 220. 

Office of the Slate Superintendent of, 50. 
Louisiana Institution for the Blind, 147 
Louisiana State Agricultural and Mechanical 

College, 221. 
I/Ouisville. Ky., public schools, 220. 
Louisville School of Pharmacy for Women, 217. 
Lovy, Paul, 192, 214. 
Lowerj-'s Industrial Academy, 230. 
Lnckhardt & Alten, 232. 
Liitz, M., 19J, 211. 

Lynchburg, Va., public schools, 72,72. 
Lyons, National School of Fme Arts of, 197, 209.. 
Lyons, Iowa, public schools, 48. 

McBride,T. H., 20. 

AlcGiegor, Iowa, public schoolSi 48, 220. 

Macintosh, Dr., 134. 

Mackay Institute, Montreal, Canada, 147. 

Mackintosh, Dr., 231. 

Macmillan & Co., 88, 214. 

McVay, C. E., 134. 

.i'ladisbn County, Va., public schooks, 72. 

Madison, Wis., 'public schools, 73,228. 

Maine State College of Agriculture and Mechanic 
Arts, 221. 

Maine State Normal and Training School, 97. . 

Maison J. Gautier, 189. 

Mame ot Cie, A., 201. 

Manchester, N. H., public schools, 61, 224. 

Manchester, O., public schools, 68. 

Manchester, Va., public schools, 72. 

Manhattan Academy, 157, 230. 

Manhattan College, 158, 228. 

Mankato, Minn., city schools, 56. 

Mansfield Female College, 50, 221. 

Mautorville. Minn., village schools, 56. 

Marans, school of, 192, 213. 

Marble Eock, Iowa, public schools. 48, 220. 

Marengo, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 

Marietta College 69. 

Marion County. Fla., public schools. 44, 218. 

Marne. schools of the department of, IS'7, 211, 213. 

Marseilles, Municipal School of Fine Arts at, 198, 
209. 

Marshall Countv, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 

Maraballtown, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 

Martha's Institute, 63. 

Marwedel. Emma, 9.). 

Maryland Si ate Normal School, 97, 214, 215. 

Mason, L. W., 2:51. 

Mason, Mich., High School, 164. 

Massachusetts, State of, 221. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 221. 

Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble- 
minded Youth, 221. 

Massachusetts State Normal Art School, 221. 

Masson, G , 201. 

Mecklenbui g County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Medford, Minn., village schools, 56. 

Meharry Medical Department of Central Tennes- 
see College, 152. 

Melnn, professional school of, 194, 195, 211. 

Melville, Miss M. A., 61. 

Menneglier, M., 190, 211. 

Mercer County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 

Merriam & Co., G. & C, 138. 

Mexico, Academy of Fine Arts of, 207. 

National Preparatory School of Art of, 208. 
schools of the city of, 208. 

Meyer, Curt W., 134.' 



INDEX TO PART I. 



237 



Michijan, State of, 51,222. 

Micliigan State Ascricukuial College, 51, 222. 

"Michigan State rublic SlIiooI, 222. 

Michigan University, 51. 

Middlesex County, N. J., public schools, 62,63. 

Miiinot, Mile., 192. 

Miller Manual Labor School. 72, f 27. 

Millville, N. J., public schools, 62,224. 

Milton Bradley & Co., 9."). 

Milwaukee Day School for Deaf Children, 147. 

Milwaufeeo, Wis., public schools, 73,227. 

Minneapolis, Minn., public schools, 50, 222. 

Minnesota, State of, ".Ju, 51, 2'22. 

Stale Department of Public Instruction of, 58. 
Minnesota Instittttioii for Education of Deaf, 

Dumb, and Blind, 58, 59, 222. 
Minnesota IJeforni School, 38, 148, 215. 
Minnesota Stale Normal School at Manfeato, 58. 

222. 
Minnesota State Kormal School at Saint Cloud, 58, 

222. 
Minnesota State Nonnal School at "Winona, 58, 

222. 
Minnesota State School for Idiots and Inebriates, 

38,149.222, 
Minnesota University, 59, 222. 
Minns, Miss S., 216,21.7. 
Miaeiey, school of, 192,211. 

Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege, 103,223, 
Mississippi Institution for The Deaf and Dumb, 

38, 147, 214. 
Mississippi Institution for the Education of the 

Blind, 147, 214. 
Mobile. Ala., Cul>a Street School of, 1C4. 
Monmouth County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 
Monroe, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 
Monroe, La., public schools, 50, 221. 
Montauban Protestant Orphanage, 211. 
Montboliard, schools of, 192, 195, "211. 
Monternault, Mme. A., 187,213, 
Montgomery Bell Academy, 71, 226. 
Moorhead, Minn., public schools, 50, 222, 
Morgan, Mrs. L. V.,216. 
Morris County, K". J., public schools, 62, 63. 
Morristown Lsorough, N.J. public schools, 62. 
Morristown Seminary, 163. 
Morse, S.K., 63, 224, ' 
MouchelM,, 190,214. 
Mount Vernon School, 164, 230. 
Mount Zion Seminary, 163, 231. 
Muncie, Ind., public schools, 219. 
Muneret, A., 190. 213. 
Murphy, John, 88. 

Mus6e Pedagogique, of France, 200, 210. 
Musselman, D. L., 232. 

Naka,T.,207. 

Nansemond County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Nar.ioux, Felix, 188, 211. 

Nashua, N. H., public schools, 61, 224. 

Nashville College for Young Ladies, 72, 226. 

Nashville. Tenu., public schools, 71. 

National Kindergarten, Washington, D. C, 95, 215. 

Nebraslsa, State of, 21, 59, 223, 

Nebraska City public schools, 00, 223. 

Nebraska Institute for the Blind, 60, 223. 

Nebraska Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, 60, 

223. 
Nebraska State Normal School, 61, 1:23. 
Nebraska University, Gl. 
Nelson and Sons, Thomas, 88, 214. 
Newark Citv Home, 38, 148, 215. 
Newark, N. ,1., public schools, 62, 63, 224. 
New Brunswick. N. J., public schools, 62, 224. 
Newell, M,A.,97. 

New England Publishing Company, 138, 231. 
New Hampshire, State of, 18, 01. 
New Iberia, La., public schools, 50, 221. 
New Kent County, Va., public schools, 72. 
New Jersey, State of, 21, 02, 224, 
New Jcr.sev State Normal and Model Schools, 63, 

224. ■ 
New Jersey State School for Deaf Mute.s, 63. 
New Orleans public schools, 50, 220, 221 
New Orleans "University, 163, 231. 
New Philadelphia., O., public schools, 68. 
New York, State of, 224. 



New York Catholic Protectory, 156, 228, 229. 

New York City, Associated Artists of, 217. 

New York City Cathedral School, 15t, 229. 

New York City colored schools, 104, 230. 

New York Citv Institution foi' the Improved In- 
struction of Deaf-Mut.es, 146, 215. 

New York Cravon Company, 90. 

New York Hospital Training School for Nurses, 
142, 

New York Institution for the Blind, 37, 147, 214. 

New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 
38, 144-146. 214. 

New York Silicate Bonk Slate Co., 90, 232. 

New York State Institution for the Blind, 148. 

New York Trade Schools, 98, 224. 

Nice, schools of, 195, 10s, 210. 

Nicolas et Marcotte, 196, 211. 

Nieto, Joso A., 208, 

Nissen, Hartviar, 15. 

Nora Springs, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 

Nord, department of, 187, 102, 210, 21 L. 

NordenfeUlt, Th„15,2()0. 

Norfolk, Va., public schools, 72. 

Normal School and Business College, Fremont, 61. 

Normal schools, 36, 97, 161, 173-175, 195. 

Norris, H. W., 48, 220. 

North Adams, Mass., public schools, 222. 

Northampton County, Va., public schools, 72. 

North Bonnet Industrial School, 148. 

North Cai'olina State Institution for Deaf, Dumb, 
and Blind, 148. 

North Carolina University, 104. 

Northern Home for Friendless Children, 226. 

Northumberland County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Northwestern Normal School, 68, 

Northwestern University, 103. 

Norwalk, O,, public schools, 68. 

Nottoway County, Va., public schools, 72, 73. 

Noj'cs, J. L., 14. 

Noyes, L. "W , 139. 

Nuntes do Oca, Kaphael, 20S. 

Nurse Training School of Charity Hospital, 142, 
214. 

Nurse Training School of Woman's Hospital, 25. 

Oakland, Fla,, Colored Graded School, 44t 

Oak Park, 111., public schoo's, 74. 

Oaxaca, Girls' Academy of the city of, 208. 

Oberlin College, 69, 

Oberlin. , public schools, 68, 225. 

Ocean County, N, J., public schools, 62. 

Office of Indian Affairs, 41-43. 

Ogden, Mrs. Anna B., 13, 35, 94, 214. 

Ohio, State of, 21, 64, 225. 

Ohio Institution tor the Education of the Blind, 

38,148,215. 
Ohio State Univer.sity, 69, 225. 
Ohio University, 69. 
Ohio Wesleyau "University, 69. 
Oliver & Boyd, 232. 
Olivier, M., '190,214. 

Olmstead County, Minn., schools, 56, 222. 
Olsen, Klaus, 15. 
Omaha public schools, 61,223. 
Opelousas.La., 50. 

Orange County, Fla., pirblic schools, 218. 
Orange County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Orange, N, J.," public schools. 62, 224. 
Ordwaj"-, Mrs. Evelyn M. Walton, 216. 
Orlando, Fla., public school, 44, 218. 
Orleans, normal school of, 195. 
Ornana, schools of, 192, 21.3. 
Oronoco, Minn,, village schools, 57. 
Orr, G. J., 7. 
O'Shea, P., 139. 

Oshkosh, Wis., State Normal School at, 73. 
Oskaloosa. Iowa, public schools, 48. 
Otterbein University. 69. 
Ottumwa, Iowa, public schools, 48, 219. 
Oxford, O., public schools, 68, 225. 

Pacific Kindergarten Normal School, 217. 

Page, Miss A. L., 210. 

Paine.W. W. 20. 

Painesville, O., public schools, 68. 

Palm6, v., 201. 

Palmer, Miss A., 216. 

Pardonnet, Mile., 192. 

237 



238 



INDEX TO PART I. 



Paris, city ami sclionls of, I9C, 198, 208, 210, 211. 

Pariuenter Crayou Company, 90, 232. 

Pnrr, S. S., 57. " 

Pas-de-Calais department of, 192, 213. 

Passaic County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 

Passaic, N. J., public schools, 62. 

Paterson, N. J., public schools, 62, 63, 224. 

Patrick County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Pationage des JEnfants de I'Eb^nisterio, 194. 212. 

Pauthier, Mme., 192. 

Payno, Prof. W. W., 51, 57. 

Peabodv, Miss L. , 216. 

Peabody High School, 72, 226. 

P6chin, Mme., 192. 

Peet, Dr. Isaac Lewis, 144. 

Penman's Art Journal, N. T., 139. 

Pennsylvania, State of. 18. 

Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 

226. 
Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial 

Art,.S7, 141, 215. 
Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble Minded 

Children, 149, 215. 
Pennsylvania TJniversity, 37, 104, 215. 
People's Publishing Co., 90. 
Peoria, 111., public schools, 45, 218. 
Perkins Institute and Massachusetts School for 

the Blind, 221. 
Perrin, Em., 201. 
Perry, Mrs. IST. H., 217. 
Petersburg, Va., public schools, 72,73. 
Petit,Pierre, 190, 211. 
Phelps, W. F., 20, 51, 57. 
Philadelphia Cathedral School, 154, 229. 
Philadelphia Normal School for Girls, 225. 
Philadelphia School of Design for Women, 37, 141, 

214. 
Philadelphia "Woman's Hospital, 142, 215. 
Philander Smith College, 163, 231. 
Picard-Bernbeim, Plon, Nourrit, et Cie, 201. 
Piche, M., 201. 

Pierce's College of Business, 98, 215. 
Pine Level, Fla., school, 44. 
Pittsylvania Countv, Va., public schools, 72, 73. 
Plack, W. L., 48. ' 
Plainlield, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. 
Plainview, Minn., village schools, 57. 
Plantv & Girardot, 192. 
Plattville, Wis., State Normal School, 73. 
Pleasant G rove, Minn., schools, 57. 
Pocahontas, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 
Poitiers, School of Art of, 198,211. 
Polk County, Iowa, public schools, 220. 
Pollet, M.,l'92,213. 
Pollock, Mrs. Louise, 95. 
Pontarlier, schools of, 192, 212. 
Poolo Institute, 72. 
Porter & Coat.es, 88, 214. 
Portland, Me., public schools, 221. 
Portland, Oreg, public schools, 74, 225. 
Portsmouth, N. H., public schools, 61. 
Portsmouth, Ohio, public schools, 68, 225. 
Potter, A. "W., 18. 
Potter, Ainsworth & Co., 88,214. 
Poulain,M., 194,212. 
Pourchot, M., 190,213. 
Poussielgue Fr^res, 201. 
Powell, Prof. "W. B., 45. 
Powhatan County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Pratt & Co., D. C, 232. 
Prevost Orphanage, 190, 212. 
Prince Edward County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Prince George County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Princess Anne County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Princeton, Ind., public schools, 219. 
Proust, M., 199. 

Providence, E. I., public schools, 71, 226. 
Pulaski County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Qnantin, M., 201. 

Queen & Co., Jas. W., 37, 132, 231. 

Ract et Falquet, 187, 213. 

Kageip.ont, M., 191,213. 

Eahway, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. 

Rainsai-t, M., 191, 212. 

Ralston, Mrs. H. N., 139. 

Rand, McNally & Co., 88, 90, 232. 

238 a 



Eanvier, M., 198,212. 

Ravaisson, F., 188, 210. 

Red Cloud, Nobr., public schools. 61. 

Red Wing, Minn., city schools, 57. 

RiMlwood Falls, Minn., schools, 57. 

Reform schools, 14, 148. 

Regrain. A., 191,213. 

Reiber. fimile, 188, 212. 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 224. 

Rhode Island, State of, 71, 226. 

Rhode Island School of Design, 71, 226. 

Richards, E. H., 216, 217. 

Richmond County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Eiolimond, Ind., public schools, 219. 

Richmond, Va., Normal School, 164. 

Richmond, Va., public schools, 72, 73, 227. 

Riddell, Mrs. Phoebe, 95. 

Ries, Isaac B., 144. 

Riggs, .Tames, 165, 206. 

Ritchie & Sons, E. S., 37, 132, 232. 

Roanoke County, Va., public schools, 73. 

Rochester, Minn., public schools, 57, 222. 

Rockbridge County, Va., public schools, 72. 

Rockford, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 

Rock Hill College, 160, 229. 

Rockingham County, Va., public schools, 72, 73, 

227. 
Rockloff, Johannes, 232. 
Rogers, W. O., 7, 9. 
Roger Williams University, 72, 230. 
Roman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, Peekskill, 

N. Y., 156, 229. 
Roman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, Troy, N. 

T., 156, 229. 
Roret, M., 201. 
Roth. Dr. M., 165, 206. 
Rothschild, M., 201. 
Roubai.T, Ecole Nationalc dcs Arts Industriele at, 

198, 210. 
Rouen, city and schools of, 192, 194, 195, 210. 
Rousseau, Ancienne Maison (now Soci6t6 Anony- 

me), 191, 212. 
Roy, M., 192, 213. 
Rush ford, Minn., city schools, 57. 
Russey, schools of, 192,213. 
Rust University, 163, 231. 

Sacramonto Institute, 157, 230. 

Sacred Heart Academy, Omaha, 61, 223. 

Sacred Heart Academy, Westchester, N. T., 157, 

229. 
Sacred Heart College, 160, 229. 
St Alphonsus's Parochial School, Baltimore, 154, 

230. 
St. Alphonsus's Parochial School, New Orleans, 

98. 221. 
St. Ann's Parochial School, 154, 280. 
St. Bridget's Parochial School, 154, 230. 
St. Catherine's Academy, 61, 223. 
St, Cecilia's Academy, 72, 226. 
St. Charles Parish, La., schools, 50. 
St, Claire Convent, 223. 
St. Clair Hall School, 223. 
St. Cloud, Minn., city schools. 58. 
Ste. Foy, Colonie Protestantc de 212. 
St. Gabriel 's Parochial School, 154, 230. ' 
St. James Parish, La., schools, 50. 
St. James's Parochial and Commercial Schools, 

154, 229. 
St. James's Parochial School, New York City, 

154, 229. 
St. Johnsbnry Academy, 227. 
St. John's Collegiate Institute, 157, 230. 
St. John's County, Fla., public schools, 218. 
St. John's Parochial School, Baltimore, 154,230. 
St. John's Parochial School, Chicago, 230. 
St. John's Parochial School, Syracuse, N. T., 154, 

229. 
St. John's TJniversity, 59. 
St. Joseph County, Ind., schools, 219. 
St. Joseph's Academy, 1.57, 229. 
St. Joseph's Cathedral School, 155, 229. 
St. Joseph's College, Buffalo, 160,230. 
St. Jo.^eph's College, Lond on, 160, 229. 
St. Joseph's Convent school, 44, 218. 
St. Joseph's Normal College, 161,229. 
St. Joseph's Parochial School, Chicopeo, Mass., 

155,230. 



INDEX TO PART I. 



239 



St. Joseph's Parochial School, K. T. City, 155, 230. 

St. Joseph's School, Detroit, 230. 

St. Joseph's School Koman Catholic Male Orphan 

Asylum, 156. 
St. Mary's Academy, Troy, N. T., 157, 229. 
St. Mary's and Sacred Heart College, 160, 229. 
St. Mary's College, New Orleans, 160, 229. 
St. Mary's College, San Francisco, 160,229. 
St. Mary's Parochial School, Jersey City, 155, 230. 
St. Mary's Parochial School, Melrose.JS'. Y., 155,230. 
St. Mary's Parochial School, Kew York City, 155, 

230. 
St. Mary's Parochial School, Tonkers, N. Y., 155, 

230. 
St. Mary's Training School, 156, 229. 
St. Michael's College, 160, 230. 
St. Michael's Parochial School, 155, 230. 
St. jSTicholas's Parochial School, 155, 230. 
St. Omer, Paa-de Calais, 212. 
St. Patrick's Commercial Academy, 157, 230. 
St. Patrick's Parochial School, Hartford, Conn., 

155, 229. 
St. Patrick's Parochial School, New York City, 

155, 230. 
St. Patrick's School, Newark, N. J., 230. 
St. Paul, Minn., public schools, 57, 222. 
St. Paul Cathedral and Saint Mary's School, 154. 
St. Paul Kindergarten, 56, 222. 
St. Paul's Parochial School, Philadelphia, 155, 230. 
St. Peter, Minn., city school, 59. 
St. Peter's Parochial School, Baltimore, 155, 229. 
St. Peter's Parochial School, New York City, 155, 

229. 
St. Peter's Parochial School, Philadelphia, 155, 229. 
St. Pierre-16s-Calais, schools of, 194, 198, 212, 213. 
St. Teresa's Parochial School, 155, 230. 
St. Vincent's Parochial School, 155, 230. 
SaleiD, M., 191, 213. 

Salem County, N. J., puhlic schools, 62, 63. 
Salem, N. J., public schools, 62, 221. 
Sam Houston Normal Institute, 227. 
Sanborn, W. W., 48. 
Sanford, Pla., public school, 44,218. 
Santeo Normal Training School, 150, 228. 
Sargent, D. A., 15, 231. 
Sarlit, v., 201. 

Sauk Centre, Minn., Tillage schools, 58. 
Saunders, Miss M. T., 216. 
Schools lor the deaf and dumb, 14, 144, 172. 
Schroeder, T., 134, 215. 
Scranton, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. 
Scribner's Sons, Chas., 90, 231. 
Searing, Edward, 58. 

Searsborough, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. 
Seine-In ferieure, department of, 187, 193, 210, 212. 
Serrurier, M, 191, 196, 212. 
Seth Thomas Clock Co., 90, 93. 
Sheineld School Board central schools, England, 

165, 206. 
Sheldon Jackson Institute, 98, 215. 
Sheldon, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. 
Slienandoah, Iowa, public schools, 49^220. 
Shepard, E. K., 57. 
Shepard, Irwin, 20, 51. 
Sherwood & Co., Geo., 89, 214. 
Shilling, Geo., 90-93, 231. 
Shimek, Bohumel, 49, 220. 
Shoup, G. E., 49. 

Slyeveport, La., puhlic schools, 50, 221. 
Sidney, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. 
Sioux City, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. 
Six Oaks.Minn., puhlic schools, 55. 
Slate, Miss Mattio P., 144. 
Smart, J. H., V. 
Smith, Lyndon A.. 31, 202. 
Smith's Business College, 220. 
Smithville, Ohio, public schools, 68. 
Soci6t6 Anonymede la Construction Industriolle, 

206. 
Soci6t6 des Crfeches, 186, 210. 
Soci6t6 des Feies d'Enfants, 186, 214. 
Soci6t6 des ificoles Enfantines, 186, 210. 
Soci6t6 des Musses Cantonaux, 187. 
Soci6t6 Paternelle et Colonie Agricolede Mettray, 

186. 
Soci6t6 pour I'Encouriigement de I'lnstruction 

Primaire parmi les Protestants de France, 

186, 210. 



Soci6t6 pour I'Enseignement Professionnel des 

Femmes, 186, 210. 
Soci6t6 pour I'lnstruction E16mentaire, 186, 210. 
Soldan, F. Louis, 14. 
Soldiers' Orphans' Institute, 226. 
Somerset County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 
Soule Photograph Co., The, 141. 
Soul6's Commercial College and Literary InBti- 

tnte, 101, 221. 
South End Industrial School, 148. 
Southern Ait Union, 50. 
Southern Indiana Normal Institute, 219. 
Southern University, 50, 221. 
Spelman, James J., 164. 
Spillman, Dr. William, 223. 
Spirit Lake, Iowa, public schools, 49. 
Spring, E. A., 94, 141, 215. 
Springfield, Iowa, public schools, 49. 
Springfield, Ohio, public schools. 68, 225. 
Spring Garden Institute, 225. 
SpringvUle, Iowa, public schools, 49. 
Staflbid County, Va., public schools, 72. 
Stanford Memorial Kindergarten, 207. 
Stantial, Miss A., 216. 
Stark, Turner, 230. 
Staunton, Ya., public schools, 73. 
Stayne, Henry, 206. 

Steamboat Eock, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. 
Steiger, E., 96. 232. 
Steubenvillp, 0., public schools, 68. 
Stewait, John Q. A., 149. 
Stich, John M., 49. 

Stillwater, Minn., public schools, 57, 222. 
Storrs Sctool, 150, 228. 
Straight University, 150, 228. 
Summeiville, Fla., schools, 218. 
Summit, N. J., public school, 63. 
Sussex County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 
Suzanne, M.,'201. 
Symms, Miss A., 216. 

Taintor Brothers, Merrill & Co., 69. 

Talladega College, 150, 228. 

Tama County, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220 

Tell City, Ind., public schools, 219. 

Tennessee, State of, 21. 

Tennessee Central College, 164. 

Tennessee Female College, 71, 226. 

Tennessee School for Deaf and Dumb, 146. 

Tennessee University, 104. 

Terre Haute, Ind., public schools, 219. 

Texas, State of, 227. 

Texas State Agricultural and Mechanical Col 

lege, 104. 
Texas Wesleyan College, 163. 
Thierry, Mme., 193, 213. 
Thomas, M., 198, 212. 
Thomas Clock Co., Seth, 90, 93. 
Thornton, Ind., public schools, 219. 
Tileston Normal School, 97, 225. 
Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute, 151, 228. 
Tokio, Educational Api>liance Manufacturing 
Company of, 207. 

Engineering College of, 207. 

kindergarten of the Female Normal School 
of, 207. 

Musical Institution of, 207 

Normal b'chool of, 207. 

Pedfigopical Museum of, 207. 

School of Gymnastics of, 207. 

UuiTersity of, 207. 
Toledo, O , public schools. 225. 
Toner, Di. J. M., 15. 
Tongaloo University, 151, 228. 
Toulouse, Municipal School of Fine Arts of, 198 

210. 
Tours, Municipal School of Fine Arts at, 198, 210. 
Tracy, Miss Olivia, 35, 90, 214. 
Tran'iond. M., 106, 212. 
Tr61at, Jfimilo, 188, 210. 
Tremeschini, M., 191, 213. 
Trenton, N. J., public schools. fi2, 224. 
Tresch, J. F. J., 140, 215. 
Trinity School, 15 L. 
Trinity University, 227. 
Troy, "O., public schools, 68. 
Tschudi, Henry.448, 215. 
Tulano Univer'sitj^ 220. 

238 b 



240 



INDEX TO PART I. 



Tunis, schools of, 193, 210. 
Tuskegee Normal School, 230. 
Tuttle, A. H., 21, 69, 70, 225. 
Twitchell, Maria, 216. 

Union County, N". J., public schools, 62. 63. 
Union, luwa, public schools, 49, 220. 
Union FranQaise de la Jeunesse, 186, 210. 
Union School Furniture Company, 231, .232. 
Ushigome, Fine Art School of, 207. 

"Valenciennes, academic schools of, art of, iSS, 212. 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., 89, 93, 214. 
Vanderbilt University, 72, 226. 
Van Wio, D.D., 219. 
Vassar College, 217. 
Vast, H., 191,'213. 
Vaudremer, M., 199, 210. 
Vera Cruz, 207. 

Gobiemo del Estado de, 208. 
Vermont Academy, 227. 
Vermont State Normal School, 227. 
Versailles, normal school of, 195. 
Vernon L. Davey's School. 63. 
Vevay, Ind.. public schools, 219. 
Vicksburg, Miss., public schools, 223. 
Vierzon, schools of, 194, 212. 
Virginia, State of, 227. 

Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, 72. 
Virginia University, 72, 104. 
Voice and Hearing' School, 45, 218. 
Voiron, schools of, 194, 213. 

"Walker, Miss, 216. 

"Ward, H. A., 22,106-127,231. 

"Ward's Seminary for Young Ladies. 72, 226. 

"Warner Institute, 151, 228. 

"Warren County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. 

"Warren, O., public schools, 68. 

"Warsaw, Ind., public schools, 218. 

"Wasbinsiton, I>. C, public schools. 75-84,164,214, 

215, 230. 
"Washington Training School for Nurses, 142. 
"Washington University, 104, 223. 
Waterloo, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. 
"Watkins Seminary, 72. 
"Watson, Miss Eosa BuUis, 216. 
"Weber, A., 94. 
"Welby, L.D., 139. 
"Welch, C. H., 56. 

238 c 



"Wellsvillc, 0., public schools, 69. 

"West Denver, Colo., public schools. 84. 

West Florida Seminary, 44, 218. 

"West Jersey Academy, 63. ' 

"West Liberty, Iowa, public schools, 50, 220. 

West Milton, O., public schools, 69. 

West Point, Nebr., public schools, 61, 223. 

West Virginia, State of 73. 

West Virginia Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and 

Blind, 147. 
Wheeling, W. Va., public schools, 73, 227. 
Whitall, Henry, 232. 
Whitcomb, A. G., 93, 232. 

Whitewater, Wis., StateNormal School at, 73. 
Whitworth Female College, 223. 
Wisgin, Mrs. Kate Smith, 95. 
Wiiberforce University, 164, 220. 
Wiley Universitv, 163, 231. 
Wilkes Barre, Pa., 18, 84, 225. 
Wilmington, Del., colored schools, 230. 
Wilmington, N. C, Normal School, 151. 
Wilson, J. Ormond, 75. 
Winona, Minn., public schools, 59, 222. 
Wisconsin, State of, 73, 227. 

Oskosh State ISlormal School of, 73, 227. 
Platteville State Normal School of, 73, 227. 
Whitewater State Normal School of, 73, 227. 
Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls, 14, 38, 149, 

215.' 
Wisconsin State lus^'itution for the Education of 

the Deaf and Dumb, 227. 
Wittenberg College, 69. 
Witter, F. M., 50. 
Woman's Hospital, Nurse Training School of, 142, 

215. 
Woman's Institute for Technical Designs, 217. 
Women's Club, "BotanyGroup" ofNew England, 

216. 
Wooster, University of, 69. 
Worden, W. S., 223. 
WorkLngman's School and Free Kindergarten, 101, 

224. 

Xenia, O., public schools, 69, 225. 

Tutan, Nebr., public schools, 61. 

Zacona, girls' school of the city of, 208.' 
Zaleski, O., public schools, 69. 
Zimmerman, C. F., 232. 



SPECIAL REPORT 



k:: BUEEAU OJF EDUCATIOlSr. 



EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AND CONVENTIONS 



WORLD'S II^DUSTRIAL AND COTTON 
CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, 



NEW ORLEANS, 1884-'85. 



P^I^T IT. 



PROCEEDII^GS OF THE INTERN ATIOII^AIi 
CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVEENMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1886. 

239 



CONTENTS OF PART II. 



Page. 

Letter of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior 7 

Programme of the International Congress of Educators 9 

PEOOEEDINGS. 

Eeception at Werlein Hall . 11 

Address of welcome, by Hon. Chas. E. Fenner ■ 11 

Address by Col. Wm. Preston Johnston 14 

Address by Hon. John Eaton 17 

Address by Hon. John Hancock 30 

Address by Eev. A. D. Mayo, D. D 31 

Address by Prof. F. Louis Soldan 34 

First Session 35 

Second Session 3G 

Remarks by Hon. John Hancock 36 

Address by Prof. James L. Hughes 38 

Discussion 39 

Third Session 41 

Fourth Session 41 

Petition for opening Johns Hopkins University to women '. 41 

Address by Prof. E. A. Spring 43 

Fifth Session 48 

Sixth Session 1 48 

Seventh Session 49 

Eighth Session 49 

Discussion 49 

Eemarks by Hon. G. J. Orr 50 

Address by Professor Bartholomew 52 

PAPBES. 

SECTION A— ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 

Educational Progress in Jamaica; by Col. George Hicks, Inspector of Schools 

of Jamaica 59 

Progress of Education in the Province of Ontario, Canada; by J. George 

Hodgins, M. a., LL. D., Deputy Minister of Education 77 

The Application of Kindergarten Principles to Primary Education; by Prof. 

W. N, Hailmann, President of the Kindergarten Un iou 92 

The Application of Kindergarten Principles to the Child's Earliest Develop- 
ment ; by Mrs. Anna B. Ogden 94 

The Massachusetts Public School System; by Hon. J. W. Dickinson 103 

The Public School System of Japan; by ICHizo Hattori, Commissioner of 

Jai)an , 109 

241 



CONTENTS. 



The Eecent Reforms in Public Instruction, and especially in Primary Instruc- 
tion, in France ; by Mons. B. BuissON, Commissioner of France Ill 

Our Country Schools; by Miss A. Tolman Smith, IJ. S. Bureau of Education.. 120 

The Public Schools of the Pacific Coast ; by Charles S. Young, State Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction, Nevada ^ 128 

Stick or no Stick; by Edwin Chadwick, A. B., Chairman of the Education 
Committee of the Society of Arts, London, England 133 

Morals and Manners at School ; by D. L. Mansfield, Superintendent of Schools, 
Dummerston, Vt , 137 

Eeligious and Moral Training in the Schools of Ontario ; by J. E. Wells, M. A., 

Editor of the Canada SchoolJournal 139 

Eeasons why Natural History, including Botany, should be Taught in every 
Common School ; by Prof. William Hudson, Trinity University, Tehuacana, 
Tex 147 

Uniform Promotion Examinations in the Public Schools of Ontario; by Donald 
J. McKiNNON, Public School Inspector, County of Peel, Ontario 150 

The Influence and the Effects of a System of Uniform and Simultaneous Exami- 
nations on Schools and Teachers ; by William Caeltle, Inspector of Public 
Schools, County of Oxford, Ontario , 154 

Short Account of the System of Experimental Science Instruction Introduced by 
the Liverpool School Board in Connection with its Public Elementary Schools ; 
by Edward M. Hance, LL. B,, L. C. P., Clerk to the School Board for Liver- 
pool, England .^ 158 

Study of Music in New Haven ; by B. Jepson, Teacher of Music in the Public 

Schools of New Haven , 166 

County Model School System of the Province of Ontario ; by I. I. Tilley, In- 
spector of County Model Schools, Ontario , 169 

SECTION B— SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 

A Southern Graded School; by Rev. A. D. Mayo, D. D 177 

Secondary Education in Ontario; by D. C. McHenry, M. A., Principal of Col- 
legiate Institute, Coburg, Ontario 185 

How can Instruction in Public High Schools be Made more Efficient ? by Clar- 
ence W. Fearing, Boston, Mass 196 

Female Education in Ontario ; by Rev. Alex. Burns, D. D., LL. D., Principal 
of the Wesleyan Ladies' College, Hamilton, Ontario 199 

Agricultural Education in Ontario; by J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., 

Deputy Minister of Education 204 

Technical Education ; by E. B. Wilson, Instructor in Drifton (Pa. ) Industrial 

School for Miners and Mechanics - 209 

The Mechanics' Institutes in the Province of Ontario ; by Otto Klotz, President 
of the Association of Mechanics' Institutes of Ontario 213 

SECTION C— SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 

The Normal Schools and their Work in Ontario; by Joseph H. Smith, Esq., 
Public School Inspector, County of Wentworth 223 

Berea College, Kentucky; by Rev.E. H. Fairchild, D.D., President 230 

The University System of Ontario; by J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., 

Deputy Minister of Education 233 

How to Increase the Proportion of Liberally Educated men; by C. H. Payne, 
D. D. , LL. D., President of Ohio Wesleyan University 251 

Tbeological Education in Ontario; by Prof. Albert H. Newman, LL. D., To- 
ronto Baptist College . . , , , , , 264 

242 



CONTENTS. 

SECTION D— INSTEUCTION OF THE DEFECTIVE, DEPENDENT, AND 
DELINQUENT CLASSES. 

The Classification of Deaf Pupils; by Samuel Sexton, M. D., Aural Surgeon 
to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary 285 

On the Necessity of Providing for the Better Education of Children with Defect- 
ive Hearing in the Public Schools ; by Samuel Sexton, M. D., Aural Surgeon 
to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary 291 

Educojtion of the Blind in the Province of Ontario ; by Alfred H. Dymond, 
Principal of the Ontario Institution for the Blind 299 

Present Condition of the Indians; by Maj. J. M. HawortHj late U. S. Superin- 
tendent of Indian Schools 303 

Education of the Indians in the Dominion of Canada; by Samuel Woobs, 
M. A., Principal of Ottawa Ladies' College 307 

Report on the Condition of Indian Schools in Ontario ; by Hon. Adam Crooks, 
LL. D., Minister of Education 324 

SECTION E— AKCHITECTUEE AND HYGIENE OF BUILDINGS FOR IN- 
STRUCTION, LIBRARIES, AND MUSEUMS. 

School-Room Air, with Directions for Analyzing It ; by R. L. Packard, Wash- 
ington, D. C 349 

The Alleged Increase of Near-Sightedness among School Children ; Report of a 
Committee of the National Educational Association 393 

On the Causes of Increasing Near-Sightedness among School Children; Report 

of a Committee of the National Educational Association 398 

School Hygiene in Ontario; by D. Fotheringham, Public School Inspector, 
North York County, Ontario 404 

School Architecture in Ontario; by John Dearness, Public School Inspector, 

County of Middlesex East, Ontario 408 

A. L, A. Catalog; by Melvil Dewey, Chief Librarian of Columbia College .. 412 

Libraries and the Library System of Ontario ; by John Hallam, Chairman of 
Toronto Public Library 418 

The Rise of College Gymnasia in the United States ; by Edward Mussey Hart- 
well, Ph. D., M. D. , Associate in Physical Training and Director of the Gym- 
nasium, Johus Hopkins University 425 

Plan and Arrangement of Primary Schools ; by M. Edouard Louis Charlss 
JossE, Br6tigny, France, Member of the Dunois Historical and Archaeological 
Society, etc 437 

SECTION F— MISCELLANEOUS. 

Respect for Authority Developed in the School Room ; by Brother Justin, of 
the Christian Brothers 447 

Literary and Scientific Habits of Thought ; by Brother Azarias, Rock Hill Col- 
lege, Ellicott City, Md , 456 

The Modern Growth of Cities and the Education Demanded by It ; by W. T. 
Harris, LL. D., Concord, Mass 474 

Some Practical Suggestions Relating to National Aid to Education ; by Thomas 
W. BiCKNELL, LL. D., Boston, Mass 482 

I'he Railroad as an Element in Education ; by Prof. Alexander Hogg, Fort 

Worth, Texas 493 

An Historical Sketch of Indian Civilization and Education ; by Miss Alice C. 

Fletcher, of Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass 508 

243 



b CONTENTS. 

Pag* 
History of Educational Journalism in New England; by Thomas W. Bick- 
NELL, LL. D., Boston, Mass 517 

Competitive Studies and Resultant Prizes ; by Prof. L. G. Barbouk, M. A., 

D. D., Eicbmond, Va '. 532 

Some Eeflections on Race in Education, with Special Reference to the Negro 

Problem ; by Prof. William Taylor Thom, Virginia 537 

Memorandum Respecting Simultaneous and Uniform Examinations in Ontario ; 

by Alexander Marling, LL. B, Secretary to the Educational Department.. 544 
How shall we Americanize and Christianize the Incoming Tide ? by D. A. Long, 

A.M., President of Antioch College, Ohio 554 

The Harmonious Development of the Faculties ; by Brother Barbas, of the 

Christian Brothers 559 

On Variations of Mental Receptivity; by Edwin Chad wick, A. B., Chairman 

of Education Committee, Society of Arts, London 567 

244 



LETTEE 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington, D. C, November 25, 1885. 

Sir : The accompanying papers,^ whicli are hereby transmitted for 
publication, give the best view, doubtless, that it is possible to preserve, 
of education at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposi- 
tion. It was early manifest that the exhibition would present a rare 
opportunity for the promotion of the advancement of education. The 
desire on the part of the Management to improve this opportunity to 
the utmost was expressed in the most explicit and emphatic terms by 
the Director-General, Hon. E. A. Burke, when he declared that they 
sought not only that the exhibition should be thoroughly national and 
international and in all its aspects educational, but that education itself, 
its systems, institutions, principles, methods, and results should be 
shown as far as possible by its literature and appliances, by models, by 
graphics, by actual class work, and by papers and discussions from the 
ablest educators. The following papers will make known how far the 
purposes of the Management have been realized, and their publication 
will preserve and extend the usefulness of whatever was accomplished 
in this behalf. The fullness of the papers and of the report of Lyndon A. 
Smith, Esq., my representative and chief assistant in immediate charge 
of the Department of Education at the exhibition, renders it unneces- 
sary that I should here enter into details which would otherwise require 
more specific reference. 

I desire to tender most hearty thanks to all those who have in any 
way aided in the work here reported, but it would require a catalogue 
larger than Homer's to specify each one by name. 

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

JOHN EATON, 

Commissioner. 

The Hon. Secretary of the Interior. 

1 The cat,alogne of exhibits and list of awards may be found in Part I of this Report ; 
the proceedings of the Department of Superintendence and addresses on Education 
Days in Part III. 

245 



PROGRAMME 

OF THE 

INTEMATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS 

AT THE 

NEW OELBANS EXPOSITION, 
FEBEUARY 23-28. 1885. 



HONOBARir PRESIDENT. 

His Excellency CHESTER A. ARTHUR, 
President of the United States. 

PRESIDENT. 

Hon. JOHN EATON, 
United States Commissioner of Education. 

TICE-PRE8IDENT8. 
Lord Reay, England. 

J. L. M. Curry, LL. D., Agent of the Trustees of the Peabody Education Ftmd. 

Hon. Hugh S. Thompson, Governor of South Carolina. 

John D. Philbrick, LL. D., Ex-Sujjerintendent of Boston {Mass.) Schools. 

James B. Angell, LL. D., President University of Michigan. 

Hon. Henry Barnard, LL.D., /ormcr U.S. Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. 

Hon. Andrew D. White, LL. D., President Cornell University. 

Hon. William H. Rufpner, D. D., Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Va. 

Hon. Chas. S. Young, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Nevada. 

Hon. T. W. BiCKNELL, LL. D., Boston, Mass. 

Wm. F. Phelps, LL. D., Winona, Minn. 

SONORAR¥ SECRETARF. 

Hon. J. George Hodgins, Deputy Minister of Education, Ontario. 

SE C RE T ARIE S. 

Hon. B. L. Butcher, of West Virginia. 
Hon. Aaron Gove, of Denver, Colorado. 
Dean Jesse, of Tulane University. 
L. A. Smith, of Washington, D. C. 
J. L. PiCKARD, Iowa State University. 

COMMITTEE OE ARRANCIEIflENTS. 
Hon. M. A. Newell, LL. D., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Maryland, 

Chairman. 
Wm. T. Harris, LL. D., President Concord School of Philosophy, Concord, Mass. 
Hon. A. Coward, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, South Carolina. 
Hon. Le Roy D. Brown, State School Commissioner, Ohio. 
Prof. W. H. Payne, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

247 



FROCEEDIDSTGS. 



RECEPTION AT WEELEI:N^ HALL. 

The International Congress of Educators met at Werlein Hall, Mon- 
day, February 23, 1885, at 1 P.ic. 

Among the educators present were Hon. John Eaton, of Washington, 
D. C, Eev. B. M. Palmer, D. D., Hon. Chas E. Fenner, Col. Wm. Pres- 
ton Johnston, Hon. T. W. Bicknell, Hon. W, E. Sheldon, Eev. A. D.. 
Mayo, Hon. J. W. Dickinson, Hon. E. E. White, Hon. John Hancock, 
Hon. F. L. Soldan, Hon. B. M. Tillotson, L. A. Smith, Esq., Mons. B. 
Buisson^ of France, I. Hattori, Esq., Commissioner from Japan, Prof. 
J. L. Hughes, of Canada, Hon. N. 0. Dougherty, Col. Geo. flicks, of 
Jamaica, Hon. J. G. Parham, W. O. Eogers, Dr. T. G. Eichardson, Hon. 
Warren Easton, and others. 

The meeting was opened with prayer by the Eev. B. M. Palmer, D. D. 

Hon. Louis Bush, President of the Louisiana Educational Society, 
in the chair, then said : 

Ladies and Gentlemen of the International Congress— We had hoped 
that it would be our pleasure to have our address of welcome delivered 
by the Governor of our State, but circumstances have interposed to pre- 
vent his attendance, and in consequence we have called upon the Hon. 
Charles E. Fenner, one of the judges of the supreme court of Louisiana, 
to address you in our behalf and to extend to you the welcome we wish. 

Judge Fewnek then addressed the Congress as follows : • 

Ladies and Gentlemen — I am here to occupy, and not to fill, "the place 
assigned to our distinguished chief magistrate. To him it would have 
been a pleasure to perform the grateful task of welcoming you here in 
the State in which he presides. It would hardly be expected that under 
these circumstances I should say anything of the great general subject 
which calls you here to-day which would be of sufficient interest or 
weight to command the attention of the cultivated and skilled minds 
which compose this audience. I shall therefore confine myself to the 
more easy and natural task of extending a most hearty welcome to our 
State and to our city. 

By a highly fortunate coincidence, we have in our midst to-day a most 
remarkable congress of the arts, industries, institutions, and natural 
resources of nearly all the peoples and all the countries of the earth, 

249 



12 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

and that, perhaps, has been one of the causes which has influenced 
your meeting here to-day. It is an amazing spectacle, even to a man 
of this generation, with all its unparalleled facilities for keeping abreast 
of the development of ideas and the march of events and the cause of 
discovery, through the medium of the daily newspapers and magazines 
and of books. When he goes there, he stands wonder-stricken at the tre- 
mendous achievements of man's intellect and energy, which that great 
Exposition exhibits to his view. Let us suppose that the most advanced 
scientist of a period not further back than fifty years could be resur- 
rected from the dust, and could be placed in the midst of the wonders 
and marvels of this Exposition. ]S"o doubt the imagination of such a 
man would have already attempted to forecast the history, the develop- 
ment, and progress of knowledge and invention, science and art ; no 
doubt he would have thought himself prepared to anticipate with some 
degree of accuracy and correctness the great results which a half century 
of the progress of the spirit of invention would bring forth; but he 
would have stood amazed and paralyzed in the midst of the wonders 
:and marvels which he would see around him there to-day. 

I have made this little episode because it seems to point a moral 
which is appropriate to this occasion. Whence come all the achieve- 
ments of which we see such wonderful evidence here ? From educa- 
tion! That is the source and author of them all. Education pointed 
and directed the way to the aspiring thought. Education lent the 
sweep of telescopic vision to the human eye. It seems a fitting occa- 
sion to add warmth and heartiness to the welcome which we extend to 
you, when we find you here engaged in the work of forwarding and devel- 
oping and systematizing and methodizing the great purposes and aims 
of the noble cause of education in which you are engaged. It chanced 
that only yesterday there appeared in the columns of one of our newspa- 
pers a noble oration which was delivered forty years ago in this State, 
upon the occasion of the meeting of the Kew England Historical Society, 
by a son of I^I^ew England, but who had become a Southerner, and who 
in the wonderful adaptability of his nature became perhaps the most 
typical Southerner of Southerners, the gifted Sargent S. Prentiss, per- 
haps the noblest and the most eloquent orator, I may say almost without 
exaggeration, that ever lived in our time. As we recall the familiar 
words of that grand piece of eloquence and read them again, it seems 
to me that the orator was inspired with the spirit of prophecy ,• it seems 
tome that he already realized what was the true source and foundation 
of the development of this great country, that he was already able to 
see what would be the results of that development ; and it seems to me 
that if he were here to-day, even his able mind could hardly have orig- 
inated any words in which he could have addressed you, which would 
have been more appropriate to this occasion. Tou will pardon me, then , 
if for a few moments I substitute his words for my own. After a most 

250 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 13 

picturesque and poetical description of a IvTew England village school, 
he said : 

" Behold yon small building near the crossing of the village street. 
It is small and of rude construction, but stands in a pleasant and quiet 
spot. A majrnificent old elm spreads its broad arms above it. A brook 
runs through the meadow near by, and there is an orchard, but the 
trees ha. ve suffered much and bear no fruit. From within its walls comes 
a busy hum, such as you may hear in a disturbed bee-hive. It is the 
public school, the free, the common school, provided by law, open to 
all, claimed from the community as a right, not accepted as a bounty. 
Here the children of the rich and poor, high and low, meet upon per- 
fect equality and commence under the same auspices the race of life. 
The sustenance of the mind is served up to all alike, as the Spartans 
served their food upon the public table. Here young Ambition climbs 
his little ladder, and boyish Genius pluoies his half- fledged wing. From 
among these laughing children will go forth the men who are to control 
the destinies of their age and country; the statesman whose wisdom is 
to guide the Senate ; the poet who will take captive the hearts of the 
people and bind them together with immortal song ; the philosopher 
who, boldly seizing upon the elements themselves, will compel them to 
his wishes, and, through new combinations of primal laws, by some 
great discovery revolutionize both art and science. The common vil- 
lage school is Kew England's fairest boast, the brightest jewel that 
adorns her brow. The principle that society is bound to provide for its 
members education as well as protection, so that none need be ignorant 
except from choice, is a most important one. It is essential to a repub- 
lican government. Education is not only the best and surest, but the 
only wise foundation for our free institutions. True liberty is the child 
of knowledge ; she pines away and dies in the arms of ignorance." 

Look around you, gentlemen, not only over the wonders of this Ex- 
position, but over all this broad land, with its unnumbered and inesti- 
mable blessings, with its free speech, with its free thought, with its free 
institutions, with its happy homes, its boundless, areas of cultivated 
lands, all the powers of nature rendered subservient to the uses and 
comforts and necessities of man — a country blessed with everything in 
greater measure than any other country ever was blessed with before. 
And to what do we owe it all? Subject to the bounty of the Giver of 
all good gifts, we owe it to education ; it was in the common schools of 
New England that was nourished and preserved and perpetuated the sa- 
cred fire at which education kindled the torch that from that day to this 
has been fed with increasing flame, has been borne higher and higher, 
until at last it has driven away the night of ignorance from every por- 
tion of the domain of science, and still is marching on, going higher 
and burning brighter, and the future of which in another century will 
be toore astonishing to those of that age than would be the si^ectacle 
it exhibits to-day to the inhabitants of this earth one hundred years ago. 

You, gentlemen, are engaged in the noblest work of all, the work of 
education. This great Exposition teaches a double lesson : First, the 
tremendous use and value of knowledge; second, how much there is 
to learn. Education is becoming a great and progressive science; the 
field is opening broader and broader before us ; old methods have be- 

251 



14 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

come inefficient and must pass away ; old habits and associations and 
ideas, with regard to the kinds of knowledge that are required, must 
submit to modification J and you, gentlemen, as I understand, are en- 
gaged in that great work of studying the philosophy of education, of 
improving its methods, of increasing its divisions, and of preparing it 
for the great work which yet lies before it in the future. Under these 
circumstances, we of Louisiana, humbly confessing our sore need of its 
benefits, take pleasure in extending to you a hearty welcoming hand, 
and of wishing you " God speed " in your noble work. 

The President : Gentlemen, allow me to introduce to you Col. Wil- 
liam Preston Johnston, of Tulane University, who will now address you. 

Colonel Johnston said : 

Ladies and Gentlemen — I had intended to prepare what is called an 
" extemporaneous" speech, but the cares of earth havepressed so heavily 
upon me that I have not been able to do so, and I have therefore been 
obliged to jot down very hastily the words of welcome which I wish to 
extend to you gentlemen, and which I thought deserved to be more 
duly and fully considered. I should hate, after the able and eloquent 
address of the gentleman who has just spoken authoritatively for the 
Commonwealth and for the larger interests of education, to venture 
upon the field of extemporaneous speech. It does not look well for a 
man who merely lectures to speak after an orator. Though speaking 
for but one of the great interests to which Judge Fenner has alluded, 
the educational one, our guests cannot regard this as less important to 
themselves, since it includes so much of their life work. In the spirit 
of the gentleman who preceded me, I offer you our simple hospitality, 
academic and otherwise, freely and without reserve, and I trust that the 
gentlemen here present, and other educators now visiting us, will accept 
them literally, and consider Tulane Hall as their headquarters during 
their stay in this city. Let it be your educational exchange. Our 
library, lecture, and reading rooms are open to you, and you must de- 
mand without hesitation the services of our faculty and of myself. 

I know that you are not here for amusement only; the spirit of ob- 
servation is wide awake in you. Tou will therefore pardon me for point- 
ing out to you that you will find in our university a curious analogy to, 
or rather a great reproduction of, the present conditions of the Southern 
country. You have heard of the Old South and the New South, and 
these are pictured, according to the fancy of the painter, with all the 
shades that pessimism or optimism might suggest. But believe me, we 
are the same people we always were, though with a harder and wider 
experience and under changed conditions. You need not believe the 
sneaks who will tell you we are sorry for what we have done. It is not 
true. You will also be unwise in believing those panderers to power 
who will tell you that from the first, since the close of the war, we have 
not honestly accepted our duties and responsibilities as American citi- 
zens. One of these duties is to manage our own aifairs in our own way. 

253 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 15. 

This we have proposed to do. We have understood the actualities of 
our situation better than any stranger can teach them to us, for they 
are matters of life and death to us, and merely political experiments to 
them. We have been obliged to govern ourselves by the hard and 
practical rules of common sense, which do not alway conform to the 
theories of social reformers. One of these rules with us has been that 
the intelligence of the community, as at present embodied in the white 
race, must in some form or other govern in these Southern States. We 
have been working out this problem under various difficulties, but with 
the help of Providence we hope we will succeed. 

But we have to adjust our social and educational relations according 
to our own standards, our own prejudices, if you will. These standards 
look to and include the welfare, progress, and development of every 
race and color on our soil, and if they seem to you in some respects to 
smack of conservatism, nevertheless 1 trust you will believe us to be 
sincere in our wish to give the light of knowledge to every color and 
condition in the land, and to promote the intelligence and virtue and 
happiness of every individual upon our soil. We desire to educate all. 
We wish the broad foundations of our common schools to be full of vital- 
ity and energy. We want higher institutions also, and we believe in 
the beneficent influence of great universities, broad, solid, and rearing 
high their pinnacles into the pure air of liberal thought and culture. 

I alluded to the analogy between our university and the South. We 
are both building on the old lines, instead of casting down the altars 
and temples of our fathers ; but we — the whole South and our young 
university here — are seeking thoughtfully and earnestly for the best 
things applicable to our condition, wherever they can be found. We 
are not ashamed to acknowledge our shortcomings, for we mean to 
remedy them. We know we are not all alike, and that we can learn 
from each other, and I confess with all humility that I think we can 
learn more from Massachusetts than she can learn from us, and she 
thinks so too. But knowledge, which is more precious than rubiet-, is a 
sort of wealth which its holder is always willing to share. Our World's 
Exposition is now keeping school for the nations, and Louisiana will, 1 
trust, be one of its aptest pupils. Your presence here to-day we accept 
as an augury of good. We hope to pump you dry before you leave. 
We shall spoil the Egyptians of their fine gold of knowledge and their 
rubies of wisdom, and we expect to be rich enough to go into the jew- 
elry business. 

I have said that we blended the old and the new. Tulane University 
includes a medical college which for more than half a century has been 
famous in the land ; it has a law school which has long taught the civil 
law with the same ability Which has made Cambridge famous as a seat 
of common law instruction ; its academic department is more recent, 
and your sessions here are coincident with the addition of industrial 
and manual training as a feature of our work. This we expect to be- 

253 



16 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

come an important factor in a thorough system of education of the 
whole man for himself and for society. Our very buildings illustrate 
the old and the new in the way of architectural design, from the Greek 
temple to the "New Orleans" style, which combines the classic and 
Creole. Our most beautiful buildings, however, are planned with 
matchless skill and furnished with faultless taste. Therein are grouped 
all things that utility can suggest, science demand, or wealth bestow. 
These stately structures are in the Spanish style of architecture ; in- 
deed, they are " castles in Spain." All that they need to take form 
and substance is for our wealthy citizens to emulate the generous heart 
and open hand of the great benefactor of education in Louisiana, Paul 
Tulane. His princely hand has bestowed the money and means to 
achieve the desired end, and the sage counsel and potent voice of this 
Nestor, who has survived three generations of men and women, sum- 
mon and cheer the youth of his beloved State and city in the path ho 
has opened for them. I beg to repeat and enforce the hearty welcome 
which is felt by all for the teachers, whose feet are beautiful upon the 
mountains and shod with the golden sandals of truth. You are the 
captains and generals who are to discipline that army which twenty 
years hence will be fighting in the mighty Armageddon, the strife be- 
tween good and evil. Welcome! soldiers in a good cause, for you bring 
to us the prescience of a better time coming. May your stay with us be 
as agreeable to you, gentlemen, as it is to us, and may you take away 
a pleasant memory of our fair and sunny Southern land. 

The president then introduced Hon. John Eaton, United States 
Commissioner of Education, who delivered the following address. 
254 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 17 

- ADDRESS OF HON. JOHN EATON. 

Ladies and Gentlemen — A formal response to these words of welcome 
more especially committed to others, excuses me from a duty which 
would otherwise bo delightful, and I shall, therefore, only express my 
own sentiments of gratitude and pleasure. The time has come when 
the educator is not limited to his school, to his district, or to his 
nation. There are to him to-day no distant places in foreign lands, 
and those of us who come from cold and perhaps ice-bound regions, re- 
ceive with gratitude this welcome to your delightful climate, and we 
rejoice that here we can assemble in the neighborhood of such a great 
school as this great Exposition, now erected in your midst for the benefit 
of the world. I now ask your particular attention to " Education as a 
Factor in Modern Civilization." 

One thing is clear, that the interpretation of education in the minds 
of the present directors of its great forces is not limited to its operations 
in any department of man's nature. 

It is indeed education, but not all of it, to cultivate human powers 
physically and to develop them in beauty and strength, as did the 
Greek. It is indeed education, but not all of it, to cultivate the moral 
and religious nature of man, as did the ancient Hebrew. It is indeed 
education, but not all of it, that informs and strengthens and develops 
man's mental faculties. It is indeed education, but not all of it, that 
directs and shapes and molds the natural forces of any one of the peo- 
ples or races in any one of the ancient or modern nations, and develops 
those tendencies, unfolds pre-eminently those powers, and establishes 
those characteristics which we describe as Chinese, or Indian, or Eus- 
sian, or German, or English, or French, or American. All these no- 
tions must be taken into account if we are to comprehend the full force 
of education as a factor in modern civilization. Much harm often re- 
sults in writing and speaking of education by using the term in a too 
limited sense. Entering a gymnasium and practicing with its various 
appliances for the full development of the different parts of the body 
may be phj'^sical culture, but how incorrect and injurious if the atmo- 
sphere in which these exercises are performed is poisonous, or if the 
character of the nourishment is disregarded! It is equally misleading 
to speak of intellectual culture in a school of philosophy or mathe- 
matics, if the necessary conditions for the healthful development of the 
other portions of man's nature are disregarded. 

Many questions are debated: " Can education do this?" "Does edu- 
cation prevent crime?" when the proper definition of the term includes 
the result debated. The complete definition of education must be kept 
in mind in considering it as a factor in modern civilization. Its opera- 
tions cannot be limited to any particular period of life, although it may 
and does go on, of course, more rapidly in youth. Its influences per- 
vade all the changes in man's nature that can be produced by training 
or instruction, from the cradle to the grave. Nay, the prenatal respon- 
7950 COT, pt. 2 2 255 



18 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

sibilities of the parent may be more essential to the character of the 
individual than any schooling in after years. 

The common sense of mankind, which makes it murder to take the 
life of the individual before birth, with the same exactness and strength 
will hold the line to the parental influences exerted after that date. 
Moreover, we must divest our minds of the idea that education is the 
same for every individual, for the very opposite is true ; its methods 
should not be alike in any two instances, but as diverse as are the char- 
acteristics of one person from those of every other. Under this larger 
idea of education the sciences and classics would not be set in battle 
array against each other, for it would be seen that the highest science 
under these conditions has need of the classics, and that instruction in 
the classics would be indefinitely improved by the scientific method. 
Archimedes would move the earth if he could find a fulcrum; the poet 
would leave all other literature to chance if he could be allowed to fur- 
nish the ballads for a people; but in modern civilization the educator 
has at his command the fulcrum and controls the ballads. Shape the 
educational forces so that they shall include the home of the child and 
the material and spiritual conditions in which it moves, the influences 
that operate upon it through parent and teacher and associate, and 
whatever man may do for his fellow will be accomplished. This view 
of education leaves to man's nature and heredity all the powers that 
can be claimed for them, but it should be remembered that one of the 
essentials of his nature and heredity is the possibility of modification, 
and that this modification is the work of education. 

The child may have more or less capacity of body or mind; its chest 
or lungs or eyes, or its perception or memory or moral sense, may be 
defective. Education cannot be expected to supply wholly what nature 
has not given, but our doctrine is that it modifies. The bodily, mental, 
or moral weakness may be strengthened, the disease that preys upon 
body or soul may be prevented or cured. In this view the organs of 
the body by which we walk, handle, hear, see, and speak, and those 
faculties of the mind by which we perceive, remember, reason, and will, 
may be improved by training. This training is secured by proper and 
fit action or exercise, which is most effective in youth, when habits 
which are well called our " second nature" may be most readily acquired. 

The progress of life does indeed afford opportunity for education, even 
when unshaped by the professional teacher, as is illustrated by our so- 
called " self-made" men. l!5^or should it be forgotten that the child who 
lives, whether he will or not, grows in stature and mental strength per 
force of nature. Moreover, he has a certain power of choosing out of 
his surroundings results for himself. His first teacher is his parent, 
from whom he advances through the circle of his natural and spiritual 
environment. But the professional teacher introduces skill, and adds 
vastly to the results of childhood in forming the child and shaping 
healthfully his body and mind ; and the teacher, too, may greatly mul- 
tiply these results by establishing a school in which the unconscious^ 

256 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 19 

and conscious influences -of the scholars upon one another, which the 
teacher may in a measure shape, may become the most potent forces at 
his command. A child is pre-eminently social, and thus is specially in- 
fluenced by what reaches him through his companions, a truth so fre- 
quently enforced by the phrase, "A man is known by the company he 
keeps." The comprehensive and just interpretation of the term "edu- 
cation" conveys to the teachers of to-day a more correct idea of the 
extent of the power they wield for the weal or woe of the child, and 
therefore for the good or ill of the family, the Church, society, the State, 
and the general welfare of mankind. They do not propose to them- 
selves the impossible, they do not expect that man can accomplish what 
alone belongs to God; but when they accept the responsibility of the 
trust of the teacher it is well that they should know the full meaning 
of their responsibility. They do not reject the past, save only as it is 
outgrown by the present. They acknowledge, according to the stat- 
ute we so frequently hear, that they do indeed stand in loco parentis. 
But when fully alive to their responsibilities, teachers are conscious 
that they also stand in the place of the State, and in the place of 
all the influences that pass through their hands upon the child in 
forming his habits of bodily or mental action, in giving skill to his hand 
or his perception, in increasing the retentive or recollective power of 
his memory, the scope and precision and justness of his reason, the 
flights and coloring of his imagiijation, the tendencies and affections of 
his sensibilities, the uprightness of his conscience, the force and endur- 
ance of his will. Thus, out of this larger and clearer idea of what edu- 
cation is, teachers find an overwhelming motive for their adequate prep- 
aration, and we reach one of the distinctive characteristics of education 
as a factor in modern civilization. 

There is an increasing repugnance to the laying of unqualified hands 
upon the destiny of a human being. Teachers may be the servants cf 
all in the Christian spirit, in the sense that they do good to all, but 
they should be the menials of none. Their work is not inferior to the 
highest required of human hands. There is no superior to Him who was 
called " the Teacher of men." 

Here, too, we should not be led astray, as too many have been in the 
past, by the idea that the knowing faculty is the same as the teaching 
faculty. Even now how many teachers are selected for their positions 
mainly, if not wholly, because they are understood to know the subjects 
they are to teach! How many children have been sacrificed by this 
fallacy ! It is not enough to set knowledge before the mind ; there must 
be in the facts and methods adaptation to aptitudes; the attention, the 
interest, the choice, of the learner must be secured. Herein there is 
room for the profoundest science and the most marvelous art. In the 
discovery and growing realization of the necessity of the science and 
art of teaching, we find so many cautions thrown around the selection 
of teachers, and the devotion of money and time and effort to the in- 
forming and training and inspiring of teachers in normal institutes, 

257 



20 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

normal schools, aud chairs of pedagogics, wherever education is mak- 
ing most marked progress. This tendency should go on until the teacher 
of every child has adequate opportunity and qualification. 

Still another characteristic of education as a factor in modern civiliza- 
tiou is seen when we consider the knowledge available for the right direc- 
tion of the child. ]^ow much more definitely the child himself can be 
known in his points of strength or weakness! How vast the knowledge 
i-equired to comprehend even the well approved devices aud remedies 
available to aid the teacher to overcome the child's weaknesses or defi- 
4;iencies ! How are instruments of precision brought into use to aid 
all the observations of the parent, and teacher, and friend, in accurately 
measuring these defects of organs of the body or mind, the far or near 
sightedness or color-blindness of the eye, the power of the ear to dis- 
criminate the remoteness or nearness, or pitch, or volume, or other 
characteristics of sound, and the healthfulness of the respiration, or 
circulation, or temperature ! How accurately may we know what should 
be the moisture, the temperature of the air, the quality of the food and 
clothing, the amount and direction of the sunlight, the size and distance 
of the type, the angle at which it should be read, the distance and size 
of illustrations on the wall, for healthful school conditions ! How much 
health may be saved, n^y, how often may pestilence be arrested, by a 
knowledge of contagious diseases and an administration of the means of 
prevention in connection with the school and family ! Alas ! this knowl- 
edge is now possessed by too few. Indeed, were it properly used by 
every parent, and teacher, and officer of education, we should be em- 
I^loying none too wisely the means placed in our hands to protect us 
against the new diseases, and the old diseases in new forms, ad\'ancing 
in terrible array against the bodies and minds of the peoples of modern 
civilization. Do we anywhere sufficiently count the Kachels mourning 
their first-born who might have been saved? And how many of those 
who survive, draw out a lingering death that might have been pre- 
vented by proper treatment in childhood ! Very often we are told that 
the insanity of two-thirds of those confined in our asylums could have 
been prevented 

Again, how much of the knowledge already well authenticated by 
experts, in regard to the prevention of pauperism or prevention of crime, 
has no weight with our teachers and administrators of education ! How 
often the educator in the school or college stands aloof fiom these evils 
of society, and sees no connection between them and his responsibility ! 
It is as if he cast out of thought as useless waste in social debris the 
boy or girl that was too defective physically or mentally, too deaf or 
blind or feeble-minded, too dull for his highest marks or his promo- 
tion, too wayward or too much weighed down by poverty, too ill fed or 
clothed to come within the enrollment of his instruction. Whereas, 
everything that concerns humanity concerns education, and should in- 
terest every educator. 
258 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 21 

The vastness of education as a factor in modern civilization is still 
further apprehended when we consider the progress of the arts and 
sciences, and the consequent advance of invention and discovery. What 
was the knowledge of the earth's surface, its land and water, its rivers 
and lakes and seas and oceans, its continents, mountains, and valleys, 
its forests, its climate, or the rocks under the earth, or of the stars and 
heavens above it, or of the races, peoples, nations, their locations, con- 
ditions, and occupations, to the Egyptian, the Hebrew, Greek, or Roman, 
compared with the knowledge of these things within the reach of the 
teacher of to-day? What is left to be distant or foreign f Science and 
art put their hands on the iron and the wood for the material of ma- 
chinery, and furnish the car and the track or the vessel, and adjust the 
relation of coal and water, and we travel in comfort around the world 
before the season has changed. Geography may now be taught as a 
science, no longer a mere collection of names without meaning, but com- 
plete and comprehensive, showing with absorbing interest the relation 
of the earth's surface to man's conditions and occupations. The child, 
moreover, by no greater activities than those required in savagery, may 
by his own eye, with thfe aid of one character of lens, penetrate the se- 
crets of the heavens, and by the aid of another class of lenses revel in 
the secrets of the microscopic world beyond man's unaided natural per- 
ception. He may put his ear to the telephone and hear the voice of 
the distant stranger, or touch the key of the telegraph and speak to 
the peoples of the world. 

Can it be possible for the teacher to-day to teach by the methods that 
prevailed before gunpowder, or the mariner's compass, or printing, 
were known, by the methods that i)revailed before Bacon philosophized, 
or Newton wrote his "Principia," or Rousseau his "Emile," or Comenius 
his "Didactica Magna"? before Pestalozzi brought teaching into har- 
mony with the child, or Froebel established the kindergarten ? 

A still further marked characteristic of education as a factor of mod-^ 
ern times is the tendency to regard every child as of value, and his ed- 
ucation as of importance to himself and to the family, to the Church 
and to the State. We read of a period when the so-called " civilized " 
society cast out the idiotic, the deaf, the dumb, the blind, and left them 
to perish. But according to the doctrine of modern civilization, all 
these can be taught and should be. It is pronounced inhuman to neg- 
lect them. The idea of the value of every soul is so extended that no 
father, no potentate or human power, is permitted arbitrarily to destroy 
the child, however imperfect, or whatever may be his color or his race. 
The Christian doctrine of man's obligation to his fellow may not be ad- 
mitted, but the brotherhood of mankind is enforced. Out of the more 
intelligent apprehension of the relation of man to man has come a clearer 
idea of the relation of nation to nation ; and among those nations where 
education has done its work best, international law prevails over seas 
and continents with greater force than in earlier times over small areas 
of the same country between tribe and tribe. Formerly nations took 

259 



'22 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

account of their population mainly to ascertain their strength in war, 
now to ascertain their progress in the arts of peace ; and philanthropists 
are encouraged in the hope that by mutual agreement between the na- 
tions, great bodies of evil common in the past will be unknown in the 
future. War may not be at once annihilated, but over against its evils 
Avill be set limitations and humane reliefs. Education becomes the true 
initiative of internationalism. It so advances intelligence, increases 
the power of reason and conscience over the passions and appetites of 
man, that it makes it possible for a larger number of people to live to- 
gether under the same laws. 

In the midst of these great changes another marked characteristic of 
education as a factor of modern civilization is disclosed. I have else- 
where said that the teacher now stands, not alone in the place of the 
parent, but in the place of the State and of all other influences that 
affect the child ; and here it is proper to say that education as a greater 
factor in this respect in modern civilization does not make the office of 
the family less, but more; it does not make the influence of the teacher 
less, but more, nor the influence of the Church less, but more; but it 
does organize the administration of education differently. 

The ancient Greek i)hilosophers were disposed to find a solution of 
the problem presented — the organization of education by the State — in 
separating the child from the parent or home; but this separation, iu 
the growth of modern thought, has been found not only unnecessary, but 
undesirable, so that law not only has been made to enforce the rights 
and obligations of the parent and the rights and obligations of the child, 
and to cherish and protect the Church and its hallowed influences over 
human affairs, but where t|he wholesome influence of the parent is ab- 
sent by reason of death or unnaturalness, the State enters and by its 
provisions endeavors to make good the home and parental influence for 
the child. To kill him is murder, to deijrive him of food or clothing or 
education is a crime, while the effort is made to secure to the child his 
freedom in receiving and cherishing the influences of religion. Not 
only does the family fail in its duty, and thus the action of tlie State 
become necessary, but the Church, as the great teacher of religion, is 
not agreed with reference to the doctrines of piety and personal con- 
duct. It is divided into factions and sects, and between them, if the 
direction of the child was left to the Church, it would utterly fail with 
reference to large multitudes, and thereby the great doctrine of modern 
times, of the value of each individual and of the consequences of the 
action of each individual in society, would be in abeyance with respect 
to those untutored by the Church or any of its branches, and so far not 
only would those individuals be exposed to all the evils incident to the 
neglect of childhood, but the whole welfare of society would be imper- 
iled in all its interests. Modern civilization may be said to have asked 
itself, "How shall this situation be met?" and the answer appears to 
have come, if we read the times aright, "These evils must be prevented 
or overcome by that agency in which the whole body of a given number 

260 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 23 

of individuals, inhabiting a given territory, unite their action, namely, 
the State." 

In the future it may be a great surprise to the student of human his- 
tory that this undertaking of the administration of the care of the child 
by the State has been so long delayed, and that so often it has not been 
attempted until the overthrow of the State has been threatened by the 
evils arising from neglected childhood. Possibly sometimes in under- 
taking the organization and administration of education, government = 
action may ]iot have sufficiently regarded what had been well done be- 
fore 5 may not have sufficiently cherished, taken up, and nurtured what 
there was of the past ; but it is not difficult to see that the advance- 
ment of the State in the assumption of this responsibility is in a cer- 
tain sense preliminary and similar to its organization and assumption 
of authority outside of the family and the Church in the enforcement of 
justice between man and man. Accepting the theory that justice is of 
Divine origin, and that it must be enforced by the teacher of righteous- 
ness, and that he who propitiates Divine favor at the altar, by sacrifice, 
must be its chief source and administrator among men, we see, as we 
observe the line of historic development, how civil law grew up sepa- 
rate from canonical law, and how the State came to be designated as 
the agency for the enforcement of justice between man and man, while 
the doctrines of that justice were taken from the hand of the Almighty 
by the teacher of religion, and delivered to the people and enforced 
upon their consciences. And may it not now be clear to all men that 
this separation of the Church from the administration of civil affairs has 
relieved it from great exposure to corruption, and vastly increased its 
influence over the spiritual and moral condition of mankind? But the 
doctrine that I would here state, and can only take time to state, of the 
organization of education by civil authority, certainly would not dero- 
gate from the holy influences of religious instruction and training, but 
would assure their freedom, expect of them purer, larger, and more 
perfect results in the conduct of mankind. It would charter and pro- 
tect religious seats of learning, while by its own action it would pro- 
vide for the education of all sufficient for the perpetuity and right 
administration of the affairs of the State. This theory of education, to- 
wards which the times are apparently more and more rapidly tending, 
involves many details not yet accurately adjusted, and with reference 
to which there will remain many differences, but in my judgment we 
should with proper sentiments of reverence hold fast to all that is good 
in the past. 

Wherever the large definition of education recognized in these re- 
marks is accepted, while the necessity and advantage of order, classifi- 
cation, and system are kept in mind, their adaptation to the individual 
and to local sentiment and condition is enforced. All of the institu- 
tions of the past — the school, or the family, or the corporate body, the 
academy, the seminary, the college, the university, the faculties of law, 
•of medicine, theology, of engineering, of political economy, of tech- 

261 



^4 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

nology, are retained in all their varied aims and characteristics. In 
some portions of the world, where this doctrine of education by the 
State in its essentials is adopted, there still remains the question of the 
rate bill or the tuition bill. But in America the principle is well settled 
that the common school shall be /ree, while this common school is 
widely accredited among the best authorities and already made by the 
decisions of several of the State supreme courts to include both ele- 
mentary and secondary instruction, or through what is known among" 
us as the high-school course, or all that is preparatory to an American 
college; and in a majority of the States — some of the older and all of 
the newer — the State directly and formally undertakes to establish by 
its authority, and make substantially /ree as respects tuition, the course 
in the college or university, and also the course provided in institutions 
for instruction in agriculture and the mechanic arts. 

As I am expressing here opinions for which no one can be held respon- 
sible but myself, I may be further indulged in the remark that too much 
of the force of educators is spent in differences over the lines of edu- 
cational movement which are substantially settled, while there remain 
great masses of individuals borne down by the weight and burdens of 
illiteracy, exposing thereby not only themselves, but the family, th& 
Church, and the State, and their industries and prosperity, and all those 
who uphold these great institutions as the foundations of human wel- 
fare, to the myriad perils that are hatched and nurtured in ignorance. 

While so many in the world are without the benefit of the book, or 
the printed page, or the teacher, or the school in any form, without the 
blessings of enlightened law or intelligent industry, why would not each 
educator better build over against himself, enlarging and improving his. 
own work rather than tearing down his neighbor's! No school, no text- 
book, no teacher, no system of education is too good to be improved. The 
steady extending of the field of accurate observation and record and 
statistics, and the varied interchange of personal observations, nay^ 
every accurate inspection of the world's industries and of the conditions 
and appliances of education, furnish new, broader, and safer means of 
comparison and suggestion. The teacher, of all others, should not be 
the one with the beam in his own eye hunting for the mote in his neigh- 
bor's eye. 

For should I dismiss this point of education by the State without 
frankly stating that in my judgment there comes naturally along with 
the administration of education by the State, the extent to which it 
shall be supported by taxation on the property of the people of the 
State and offered free to its recipients. For my own part, I do not see 
how this discretion can reside elsewhere than with the State. The State 
naturally, in guaranteeing education sufficient for its existence, as in 
the guarantee of justice, must make this guarantee adequate. It pro- 
vides not only law for the protection of personal life and property, but 
the officers of the law to enforce justice ; and in guaranteeing educa- 
tion we must remember that not only is it necessary for the Stat© 

262 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 25 

that the citizen .should have the proper intelligence to guide him aright 
and increase his ability in regarding the laws of property and life, but 
there must be the guarantee of sufficient intelligence in the community 
for the administration of the several civil offices ; there must be the 
higher instruction necessary for the training of the judge, the councilor^ 
the mayor, the governor, the congressman, the senator, the president. 
The State taxes all property and persons to pay the salaries of its offi- 
cers, not for the personal benefit of those persons wholly, but for the 
good of the whole people and the benefit of all the property in the good 
order that is secured and the prosperity promoted. Thus in the organ- 
ization and administration of education may not the State similarly tax 
the whole property of all the people for the guarantee of the intelligence 
necessary for the citizen and necessary for the civil officer or adminis- 
trator, who may be any one that the majority of the people may choose? 

And if it instructs those who seek a higher grade of information with- 
out cost to these individuals, it should be remembered that this gratu- 
ity is not bestowed upon them by the State specially or solely for their 
benefit, but for the benefit of all the people and all the i)roperty of the 
State. If any one objects that this view of education, which would au- 
thorize the State to erect the ladder of learning with the lowest round 
in the gutter and the highest at the end of the university course and 
make the whole free, would be so attractive as to leave no work for 
religious institutions and no work for those who instruct in them, my 
earnest /urgency would be that the Church, with its consecrated life 
and its consecrated property, with its holy aims in all its branches, 
should found corresponding institutions, with equal or, if possible, 
greater merit in respect of methods and appliances, graded from the 
gutter to the highest step in the university course, and the whole made 
free by the benefactions of its wealthy members. This is done in a 
great measure already for the men who have in view the ministry; but 
if the ends of the Church are what they are claimed to be and what 
they are widely admitted among men to be, if its holy influences are 
needed in every department of life, why should not these provisions be 
made for all children, for all men and all women who desire them, what- 
ever their pursuits or vocations are to be, and thus alike all the benefits 
of education by the State, and all the benefits of education by the 
Church, and all their united agencies, be secured and assured to modern 
civilization ? 

Another view in which the power of education as a factor in modern 
civilization is seen, and one specially .connected with the organization 
and administration of it by the State, is the tendency to make educa- 
tion universal, to allow no child, male or female, of any race, to escape 
without fit opportunity for improvement. From whatever standpoint 
man is. contemplated, whether from that of the Church, which should 
comprehend all that is good for him in time or eternity, or tliat of the 
State, which should comprehend all that there is good for him in time 
and should not disagree with the previous view essentially; or whether 

263 



26 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

from the stand-point of patriotism, which contemplates his greatest use 
and benefit as an element in the nation ; or whether from that material 
stand-point which considers only the capacity of the individual to dimin- 
ish or increase the product of wealth ; or whether looked at by the ruler 
as a means to promote the aggrandizement of his own reign in peace 
€r in war ; nay, in whatever view man is contemplated, it is seen that 
by his best education his greatest possibilities are secured. His weak- 
nesses of body and mind may be overcome, his strength, physical and 
spiritual, may be increased, and he will become more effective for the 
purpose of his life, whether it be rude manual labor on the soil or the 
sea, or in the shop, or intellectual toil in the study or studio, the chair 
of the teacher or the editor, the forum or the pulpit, or the varied 
spheres of statesmanship. 

Already, under the power of a comprehensive education, the death- 
rate here and there has been diminishing and the average expectation 
of life largely increased. One of the most effective agencies for this 
purpose is the enforcement of the olbligation of education by the State. 
The State acts, not for the good of one, or a minority, or a majority, 
but for the good of all. It taxes the property of its citizens, it admin- 
isters its functions for all. Just so far, therefore, as one, or two, or 
three, or thousands of its children escape or reach a maturity of powers 
without education, or circumscribed and bound down by the chains of 
ignorance, just so far the work of the State in this behalf is incomplete. 

The parent, or the Church, or other voluntary agency may educate 
the child, but the State fails in the guarantee of the best conditions for 
itself, and therefore of its citizens, if it permits a single .child to be 
neglected. The most indifferent child of either sex of any race may 
hold the seed of dire pestilence and communicate it, the cholera, the 
yellow fever, or other disease, and similarly and equally become the 
source of the dissemination of moral pestilence. 

The contagion of moral iDCstilence has less regard for the demarcation 
of streets and possessions and walls, or families, or class, or name, or 
dress, or the assumption of rank, than the diseases to which the body 
is subject. There should be no room in any society for any child, of 
either sex or any race, to grow up neglected in body or mind or morals. 
This is clearly the acknowledged purpose of education by the State. 
It does not hinder the Church in any of its work, but helps it ; and I 
must add, with all due reverence, that if the Christian Church was 
wholly pervaded by the spirit of its great founder, it would feed all the 
lambs, it would teach every one, and suffer none to grow up in spiritual 
neglect. Indeed, where obligatory education is not enforced by the 
State, much of what is most beautiful in charity has been disclosed in 
the action of the so-called "organizations of charity," in finding and 
feeding and clothing and bringing within the school established by the 
State the child of poverty, neglected or abused by loss or neglect or 
other misconduct of the parent. 

264 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 27 

Another marked cliaracteristic of education as a factor in modern 
civilization is seen in the larger place given women. 

In parts of the world woman is rapidly advancing toward just con. 
sideration as a participant in education. Her capacity for culture is 
more fairly considered. The treatment she received as a menial, or as 
purely ornamental, has given place to a just consideration of her fitness 
to share with man in all the privileges and responsibilities of life. The 
laws accord her more rights of person and property, and the progress of 
society has accorded her a larger and better opportunity for self-support. 

But in education especially has her sphere been acknowledged. Al- 
ready in quarters she may have as good culture as man, and the same 
opportunities and responsibilities as teacher or administrator of edu- 
cation, and the same compensation for the same services. Her power 
in shaping the earliest years of childhood, always acknowledged, has 
never been so widely illustrated, so that some eminent educators have 
iilready pointed out systems in which the lower grades of instruction 
are in danger of losing some of their efficiency by the too thorough ex- 
clusion of the presence and activity of men. For experience has clearly 
shown that it is the just harmony and balance and co-operation of man 
and woman in the endeavors for the education of mankind that they are 
alike most effective. Mistakes may be made in this great forward 
movement, but large and complete ideas of education will soon apply 
the corrective. 

But we see still another characteristic of education as a factor in 
modern civilization when we notice the extent to which it is now gen- 
erally believed that education may come to aid the efficiency of all the 
vocations of life upon which man enters for his support and for his 
advancement. This inference might be supj)osed to follow naturally 
from our interpretation of the definition of education, and the general 
character of this discussion. 

But beyond this natural inference we are made to feel in various ways 
how vigt)rously the several trades are demanding the modification of 
instruction and training in their behalf. As the ijrogress of civilization 
is marked by those great steps by which man's individuality is unfolded 
and enlarged, and yet limited and protected by law, so the advancement 
of trades is indicated by the subdivision into specialties and the conse- 
quent increase of skill. This process of division has for a considerable 
period been distinct and marked with reference to the learned profes- 
sions. History tells us of the period when the priesthood was the 
embodiment of learning, and at the same time comprehended the func- 
tions now administered by the priest or clergyman, the doctor, and the 
lawyer. For a long period the young gained a knowledge of the learned 
professions^ as they acquired skill in handicraft, by the association and 
training of the Father and Master in a sort of apprenticeship. Later, 
when new economies prevailed, and the books and appliances and facili- 
ties for learning were duly supplied, the schools of theology and of law 
and of medicine were organized. The further progress of civilization 

265 



28 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

has been marked by a similar change with respect to the trades, or 
handicrafts. Theology, law, and medicine can no longer be said to com- 
prise the learned professions. Teaching and engineering are no less 
possessed of culture, and are already demanding a recognition of their 
great subdivisions, and we have a variety of schools of science and 
technology, and, in connection with the trades, schools of agriculture^ 
of navigation, of commerce, of iron-workers, of wood- workers, schools of 
pottery, of weaving, of watchmakers, of cookery, of sewing, of domestic 
economy. In all of these subdivisions of instruction and training there^ 
is for modern civilization a great safeguard in the doctrine of Socrates: 
" First, manhood, then a specialty ; first, a man, and then a doctor or 
artist or artisan." The better the general culture, the safer any special 
training. True, we are beset with questions of time and means, and a 
thousand conditions. The spirit of the age is one of haste. Motives 
and standards are often perverted. There is a spirit abroad which would 
jump the child from the cradle apparently over the whole formative 
period of youth, into the responsibilities of manhood and womanhood. 

Any such perversion of the order of nature is utterly destructive of 
all the advantages gained by education in modern civilization. If there 
is anything in the advantages of education to day over those known in 
ancient Egypt, Assyria, Judea, Greece, or Eome, it is to be found in 
the greater fitness and completeness with which education to-day treats 
the whole child, and every part and faculty and function in its appro- 
priate relation. If our present education perverts and misplaces God's, 
order and method in the preparation of the human faculties for their 
holy functions in an ever-progressive higher life, at once better for the 
individual, better for society, then we lose what we claim to gain, and we 
have need to dismiss our boasting, revise our bearings, and come back for 
a new start to those first principles that have been tried and not found 
wanting. In the view here held it hardly need be said that the more im- 
portant any faculty or function, the more highly and carefully it must be 
regarded, nourished, instructed, trained, in whatever period or form of 
education the child is occupied. Time forbids particularization, but it 
allows me to say that while the promoters of this education, as a factor in 
modern civilization, would neither neglect the body nor the intellect, nor 
any of their faculties,. they would, with pre-eminent skill and assiduity^ 
over all else seek to be all things to all children, that they might train 
the moral powers, the sensibilities, and will, to their highest and health- 
iest action in accordance with a pure conscience. 

If these general views of education as a factor in modern civilization 
are correct, we see how far short the boasted civilization of our day 
comes of its opportunities. What race or people or nation or commu- 
nity has realized the possibilities herein foreshadowed ? How should 
the promoters of culture in every sphere and under every condition be 
up and doing ! There should be no dark continent or island or corner; 
there should be no hiding place for ignorance and its myriads of vassals 
where the light does not enter. Clearly, would you make the best of 
266 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PEOCEEDINGS. 29 

an individual or a people or a race or a nation, you must go to educa- 
tion for the secrets of your success. Theories may be proclaimed in the 
valleys and from the mountain tops; the armies of the world may be 
marshaled upon its plains; the navies of the world may plough its seas; 
wealth may be accumulated until gold gilds the palaces of the rich ; 
commerce may encircle the world, traversing the seas with its vessels, 
penetrating the mountains and spanning tlie rivers and valleys with its 
rails; emperors and kings and presidents and governors may proclaim 
their decrees and laws, and all, all will be in vain, if the schoolmaster, 
fully panoplied aod fitly furnished for the right education of every child, 
is not abroad. But more than this, this discussion implies that if the 
teacher is fully qualified, knows thoroughly and practices skillfully the 
methods and principles of his duty, and trains to his best every child 
under his instruction, all the other influences in modern civilization, 
those great informing agencies, the press, the pulpit, the forum, and all 
the vocations learned or manual, will come to his aid more in accord- 
ance with the principles essential to the right preservation and care of 
childhood. 

Education becomes a central controlling activity or agency, and lays 
all other human conditions under tribute to this great end for the ele- 
vation of mankind. We could, therefore, expect a change of attitude 
in all of the considerations which affect, and the questions which puzzle 
and embarrass, instruction, — the improvement of books, buildings, and 
other appliances of teaching, the supply of means, the i)reparation and 
qualification of teachers, the organization of systems and their adjust- 
ment to individual peculiarities, the conformation of the work of the 
home and the Church in their relation to the action of the State, the 
proper relation and sympathy and co-operation of each department of 
education with every other, the establishment and conduct in the most 
approved form of the specialties best adapted to do the most for those 
either jjhysically or mentally or morally defective, so as not to increase 
but diminish defective tendencies, and to encourage and confirm the 
normal in the individual and in society. 

But although these possibilities of education are clearly disclosed in 
what has already been accomijlished, modern civilization has before 
it enormous struggles before they can be completely realized. How 
many cherish the idea that education is only necessary for them, or 
their class, or their church, or for those who can pay for it! How 
many that are called to high responsibilities by the public, tell us there 
is no improvement in education in the last century or the last fifty 
years, that the log school-house, that Murray's G-rammar and Webster's 
Spelling-Book, and that the flogging and hazing and the ABO methods 
of other days are the best, that the three fi's are enough for the mass 
of mankind, that the teacher is best who will work for the least, that 
teaching is the proper vocation of those that fail in everything else, in 
a word, that education is the least and last thing to be thought of for 
people generally! And looking beyond the pale of civilization, how 

267 



30 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

large a share of mankind are left in the total eclipse of ages and ages 
of untutored ignorance ! Too often, far too often the work of the apostle 
of education is like the voice of one crying in the wilderness. 

But modern civilization, holding before itself the inspiring pos- 
sibilities of a future when every child shall be most wisely and ade- 
quately educated, will neither slumber nor sleep until the glory of that 
better day beams on every mountain and hilltop and in every valley, 
and the nations of the earth shall clap their hands for joy. 

The Pkesident : Allow me now to introduce to you the Hon. Johis 
Hancock, ex-Superintendent of the JSTational Board of Education of the 
State of Ohio, and Commissioner of that State to the Exposition. 

Dr. Hancock then addressed the assembly as follows : 

Ladies and Gentlemen— 1 had hoped until within a very short period 
of time that the distinguished educator who presides over the school 
work of Ohio, and who is President of the Superintendents' Associa- 
tion, would be here himself to undertake the very pleasant duty which 
has been imposed upon me, of responding in behalf of the organiza- 
tion to the welcome that has been extended to us here to-day. I shall 
not attempt to fill his place. If I were to speak in length proportion- 
ate to the importance of the duties that are to be discharged by the 
class of educators that I«,m in some sense representing to-day, I should 
make an address entirely too long. 

The superintendents of our city and State systems of education have 
practical duties that lie before them that are of diflacult performance. 
They are expected to select from theories of school organization and 
method^ of instruction, diflering widely, those that are best adapted to* 
the schools they severally represent. It is their duty also to so com- 
bine all the elements of the several grades of teachers that they shall 
tend in one constant direction. 

I need scarcely say that the superintendents who come down from 
the North to visit this sunny South (it has not been quite so sunny as 
we expected) have not come down in any spirit of carping criticism to 
spy out the nakedness of the land, but that they have come down here 
with their larger experience, with the most profound sympathy for the 
superintendents and other educators in the South, hoping that their ex- 
perience may lend something to the building up of your great systems 
of pubbc schools. We sympathize with the efforts you are making to 
have a system of schools that shall educate every child. I think we 
cannot express fully all the sympathy that we feel in the result. I am 
quite sure, too, that we shall join earnestly with you in any effort that 
you may make. This national bill to aid the South to educate every 
child in the land has had our warmest support from the beginning. It 
has not been our fault, I am quite sure, that it is not now a law. We 
sTiall join with you to keep up the fight until the bill shall become the 
law of the land. We shall also join with you in ex^ery effort that will 
tend to ring out the old ignorance and its attendant misery and crime, 
and ring in that new era of liberty in which virtue and intelligence shall 

268 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 31 

become the common property of every child and every man and woman 
in this our comtnon country, and ring in that age of liberty and equal- 
ity which shall give every child a fair chance in life. These things we 
hope to do. 

The President : Ladies and gentlemen, we will now call upon an 
old acquaintance of ours, whom we have had the i>leasure of hearing 
and seeing before, the Eev. Dr. A. D. Mayo. 

Dr. Mayo said : 

It is said, ladies and gentlemen, you know, that the postscript of a 
letter is often its most important part, especially when it is the last, for 
it then may contain the answers to important questions. I come to you 
as the postscript of a long, instructive, and important session of this 
Congress of Educators. When I saw my name at the foot of the illus- 
trious company of gentlemen who are announced to speak on this occa- 
sion, I could not but ask myself why I should be there, for I noticed 
that every name on that bill of fare was the name of a man illustrious, 
not only in himself, but illustrious in some great position which he holds 
in the State or in the nation, all of them connected with the work of 
education. " Why, then," I said, " should the postscript come in ? Why 
should a man be brought before you who never had a title, except the 
ordinary title of clergyman, who never taught a school since he was 
twenty-one years old, who never had anything of that kind to boast of, 
and who comes before you simply as a modest educational man-of-all- 
work, engaged in serving in what it is perhaps proper to call the min- 
istry of education ? " Then, moreover, it occurred to me that our friends 
who made out this programme may have had this in mind : " While it is 
eminently proper in a congress of educators that the educator should 
have the principal talk of the occasion, yet perhaps some slight consid- 
eration might be afforded to the 49,700,000 people whom the three or four 
hundred thousand educators of the country expect to take in hand." 

I stand before you, then, as the modest representative of 49,700,000 
people whom you three or four hundred thousand eminent educators 
are proposing to train into line and to prepare for the great work of 
building up this nation. In that illustrious brotherhood and sisterhood 
are represented ten millions, including children or youth who ought to 
be in school, but who, I am sorry to say, are not. In this body are also 
included twenty or thirty thousand fathers and mothers of those chil- 
dren, who, it may be supposed, would have some slight interest in what 
is given those children in the way of education. In this body also I 
number those admirable bachelor uncles, that noble host whose pockets 
are supposed to be always filled with goodies for the little ones, and. 
also that glorious company of maiden aunts, without whose services 
we shQuld be completely lost. Now, dear friends, it is this body 
that I come here to represent today, come without title, without any 
handle or abbreviation to my name, but simply trying to tell you in a 
moment, for I shall try to be short, what that body of people is think- 
ing of, for you must understand that it takes two people to keep school. 

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32 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

It is very important to have the fine teacher, the great educator, with 
all the appliances, means, and methods ; but, as an old adage says, 
•' You can lead a horse to water, but no one can make him drink unless 
he is dry." Everything that all the congresses of educators on the 
earth can do cannot persuade the humblest negro child on a planta- 
tion in Louisiana to drink unless he is willing. This is what the people 
of the United States desire of you educators, what they have in view 
as the result of your teaching. 

Within the past five years of my humble ministry of education I have 
traversed thirty-six States of our Union, and I can tell you that our 
people have made up their minds to two things very strongly. The 
first thing that the people of the United States have made up their 
rainds to is that they are now going to live together and be one people. 
We tried to live apart for four years and we did not succeed. Now we 
are coming back together, and we intend to be the greatest, the grand- 
est, the most successful nation, as the London Times says we are the 
wealthiest nation, on the face of the earth. This is the first thing. 
We most heartily and gratefully reciprocate the feeling that has taken 
form in the expression of the illustrious president of Tulaue University, 
when he tells us that the people of this portion of the country are just 
as earnest and just as determined in this matter of love of country as 
we are. We believe what he says, and we do not care a fig whether 
he is sorry for anything that is past or not. What we ask is the present. 
We want to be one people to-day. 

The next thing that the people of the United States have made up 
their mind to is that, being one people and this great nation, we must 
be a peculiar people, we must give a new presentation of the great idea 
of nationality to the world. I do not believe that we should try to copy 
Great Britain, or to create a British aristocracy, or do anything like 
that, for we could not if we tried a thousand years ; or to maintain a 
military government like the Government of Germany. But we can do 
a new thing, and that is, have a nationality which shall express the 
feeling and convey the thought of the whole people, a nationality in 
which citizenship shall be the synonym for intelligence, for industry, 
for manhood. We propose that the people of the United States shall 
not only form one nation, but that every citizen of that nation shall be 
a true man or woman, and as a basis of this we must have intelligence, 
and therefore the people of the United States are saying to you gentle- 
men of the Congress of Educators : " We want you to hurry up your 
movements in this matter of educa« on, and give to us that intelligence 
without which, as we have been told by all the fathers from Washing- 
ton down, our republican institutions will be a failure. Of course we 
want first the common school everywhere, and then every other kind of 
school that the wit of man can devise. Now we look to you educators 
to help us in this matter." I come to bring to you this wail, this great 
wail of desire for the education of our people. It is a rising tide every- 
where in the country. Especially in your Southern land we find new 

270 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 33 

/ 
evidences of it every day. I find that there has been an awakening 
there. I find a revival among the people, and that there is a desire for 
new schools and new methods, and I find this also, teachers, which may 
be of interest to you, that the people of the United States are fast 
making up their minds that school-keeping shall be carried on in 
the same way as every other good thing of this kind. The people 
of the country have given up riding in coaches, they ride in Pull- 
man cars; they have given up carrying their money in saddle-bags, 
and they use drafts and checks; they have the telegraph and tele- 
phone, and they expect that school-keeping will take the same rank 
as skilled labor in everything else. The people are making up 
their minds to put a good teacher in the place of every poor one, 
though she may be the wife, daughter, or sister of the most illus- 
trious man in the country. We must have the best that can be ob- 
tained. The people of this country have determined to place a good 
school in the place of every poor one. I rejoiced, in coming through 
Washington, that gradually some idea of the rights of the people in 
this respect is getting possession of that illustrious body, the House of 
Eepresentatives. I find that men who two year^ ago would not listen 
to what I had to say in regard to national aid to education, are very 
glad. to listen to me now. It is said that the Senate of the United 
States is the most remarkable legislative body in the world. After one 
of the most admirable, profound, and far-reaching discussions that has 
ever been held in the United States Senate, it passed the Blair Bill for 
national aid to education by an overwhelming majority. Not more than 
three or four Senators of any national reputation had the courage to 
stand up and oppose that bill. I wish that the House of Representa- 
tives was as open to receive the message of the people as the Senate, 
but unfortunately they have not been, and I fear that the present ses- 
sion of Congress will pass away before that bill goes through the House 
of Eepresentatives. The House of Eepresentatives perhaps more di- 
rectly represents the popular notions and ideas than the Senate, but it 
seems to me it is of the greatest importance that these gentlemen should 
be informed what the 49,700,000 people of the United States are de- 
manding; that the Government, which has for the last hundred years 
been looking after every other interest under heaven, should now take 
some cognizance of the people's need. I find in Congress two sets of 
men, politicians and statesmen. IsTow I take it that in the House of 
Eepresentatives statesmanship has its place, but I am sorry to say that 
owing to the preponderance of the other element we will not get our 
bill through this year, but I can say to you, gentlemen, that I believe 
a majority of the House of Eepresentatives is to-day ready to pass that 
bill. I believe that twenty men of that lower House are preventing its 
passage. I do not know who they are, but I tell yoti, my friends, that 
the ijolitician or statesman of to-day who proposes in any way to turu 
his back upon the demands of this people of the United States for uni- 
7950 COT, pt. 2 -3 271 



34 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

versal education commits a folly which he cannot afford, because he 
will be gathered to his fathers in the great cemetery of the departed 
politicians whom the people of the country have no further use for. I 
trust that the time is coming when we shall have done with them. 

Let me say, in conclusion, that every other good thing depends upon 
education. But we must have a higher average, and it is education 
alone which can give to us this average, and so I welcome you again, 
gentlemen of the Congress of Educators, to-day. 

You have come as representatives, not of the sundown of American 
interests, but you have come as representatives of the sunrise. The 
warrior has had his day, the priest has had his day, the politician has 
had his day, and finally in the fullness of time has come the Chil- 
dren's Bay, and you are now standing at the rising of the sun on that 
children's day. I see the flush of that rising sun, I see the lighting up of 
the firmament above. May God speed the coming of that children's day. 

Colonel Johnston: I can now answer Dr. Mayo's question as to why 
he was selected. He was chosen as an apostle to the Gentiles. 

The President: Allow me to introduce to you Prof. F. Louis Soldan, 
President of the National Educational Association, who will deliver the 
closing address of this evening. 

Prof. SoLDAN said : 

Mr. Fresident and Ladies and Gentlemen — I was informed an hour or 
an hour and a half ago that I was expected to make a speech. I must 
say that the invitation, kindly as it was meant, was more abrupt than 
acceptable. I hesitated, because I thought not only of myself and of 
the pleasure I would take in speaking to my fellow-teachers and in 
speaking to this audience, but I also thought in a sympathetic way of 
the audience themselves. 

Mr. President, allow me to say here, in order to secure the most favor- 
able reception of my poor words, that I shall be very brief. Among the 
recollections of my earliest boyhood I remember a clock in our room 
which had for an ornament a head, modeled and shaped in a peculiar 
way. It had two faces — one beautiful, thoughtful, hopeful, looking for- 
ward and upward, and another a face representing advanced manhood 
or old age, looking backward and downward; and I learned later that 
it was an emblem found in that Eoman temple which was always open 
during time of war but closed during the time of peace. If I were to 
find a face emblematic of our day and of the advantages of education, 
it would be the face of that youth looking forward and upward, and I 
would cast into the past that face of woe that looks backward and 
downward. We are come here to-day to discuss educational questions, 
and many of us have come with a double purpose in view — first, to listen 
and to learn from the lips of those older and wiser than we are about 
those problems in' education which beset every teacher. We have also 
come to witness this great Exposition in which all nations have rivaled 
to show their best, in which the treasures of the world are exhibited to 

272 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 35 

the admiriug gaze. In olden times they spoke of the treasures of the 
Indies. To-day one of the tasks each nation has is to develop its re- 
sources, to build roads and bring the treasures of one clime and one 
country to another, to open new avenues of trade, to send into the 
deepest mines and bring their treasures to light 5 but notwithstanding 
aU these mines of untold wealth, there is one mine deeper than all, one 
mine containing more treasures than all, and that is the mind of the 
American people, and to get the treasures from that mine is the work 
of education. 

Education will develop new resources, will develop a new future, will 
develop more wealth than any of those famous mines of the past. It 
develops not only the wealth that gifts the hand with skill, that train- 
ing and education which makes material which is almost worthless into 
material which is worth more than its weight in gold, but also that in- 
struction which surpasses the education and training of the hands. 
Education is a force which not only educates the child, the one who 
receives it, but which also educates the one who imparts the instruction, 
because it aims to break up that savage, uncivilized life of each man for 
himself. It means the giving up of self, it means the diversion of our 
efforts to the welfare of another. Education itself is an emblem of un- 
selfishness, it is the emblem of brotherly love. I cannot point to a 
better emblem of this than the arms of your noble old State : "Kindness, 
self-sacrifice, and love for the young." As the old stories tell us that 
the pelican fed its young with the blood of its heart, so the nation to- 
day holds out a helping hand to the young. And so, all I can say is 
that I thank you for the words of welcome extended to us to-day. 

EIBST SESSIOif. 

The First Session of the International Congress of Educators was 
held in Tulane Hall, Tuesday, February 24th, at 7.30 p.m., Col. William 
Preston Johnston occupying the chair as president, and William E. 
Sheldon, of Boston, acting as secretary. 

The first thing in order was the reading by Col. George Hicks, In- 
spector of Schools of Jamaica, of a paper on "Educational Progress in 
Jamaica." (See p. 59.) 

The Chairman : You will all agree with me that we are gratified and 
instructed by the account that Mr. Hicks has given us of the formation 
of clubs in Jamaica. The next paper will be on " The Ontario School 
System," prepared by the Hon. J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., 
Vice-Minister of Education of Ontario, and to be read by Mr. Sheldon. 

Here ensued the reading of Dr. Hodgina's paper. (See p. 77.) 

The Chairman : The next subject for discussion is a paper by Brother 
Justin, of the Christian Brothers, on " Respect for Authority Devel- 
oped in the School-room." It will be read by Brother Noah. 

Here followed the reading of Brother Justin's paper (see p. 447), at 

the conclusion of wMchi th.e session adjourned. 

273 



36 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



SECOND. SESS10:S^. 

The Second Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Wednes- 
day, February 25th, at 2 p.m. 

The Chairman, Dr. John Hancock, said: 

I have been designated to preside over the Elementary Section, and 
it has been suggested that I should make a few remarks, either from a 
paper or from notes. I took it literally when it was said a/ew remarks, 
and I am now going to make a/ew remarks. What I shall say may not 
be an example of concentration, but it will be an example of brevity. 

In proposing the establishment of a new association the essential 
question is, What right has it to exist ? If it is to serve no purposes be- 
yond those met by associations already in being, then there is no reason 
for the proposed organization. 

Is there, then, any ground not now occupied, requiring an additional 
association for its cultivation? Strictly speaking, perhaps not. But 
old organizations are constantly in danger of falling into lifeless formal- 
isms. Besides, most thoughtful educators wiU agree that enough sur- 
face ploughing has already been done in their field of labor. The same 
questions are discussed in our meetings that were discussed by Horace 
Mann and Samuel Lewis nearly fifty years ago, and discussed in pretty 
nearly the same language, except that earnestness and enthusiasm were 
on the side of those eminent educators by a large balance. As new 
generations of teachers come up to be instructed, doubtless the discus- 
sion of the old themes, and the enunciation of the old truisms, will be 
helpful to them as they have been to us. 

But shall this end ain Are there no new and more thorough investiga- 
tions to be entered upon? JSTo deeper or broader views to be obtained? 
It has been believed that an affirmative answer could be made to these 
questions, and for this reason : Some five years ago was formed that 
inner circle of the National Educational Association, now well and 
favorably known as the National Council of Education. The purpose of 
this body of selected educators is to leave to the parent association the 
popular treatment of educational questions, whilst it reserves to itself 
the discussion of questions which lie deeper, and in such detail as would 
be impracticable in the larger body. That there was room for such an 
organization has been amply proved by its popularity among our lead- 
ing men, and by the value of the work it has done. 

If I am correct in my views, the International Congress of Educators 
will be but an extension of the work of the National Council. If we 
shall not be disappointed in our hopes of the establishment of the new 
association, and shall succeed in drawing into it any considerable num- 
ber of foreign educators, we shall unquestionably have as a result dis- 
cussions and investigations of still greater worth than those of the 
National Council. Broad as our country is, our fellow educators may be 
S74 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PROCEEDINGS. 37 

pardoned if, after a few years of the enjoyment of the society of their 
own intimates, they should long a little to know what educators out- 
side the limits of their own boundaries are thinking and doing, and this 
through personal contact in the freedom of informal question and an- 
swer, rather than from the unsympathizing printed page. 

What, then, shall be the special line of work for this international 
congress, if established'? The best organization of a public-school sys- 
tem, the best methods of teaching the several branches and of arousing 
the mental and moral forces of the child, have been constant topics for 
discussion in the old organizations, and progress may be reported in 
them all; but, strange as it may seem, no serious effort has been made 
until quite recently to know the child for whose benefit all these things 
are intended. By this I do not mean that efforts have not been made 
in a desultory way to find out something about this heir of all the ages, 
but no minute study, conducted on scientific principles, has been made 
of him. Too much credit cannot be given to the few workers who have 
entered upon this study. But it is not a work to be done by a few. It 
it so extensive that it must be parceled out to obtain valuable ends. In 
all psychological experiments the results are so affected by the personal 
equation of the experimenter that a given line of experiments ought to 
be carried through by one individual, for if several are employed, their 
lines of personal equation will so cross each other as to render any con- 
clusions reached uncertain and confusing. 

It is evident that until this child nature is understood, our methods 
of school organization and teaching, and of proper stimulation, must rest 
upon an unstable foundation. Even the few experiments already made 
go far to overturn some principles in education long considered axio- 
matic ; and we know not what may follow as the work of experimenting 
goes on. 

This process of child study is especially the work of the Elementary 
Section of the International Congress of Educators. It is a trite thing to 
say, but it is to be held in constant memory, that upon the teaching of 
the little child rests all the higher education ; and upon the successful 
solution of the problem committed to us depends the success of those 
working in higher fields — higher in the branches taught, but not in im- 
portance. 

In what has been said have been held in mind the work of our own 
section mainly, and the point at which the rebuilding of our educational 
theories must begin. It may be that the investigation I have designated 
as necessarily the chief should not be the only one pursued by this body; 
for, if we could come to know the child completely, there would yet arise 
many grave questions as to the methods by which this child may be 
made to grow into the highest manhood, questions which will perplex 
many generations, and must depend themselves for their correct solu- 
tion very largely upon experiment. 

275 



38 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

We may calculate, therefore, with a perfect assurance that we shall 
not, under the most fortunate circumstances, run short of work during 
our generation, for we shall in no way arrive at a true philosophy of 
education except by the long and dispassionate efforts of a union of 
earnest minds working to a common end. 

Prof. J. L. HuG-HES, of Ontario : After hearing these remarks, is it 
proposed that we move that an international educational society be 
formed here? 

The Chaie]vean : I do not know what Dr. Newell designs in regard to 
that matter, whether he designs to have the question acted upon or not. 

Dr. iN^EWELL : This is merely a section, and that matter should be 
acted upon in a session of the International Congress. 

Mr. Adams moved that the subject be laid upon the table, to be taken 
up at the pleasure of the meeting to-morrow ; which motion was agreed to. 

The Chairman : The session of the Elementary Section is now open, 
and I have the honor to introduce to you the President of the Kinder- 
garten TJnion, Prof. W. N. Hailmann, who will now address you. 

Professor Hailmann then delivered an address on " The Application 
of Kindergarten Principles in Primary Education." (See p. 92.) 

Mrs. Anna B. Ogden then addressed the Section on "The Applica- 
tion of Kindergarten Principles to the Child's Earliest Development." 
(See p. 94.) 

The Chairman: I now have the great pleasure of introducing to the 
audience Prof. J. L. Hughes, Superintendent of Schools of Toronto. I 
do this with great personal gratification, because a good many years 
ago I had the pleasure of visiting his school at Toronto. 

Mr. Hughes : I deem it an especial pleasure to stand upon this platform 
as one of the male kindergartners who have been alluded to. I am glad 
to be here. My mission here is merely to report — not to explain, not to 
describe — but to state the facts we have accomplished. We have in To- 
ronto, to a certain extent, solved the problem between the kindergarten 
and the public-school system. Three years ago we had one of the most 
libera] school boards in the world, an ideal school board, not onetoember 
of which professed to know what he did not know,menof business, who 
thought that the superintendent ought to understand his business bet- 
ter than they did. Well, they accepted my suggestion to introduce the 
kindergarten into our system when I thought we were ready for it. 
They looked at the thing in a business-like way. I had already written 
to New York to obtain the best idea of a good kindergarten. A lady 
was selected who had been through the Albany Normal School, who 
had had some years experience in primary work and had spent two 
years teaching. When we decided to introduce the kindergarten into 
our schools, we decided to introduce it permanently,' and not as an ex- 
periment merely. So we took this teacher, paid her $600 a year, and 
sent her to Saint Louis. She came back fully prepared to fulfill her 
work. She is doing it now, and doing it admirably. „We have now 
276 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PROCEEDINGS. 39 

two distinct ki^adergartens in our city instructed by her, in which she 
spends alternate weeks, and we would have more if we had teachers 
prepared to conduct them. We have twelve ladies engaged in the study 
of the principles of the kindergarten, and they practice under the guid- 
ance of our superintendent. In addition, we have some who are in train- 
ing to be teachers and mothers as they should. Our work is a success 
so far as it has gone. Two years is altogether too short a time to settle 
it as a success. 

In addition to the public-school work of the city, our kindergarten 
superintendent has devoted some attention to the normal schools. She 
has been employed by the Government of the Provinces to give lect- 
ures to the students at the normal schools. We expect a great deal 
from this. During the present session of the Legislature in our Prov- 
ince money has been voted by the representatives of the people to place 
the kindergarten in the Toronto Normal School. I am also glad to an- 
nounce that we have taken another departure by establishing free kin- 
dergartens. Outside of Toronto, the only town or city in Ontario in 
which the kindergarten has been placed is the town of Portland. It 
has been conducted there for three years, and gives .complete satisfac- 
tion to the trustees and to the parents of the children. We have in 
Toronto two ladies who are studying with a view of introducing the 
kindergarten in other schools. They are sent to our city by the Boards 
of their towns. We expect that the kindergarten will be introduced 
into aU the other cities and towns of the Province as rapidly as we can 
procure trained teachers. We believe in it. We believe in the organic 
union of the public school and the kindergarten, and we believe in ac- 
complishing that union by the modification of the public school instead 
of by the modification of the kindergarten itself. 

The Chairman: I am quite sure that we all regret that Professor 
Hughes did not bring his Board down in a body, so that the educators 
of the IJnited States might have ajook at them. I understand that ar- 
rangements have been made to carry forward this discussion into the 
meeting to-morrow. Unless there is some special work to be done, this 
will be the only meeting of the Elementary Section of the Congress. 
We shall meet hereafter as one body, there not being enough to justify 
our meeting as a Section. 

Mr. W. E. Sheldon: I want to say a word. As a representative of 
the Elementary Section, I was much pleased with the remarks of the 
gentleman from Ontario when he said that the organic union of the 
kindergarten and the public school was to be secured by the modifica- 
tion of the public school to ihe demands of the kindergarten. I want 
to say that, having for the last ten or fifteen years listened to the words 
of wisdom that came from the lips of kindergartners, they now have 
modified some of their principles, so that the organic cementation of the 
two schools can be attained with the heartiest- good- will of us all. 

877 



40 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Mr. W. N. Haelmann: I do not agree fully with the proposition of 
making an organic union between the kindergarten and the public 
school. I do not think such a thing possible. In the first place it 
seems to me that the public school is complete in itself, thoroughly me- 
chanical to a large extent, while on the other hand the kindergarten is 
not completed. The kindergarten, as it is, is not so complete in all di- 
rections as to fully know the needs or wants of a little child. It seems 
to me that what we want is not the imperfect union of the two on the 
basis of the kindergarten, but the infusion of the public school with the 
same spirit of inquiry for the best ways to do the work in accordance 
with the child's needs, that, I suppose, prevails in the kindergarten to 
a large extent. 

At the conclusion of Mr. Kallmann's remarks the chairman read a let- 
ter from Miss Susan E. Blow, of Saint Louis, Mo., acknowledging the 
receipt of an invitation and expressing regret that she was unable to 
be present. 

Mr. John Hitz, of Geneva, Switzerland, said : In Geneva, with a 
population of about sixty thousand, it is surprising how many children 
attend the kindergarten. There are about four thousand. The super- 
intendent has nothing else to do but to supervise the kindergarten 
(they call them infant schools there) ; and furthermore, these schools 
are so esteemed that in some of the little suburbs of Geneva you will 
fisnd the church and the kindergarten in one and the same building, and 
there, I think, is where they should be. 

Mr. L. W. Mason, of Japan, said : It is my good fortune, in connection 
with my duties in teaching music in Japan, to teach in the kindergarten. 
After serving for three years in Japan, I went through Europe pretty 
thoroughly, and I have seen the improved kindergartens of tliis country; 
but we have the best Froebel kindergarten that I have ever seen, in 
Tokio, Japan. I will give you the history of it. A native of Japan 
married a German lady. She was ^i^^^^J accomplished in many things, 
and, among others, she knew the kindergarten. She also knew the Eng- 
lish language, and as the Japanese were determined to have the best 
things that they read or heard of, after she had established the Tokio 
school for young ladies it was proposed that this lady should open in con- 
nection with the school a kindergarten. She consented to do so, and 
planned out a building with large grounds ; and you will find ther« to-day 
a kindergarten of one hundred and fifty children, the best style of build- 
ings made on purpose for it, with teachers trained by this lady; and now 
the graduates of the Normal School become students in the kindergarten 
for the purpose of learning the art of teaching its methods. In that in- 
stitution there is a building about 50 feet long and 30 feet wide, for chil- 
dren's plays. You will find rooms for the different ages of childhood, 
from the little children with nurses to the older ones. You will find there 
about sixty nurses who come with the children, and a building outside 
of the main building is set aside for the accommodation of these nurses. 

278 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES — PROCEEDINGS. 41 

You will find in the yard, which surrounds the building and covers 
about two acres, a fish pond about as large as this platform, where the 
children amuse themselves by feeding the fish. 

They have all the improvements and all the means for amusing chil- 
dren that are found in Germany, in England, or in America, so far as 
I know ; and they know how to use them. For myself, my best success 
was in this school. The younger the children, the more easily they were 
taught. I hope when you visit the Exposition you will not fail to see 
the work of the children of the Tokio kindergarten. 

The Chairman: I will say that our friend, Professor Mason, who has 
just spoken, has faith in children. I can remember when he first began 
teaching children to sing. Other teachers thought they could not be 
taught, and the way he met this argument was to go to work and teach 
them. He proved that they could sing, and on the genuine kinder- 
garten principles, too. 

There being no further papers on the programme, the meeting at 4.45 
p. M. adjourned. 

THIED SBSSIOIi. 

The Third Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Wednes- 
day, February 2oth, at 7.30 P.M. 

The Chairman, Col. William O. Rogers, announced, as the first pro- 
ceeding in order, a paper by Hon. J. W. Dickinson on ''The Massachu- 
setts Public School System."- (See p. 103.) 

Mr. Dickinson was followed by Mr. IcHizo Hattori, Japanese Com- 
missioner at the Exposition, who delivered an address, in which he gave 
the outlines of the public school system of Japan. (See p. 109.) 

Mr. Hattori was followed by Dr. A. D. Mayo, who presented a paper 
on "A Southern Graded School." (See p. 177.) 

At the conclusion of Dr. Mayo's remarks, it being 9 P.M., the session 
adjourned. 

FOURTH SESSION 

The Fourth Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Wednes- 
day, February 25th, at 2 p.m. 

The first paper read was by^ Mr. R. L. Packard, of the Bureau of Ed- 
ucation, Washington, D. C, on " School-room Air, with Directions for 
Examining It." (See p. 349.) 

At the conclusion of Mr. Packard's paper, Mr. W. E. Sheldon pre- 
sented the following petition : 

One of the greatest needs in our grammar and liigli scliools is a higher order of 
scholarship in the teachers in these institutions. While but relatively a short time 
since women were employed chiefly in primary grades, and but rarely in higher work, 
the tendency of the present time is toward giving the instrucHon part of grammar and 
high school work also in the hands of women. Owing to their natural tact, and to the 
degree by which this is augmented by normal school training, the skill of women 

279 



42 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

teachers is very considerable ; it is not, however, to be denied that their skill in im- 
parting knowledge is often much greater than the knowledge which they have to im- 
part. It is, therefore, a matter of public moment that all means for enlarging their 
knowledge should be made accessible to women. The best women's colleges, Vassar, 
Wellesley, and Smith, do not aflford equal facilities to the best colleges for men, such 
as Yale and Harvard. The experience of Cornell and Michigan Universities is suffi- 
cient to dispel the doubts of most of our people concerning the propriety of bringing 
undergraduates of both sexes together in class and lecture rooms ; but if some doubt 
remain upon this point, the grounds of it cannot be urged in respect to post-graduate 
study, where the greater maturity and experience of those pursuing it would seem to 
insure safety. The only institution in this country offering special advantages for post- 
graduate study is Johns Hopkins University, and it would seem that the admission of 
women to the opportunities offered by it would in no degree impair its dignity, and 
would increase its usefulness. The Western Association of Collegiate Alumnae has 
lately petitioned this university to admit women to its courses of study, to its lectures, 
and its examinations. A very large number of the officers and most active members of 
this association are teachers; and inasmuch as the granting of their petition would 
tend directly toward the elevation of the standard of scholarship among the women 
teachers in our schools, it seems not improper that this national association of teach- 
ers should indorse the petition of the Western Association of Collegiate AlumnsB, and 
formally express its conviction that, by admitting women to its superior privileges, 
Johns Hopkins University would advance the interests of education in this country, 
and would in no way deteriorate its own fame or degrade its high standards. 

Be it therefore 

Resolved, That the National Educational Association petition Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity to open its doors to women, giving to them all of its privileges, opportunities^ 
incentives, and honors, on the same conditions that these now are, or may be, given 
to men. 

That is the petition. I am sure that this Congress of Educators will 
recognize it as one of the important steps in the advance toward secur- 
ing for women, who are largely, so far as an experience of thirty years 
of observation and practical work in the school-room leads me to judge, 
generally qualified to do the noble work of education. I take pleasure 
in offering this petition and submitting it to the gentlemen present. If 
it is not deemed wise to act upon it now, I give notice that at Saratoga 
next summer it will be presented to the consideration of the entire body 
of the National Educational Association. I have the testimony of the 
lady who presides with a dignity and ability equal to that of any college 
president in this country, Miss Freeman, of Weilesley College, that as she 
was educated in the University of Michigan, she derived her power and 
strength from the association -there in education with the young men. 
Her great success is largely due to the advantages thus obtained. The 
author of this petition is Miss May Wright Sewell. 

On motion a committee of three, consisting of W. E. Sheldon, Esq., 
Miss May Wright Sewell, and Dr. W. T. Harris, was appointed to take 
charge of the resolution. 

The Chairman: I now have the plea.sure of introducing Prof. Ed- 
ward A. Spring, of New Jersey, Director of the Chautauqua School of 
Sculpture and Modeling. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 43 

Mr. Spring then addressed tBe Congress as follows : 
Ladies and Gentlemen — As there are so few of us let us adjourn to the 
corner temporarily, and I will have a better light to show a little clay 
modeling in a practical way. 

It is very pleasant to come to Kew Orleans and see so much of its 
quaint and curious things. Our eyes take in at once what is peculiar, 
what is strange. If we should go on a journey to Turkey or Japan, we 
should see still more what was strange and peculiar, and the stranger in 
that far-off country is struck by the likeness of the people to each other. 
It is hard for him to tell them apart. For instance, in Japan it is hard 
for him to see the difference, but the Japanese see the difference. The 
stranger mistakes the brothers and sisters of families. The parents see 
no similarity between them. How can a stranger be so stupid as to mis- 
take two boys who are so entirely different *? We are all strangers. We 
are come here from some unknown country, and when we have arrived in 
this life we see things typically, we see the generic rather than the indi- 
vidual, so that when the child is brought under educational influences he 
has a special fitness to study what is generic, and if you put him in con- 
ditions in which he can study the generic or typical in a clear, wise way, 
you will gain for him what he will soon lose, the power of doing so for 
himself. It would be just as stupid for a doctor to tell a child that an 
animal did not move so and so, that such and such things were not 
alike, as for the parent to say to the stranger, " How stupid you are to 
think that my two sons are alike! They are different." 

The child sees first that the world around him has outside objects. 
One of the most pleasant things for a child, one of the things which it 
will first do if you give it plastic clay, is to pick a piece off, and after 
finding that it can pick it to pieces, it begins to make balls, and the 
balls will run. It seems to have produced life, a;nd nothing is pleasanter 
for a little company of children than to give them clay and a plate and 
let them make little balls and run them about. They will be fascinated 
with it, and from that simple exercise, which may be continued for 
mouths in a family or kindergarten, there can be developed a great deal 
of natural history or scientific work, and it could be carried by this sim- 
ple material through all education. In the technical school for young 
men, in the professional school where the sciences and arts are studied, 
the clay comes in everywhere, at every turn, as a valuable help. Froebel 
saw this and ai)preciated the fact that a plastic material in the hands 
of a child was a valuable addition, and it is always in the true kinder- 
garten one of the exercises which is most delightful to the child and 
useful to the teacher. 

Clay can be used to illustrate anything, almost. It can be used to 
show iDlasticity ; it can be used to show many of the operations that are 
going on at the surface of the earth. Take a lot of glasses and put a 
little dry clay into one and a little more into another, measuring off and 
filling them with water; stir them and let them settle, and you will see 

981 



44 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the different grades of deposition. Mix* a little sand, marble dust, &c., 
and you can go through a long series of experiments. There are hun- 
dreds of schools now where my pupils are using clay with the greatest 
success in keeping the child happy and quiet at times when, perhaps, 
the teacher is occupied with another class. A room at one side with 
clay, and a little instruction as to how to use it, will be a great source 
of help to teachers. There was one teacher who told me last summer, 
when I asked her for a report, that the principal had formerly com- 
plained that the primary children when at their recess in the yard dis- 
turbed the other classes ; and now, instead of having them go out, she 
had a little room with clay, and they go in there and amuse themselves 
with the clay, and some of them have done remarkable work. She was 
astonished at it. The principal has no longer any cause of complaint, 
for they are as quiet as mice. 

Here are four lumps of clay of equal size. I draw them out into an 
elongated form. Xow I will do what any child without any practice in 
modeling at all might do. There is a bird. Suppose I want to make a 
long-legged bird. There, that looks like some kind of a bird. In order 
to make that a bird with long legs, I find by experiment (and the ex- 
periment is one that can be perfectly well shown by taking time and 
going through a series of experiments), I find that that looks better. 
You experiment a little, and you find that while a head goes on that 
bird, you cannot have that sized head. I take a smaller head, to see 
if it does not look better with a long neck. That is much better. Now 
I will make a bird that has a shorter neck, smaller head, and shorter 
legs — something between that head and this. Now I see that there is 
a law that the shorter the neck of the bird, the larger the head can be. 
Now I will change this again. Thus the child finds out by its own ex- 
periment. I find out the natural law in each case. 

I take the same piece of clay now and try a human form. Keeping 
the same mass for the head in each case and the same mass for the 
body, I find by careful experiment and time spent upon it that the 
larger the head, the younger the person, and the smaller the head, the 
older the person. 1 will go farther. I take my same quantity of clay 
for the body, but make the head larger still, and you see I intentionally 
only make the clay as any child might make it, but I get at once a sug- 
gestion which, although my hearers may not see it, the child will see at 
once, that it is not a grown person but a baby. There is where it be- 
comes very diflScult to convey to adults ideas on such a subject, because 
it is already too late for you. Tou see only the conditions, you do not 
see the characteristics. Now, the characteristic of the human beiog is 
that we are upright, or ought to be ; the characteristic of the quad- 
ruped is the opposite, and the child lays the thing down and calls it a 
dog or cat or mouse ; he stands it up and calls it a man. Take, for in- 
stance, the type Cetacea. The axis of the mass of the brain and the 
direction of the spinal column are coincident. Raise this a little and 

283 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS-^PROCEEDINGS. 45 

you tend to a higher type of life, the manatee or something of that sort. 
Eaise it a little more and you get to the seal or walrus type. The seal 
and walrus have anterior limbs at the outset, the seal having a clumsy 
hind leg which is easily mistaken for a tail. The walrus walks much 
more than the seal. He has a more distinctive neck. From the walrus 
you can rise through the scale just as you like/ 

Tou can go up a ladder of short or long steps from one end to the 
other ; but take the extremes, from the lowest cetaceans to human be- 
ings, and you can go up through a series of as many steps as you please. 
When you get up among the higher quadrupeds, the monkey for in- 
stance, they are by no means a human type. The mistake is that any 
piece of clay which has three holes will have some expression. You can 
see that these three holes have an expression. Make the holes any- 
where and they will still have some expression. Turn it around so that 
one or the other of the holes becomes the mouth and the two others the 
eyes. In any way there is an expression. This is why the monkey and 
a great many animals have an expression, but it is entirely different 
from the expression of a human being. Every monkey is alike — that is, 
its expression is the same — because it has the right number of eyes, 
a nose, and a mouth, but the face is elongated, as all animal faces are. 
The brain is very small. Now, to model the face of a human being I just 
reverse the operation, and take the lump that makes the face of tlie 
animal and make the brain of the man, and I take that calculated to 
make the brain of the animal and make the face of the man. 

I merely give a few of these instances to impress upon you the idea 
that with this clay the child can see the generic or typical in nature, and 
can emphasize and become familiar with things which the adult finds it 
diflScult, if not altogether too late, to go about. In questions of action 
or motion the child is very quick, and just as the child's tongue is easily 
turned to a new language and the ear understands readily a new kind 
of speech, so the comprehension of the child of these typical facts in 
nature makes him the best of elementary sculptors. 

As to the use of clay, there is something curious in the way little 
children take hold of this clay work. The only fault I have to find with 
kindergartners is that they so universally report the clay as being the 
most fascinating exercise; for I think that in the true kindergarten there 
should not be any exercise that overrides another in importance. Froe- 
ble, in choosing clay as an exercise, was wise enough to see that there 
were others that would educate in other ways. The important thing is 
to bring out the whole being, and this clay work is an important means 
of bringing out certain facts. Now you see that I have used there the 
clay that I had for the brain of the animal to make the face of the man. 
I take it again, and you see that there is the face and there is the brain. 
I return it again. I will make a still more elongated face of an animal. 
This is the expression of the horse's head ; all I have to do is to add 

283 



46 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

the ears in order to say that it is a Jborse's head, the " horse" that draws 
the horse-car in New Orleans. 

These are simply rough illustrations, of course. Does this suggest 
any question to you? 

Upon being asked why clay particularly should be used, Mr. Spring 
said: 

I do not know that it is necessary to use clay. I could make a horse's 
head so that its proportion and expression would be shown by the use 
of paper. There was a professor at the medical college in Geneva who 
used to show almost all the portions of the human anatomy with paper 
and a sponge. He would twist and turn the sponge, and make it ex- 
press almost anything in his hands. 

Mr. Warren Easton : Is that natural clay or composition ? 

Mr. Spring- : This is natural clay. It comes from l^ew Jersey, and 
there are perhaps no other beds like it to be found ; but for school mod- 
eling any clay may be used, and by sending the children off in the coun- 
try to look for clay, you will have several kinds, generally, to choose 
from. 

Mr. Easton : Is blue clay good ? 

Mr. Spring : Almost any clay is suitable, after washing. Stir it up 
and then let the cla,y water settle and run off". 

Eev. A. D. Mayo : Is there any treatise which gives directions for 
working this sort of clay ? 

Mr. Spring: 'No; I am sorry to say that it is not written yet. The 
difficulty of teaching anything of manual work is so great, the absurd- 
ity of the first attempt is so prominent, the failures so formidable, that 
I have been deterred until I could find a satisfactory opportunity. It is 
difficult to write anything which will tell people how to do practical 
work with their hands. 

Dr. Mayo : Would you advise teachers who have had instruction to 
teach it? 

Mr. Spring: Yes; I would send out and get some clay and give the 
children instruction; or you might use wet paper. I do not advise 
taking pains to get the best clay. 

Dr. Mayo : Would you allow the children to make anything indis- 
criminately, or would you have them adopt some system about it? 

Mr. Spring : There is the difficulty. I like system and order much, 
but there is a general tendency among people interested in the idea to 
find out what the child can do. 

Mr, Warren Easton: What would be the range of designs you 
would encourage teachers and children to attempt? 

Mr. Spring : That is a good question. A while ago I was at a meet- 
ing of teachers in New York. I talked a little about the importance 
of using natural forms instead of copying manufactured designs. As 
I stand here holding the corner of this chair, I can feel that it is a good 
design. I take hold of the chair, and when I feel it the impression is 

284 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATORS — ^PROCEEDINGS. 47 

on my mind. These impressions are very subtle. In modeling in a 
lecture on the growth of age, I began with a young baby head and 
then went up to an old man's head. 

Dr. Mayo : Where would you have modeling begin in our schools — in 
what grade ? 

Mr. Spring: It is more easily taught among young children, in my 
opinion, if they have had no preliminary training. 

Dr. Mitchell : Have you not in Chautauqua some system by which 
teachers desiring to inform themselves could be helped ? 

Mr. Spring : Yes, but this is a thing which requires practice rather 
than talk, and practice in three lessons, I find, is enough to start teachers 
in introducing clay into their schools. I open my memorandum book 
to a list given' to a kindergarten when I urged them to take natural 
forms. They said, " We have no models; it is so hdrd to get proper 
things to work from ; we are unprovided, we are poor, and we cannot 
afford to buy them." It did seem rather hard. On my way home I 
stopped before the nearest grocery store, and I noticed a good collection 
of green things. I saw Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, beans, peas, 
beets, squashes, cabbages, celery, &c. ; there were eighteen kinds of 
vegetables and many kinds of fruit — apples, raisins, lemons, pears, cit- 
ron, &c., making a list of forty or fifty different forms, any one of which 
could be taken for three or four lessons, and all would have occupied 
a year of work and careful study. One of my pupils spent several 
hours in copying a potato, and people mistook it for a real potato. It 
was a conscientious work of several hours, and she said, " I did not 
know there was so much to learn about a potato." She found that the 
eyes had a certain order, and her work on that potato consisted in 
studying a single thing, until it was more or less exhausted. 

Dr. Mayo : May I ask if you advise any apparatus for use in the 
school- room? 

Mr. Spring : One of the best things is a school slate, and the next 
best thing is a small piece of pine board. If I should put this clay on 
this polished marble, it would stick. On the board I can work it into 
any shape or design. The clay can be kept in an earthen jar, which is 
better than a wooden vessel to keep it in. The clay can be kept for 
many years, and the addition of a little water is all that is necessary 
to enable it to be worked. 

Mr. Easton: While using animal and vegetable objects, is there any 
objection to the geometrical solids ? 

Mr. Spring : That is a large part of the instruction. By a wire or 
knife I can cut this x^iece of clay in any way. It does not make any 
difference whether a knife or wire is used 5 in certain forms you can do 
a great deal' with a good, fine wire. I put a piece of clay in the shape 
of a cube on this board. It does not stick. If I want to cut it I can 
use the diagonal of the cube ; I cut it by a wire and get a perfectly even 
cut. I can make all kinds of geometrical figures in this way. Ladies 

285 



48 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

and gentlemen, I thank you for the kind attention which you have 
given me. , 

At the conclusion of Mr. Spring's remarks, it then being 4.20 p.m., 
the Congress adjourned. 

FIFTH SESSIOK 

The Fifth Session of the Congress was held in Tnlane Hall, Thursday, 
February 26th, at 7.30 p.m., Hon. Asbury Coward, of South Carolina, 
in the chair. 

The first paper, by Brother Azarias, of Rock Hill College, Ellicott 
City, Md., was entitled "Literary and Scientific Habits of Thought." 
(See p. 456.) 

Dr. M. A. Newell, in announcing the programme for the eneuing 
day, said : 

There are a number of papers still to be read. I think the President 
agrees with me that in the long years of attendance upon such meetings 
as these we have never heard papers which, for variety, for clearness 
and profundity, have been superior to those presented here. I believe 
the papers to be presented to-morrow will be quite equal to those of the 
preceding days of the meeting. We propose to have, as usual, three 
sessions ; in the morning at half-past nine, in the afternoon at two, and 
in the evening at half past seven. To-morrow we shall have papers by 
Professor Hogg of Texas on "The Eailroad in Education," Mons. B. 
Buisson, the French representative, on "Eecent Reforms in Education 
in France," Miss Alice C. Fletcher upon the "Education and Civiliza- 
tion of the Indians," Dr. Bicknell on the "History of Educational Jour- 
nalism," Dr. Barbour on "Competitive Studies and Resultant Prizes," 
Prof. L. W. Mason on "Music in Schools," Prof. W. T. Thorn of Vir- 
ginia on "Race in Education," R. C. Burleson on "Character Building," 
and perhaps Professor Bartholomew and Prof. F. L. Soldau of St. Louis. 

The Chairman: The next subject is a paper by Dr. W. T. Harris, on 
" The Modern Growth of Cities and the Education Demanded by It." 

Here ensued the reading of Dr. Harris's paper. (See p. 474.) 

The Chairman: The next thing on the programme as announced is a 
paper by Dr. T. W. Bicknell of Boston, entitled " Some Practical Sug- 
gestions Relating to .National Aid to Education." (See p. 482.) 

After the reading of Dr. Bicknell's paper, it then being 9.45 p.m., the 
meeting adjourned. 

SIXTH SESSION. 

The Sixth Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Friday, 
February 27th, at 9.30 a.m., Hon. G. J. Orr, State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction of Georgia, in the chair. 

The first i)roceeding in order was the reading of a paper entitled 
"The Railroad as an Element in Education," by Prof. Alexander 
Hogg, of Texas. (See p. 493.) 
286 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 49 

Professor Hogg was followed by Mons. B. Buisson, Eepresentative of 
the French Ministry of Education at the Exposition, who presented a 
paper on " The Eecent Eeforms in Public Instruction, and especially in 
Primary Instruction, in France." (See p. 111.) 

Before entering on the subject of his paper, M. Buisson, as delegate 
of the French Government and representative of several public and 
private educational institutions which took part in the Exposition, as- 
sured the members of the International Congress that he was the 
bearer of a warm and hearty message of sympathy to them, and was 
commissioned to salute in a spirit of true brotherhood the teachers of 
America in the name of the teachers of France. 

After the reading of M. Buisson's paper the session adjourned. 

SEVENTH SESSION. 

• The Seventh Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Friday, 
February. 27th, at 2 p.m., Dr. M. A. Newell in the chair. 

The first thing in order on the programme was the presentation of a 
paper by Miss Alice C. Fletcher, entitled " An Historical Sketch of 
Indian Civilization and Education." (See p. 508.) 

The Chairman announced as next in order on the programme a paper 
by Dr. T. W. Bicknell, entitled "History of Educational Journalism 
in New England." (See p. 517.) 

Upon the completion of the reading of Dr. Bicknell's paper, it then 
being 4.15 p.m., the session adjourned. 

EIGHTH SESSION. 

The Eighth Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Friday, 
February 27th, at 8.30 p.m.. Dr. M. A. Newell in the chair. 

The first paper announced was read by Dr. L. G. Barbour of Vir- 
ginia, on " Competitive Studies and Eesultant Prizes." (See p. 532.) 

After the reading of Dr. Barbour's paper, the Chairman announced a 
paper on *' Eace in Education," by Prof. W. T. Thom of Virginia. (See 
p. 537.) 

Dr. E. E. White said at the conclusion of Professor Thorn's paper : 

I have been deeply interested in the paper just presented, and I rise 
to say that I do not feel entirely competent to speak on this great prob- 
lem. The more I understand it, the more deeply I am impressed with 
that feeling. It is a problem requiring great wisdom, but there is one 
assertion in that paper which I think is an inadvertence, yet I have 
heard it once or twice, and that assertion is that moral education has 
no place in the public school. The paper assumed that position — that 
the moral education of the negro was to be treated as impossible under 
our American system of free schools. 

As many of you know, for a good many years I have been quite 
familiar with American educational ideas and features. One of the 

287 



50 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION, 

questions on which American teachers as a body are agreed, is that tibe 
vital moral training of the pupils of the public schools is its highest 
commission and its supremest duty, and we never concede that the work 
of the public schools is not open to this class of education, and it is 
vastly better that this generation of scholars shall go out alive to truth 
and virtue and honor and God, than that they should go out trained in 
the best methods in the scholastic phase of education. I go further. 
We never concede the point that virtue bas no place in education. It 
is true that there have been some appearances which would indicate 
that religious influences would disappear, but that is exceptional. So 
far as my experience goes, the education of the schools is Christian. 
The great body of American educators bring to-day the influence of 
religion into the school. It may be that religion is not taught directly 
in the school, but everywhere, with few exceptions, there is the recog- 
nition of God as the supreme authority. There is the recognition of 
man's duty toward God everywhere, in the school. The conscience of 
our youth is fortified with religious influences. We do not teach de- 
nominational theology, but the recognition of God and the influence of 
religion must be in every school if you are going to have any vital moral 
training. Our whole system of moral training must be vitalized by 
religious influences breathed by the teacher from his life and spirit into 
it. .1 repeat that I think that statement of the paper was an inadvert- 
ence. The American school does not ignore the importance of vital 
moral training. 

Hon. G. J. Our : I feel a little as though I should like to trespass on 
the regular order. I feel so deeply upon this question that I rise to say 
a few words. There never has been a people put in the position of the 
people of the South, We feel this question»much more deeply than our 
brothers coming from the other quarters of the nation can feel it. The 
question of what shall be done with the negro is the greatest question 
among us. The negroes are in our houses, they mingle with our chil- 
dren, they are of us, and this is our problem. It is the greatest ques- 
tion that has ever been considered in this country, or perhaps in any 
other. I agree with Dr. White. If you teach these people simply in- 
tellectual training, and the moral training is neglected, no one can tell 
the result. One great help to training that race is wanting. They 
know nothing of the family and its influences. The Bible teaches me 
that the family is at the foundation of the Christian Church. You can- 
not build up a church and make it such a church as it ought to be until 
all the obligations growing out of it are observed at home by the head 
of the family. The family rests at the bottom of everything in the 
Church, and at the foundation of everything vahiable in the State. 
This feature has been entirely wanting. The moral training given in 
the homes of the American people has been what has saved this country 
in the past. These people have been without it, and we know the result. 
We know the morals of that people, I have not heard a paper during 

288 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 5l 

the sittings of this body that was so very valuable, so full of sugges- 
tions, that discussed this greatest question of all questions with so 
much teraperateness and in such a philosophical way. While saying 
this, I must also say that it was wanting, I think, just at the point Dr, 
White mentions. My notion of the treatment of that people is that the 
Christian Churches, all of them, must come in and labor with them, in 
order to form a proper sentiment among them and give them a religious 
training. Let us give them an intellectual training, and let every 
church come in and labor in their moral training. This is the missionary 
field of the churches. I have felt that myself in relation to this people. 
They have no truer friend upon this great continent than myself. Their 
presence among us incites this matter of national aid. But for their 
presence we would not ask any help, we would be able to manage that 
question ourselves. In my own State 1 believe we have 128,000 whites 
over ten years of age who are unable to write, and 392,000 colored, mak- 
ing a grand total of 520,000 out of a population of one and a half million. 
They call Georgia the Empire State of the South. She is a State great 
in resources, great in achievements, great in many directions, and, as 
the census shows, great in illiteracy. The Southern States, as I have 
said, are the States that are affected immediately by the presence of 
this population among them. I have been studying this question for 
years past; for seven long years I have been laboring in the cause of 
national aid to education; I have gone to every assembly of citizens 
where it was discussed ; I have used all the influence I could in its favor. 
It is because I feel that we have a problem with which we are unable 
ourselves to deal. It is beyond our power to grapple with it, and a wise 
man hath said, " Hope deferred maketh the heart sick." I did hope 
that the present Congress would help us by the passage of the Blair 
Bill, but information comes to us from the Capitol that we are not to 
have it. Will you agree with me here to begin anew in that direction? 
Will you promise to take hold and labor with us ? 

I ask you as brethren to give us help. I feel that I can say that there 
is no longer a North and a South, no longer two sections. We are one 
people. While I say that, let me say a few words more in the same con- 
nection. I wish to make an appeal to you tonight that you take the 
same ground upon this question, which we feel to be essential. I said 
a while ago that this was our question. True, Massachusetts and Min- 
nesota and all the States are interested, and if we go down we drag 
them down ; we either sink or swim together ; but while this is true, we 
are more immediately affected, and we will go down first. What I wish 
to say is this*: — Numbers of us are studying the question. We are do- 
ing all that can be done, and we ask you simply for help. We feel 
that whatever is done must be put in the hands of some one. Now 
I do not object to discussion by my brethren from the North. They 
can give us valuable suggestions. But let me say to-night that it is im- 

289 



52 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

possible for you to understand this question as those of us wbo are 
connected with it understand it. 

I should not feel that I was fully qualified to deal with the question 
of how the city of Boston should be managed in her school interest. I 
should feel that my friend Dr. Bicknell and others understood that 
question better than I did. But reared on Southern soil, and having 
mingled with the population from my earliest infancy to this hour, I 
think I know them. There are certain things connected with the ques- 
tion that no man can know who has not been a long resident among 
them. The Southern States are the States to work out this great ques- 
tion. We welcome aid from abroad, we feel that you are acting mag- 
nanimously when you rise up and help us. I think I understand the 
temper of the people of my own State, and I feel just as well assured as 
I can be of anything that is not an actual occurrence, that they would 
not accept outside help unless they are left to work it out themselves. 

He who assumes to put conditions upon us will injure the people 
whom he seeks to benefit. I feel that we ought to be trusted. Let me 
say what I said to Senator Blair. I found him with a bill creating a com- 
mission, and I said this to him in reply to a conversation : ^'I am known 
all over the South as an advocate of universal education. I have labored 
in that field for thirteen years, but if you pass such a measure as that 
I tell you the people would not accept the tendered aid ; it would be re 
jected." Twelve months ago, as a member of. the sub-Committee of Edu- 
cation and Labor that traveled over this Southern country, he tele- 
graphed me to come to the Parker House in Atlanta, as they wished to 
examine me. I went and was examined for an hour and a half. When 
I finished giving that testimony he said : " When 1 was here a few years 
ago I felt that we could not trust the South. I have been traveling 
over your Southern country. I have had men before me representing 
all conditions of society, and I feel thoroughly convinced that I was 
wrong in my estimate." He went back to Washington and framed a 
bill which the great majority of people in my State will accept gladly. 

Professor Thom: I desire to correct a misapprehension. As far as I 
gathered from the remarks of the gentleman who followed me, it seems 
to have been understood that I was not in sympathy with the work 
done by the several denominations in the South. It is exactly this 
which I do appreciate. If I may be allowed to say so, I think they 
have wisely pursued the right course, and I am heartily in sympathy 
with them. 

Professor Bartholomew next delivered an address, in which he 
made some remarks on educational progress in Kentuck:f ; he said : 

The work in Kentucky is to be judged by its results; and when you 
come to our State and see the results produced, that is sufficient to de- 
termine the character of the work. There is no man in this country to- 
day who stands higher morally than does Albert S. Willis, of Kentucky, 
and he is a graduate of the public schools of Louisville. We met with 
290 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES — PEOCEEDINGS. 53 

opposition, but education was the victor; and when the Superintendent 
of Public Instruction made his report, after an earnest contest of nearly 
eighteen years, then it was that the existence of great illiteracy was 
demonstrated; then it was that the people appointed a. convention to 
meet at Frankfort, out of which grew the inter-State convention of Louis- 
ville, and the State of Kentucky called to its aid in the solution of this 
problem gentlemen who are here to-night, the Chairman, Professor 
White, Mr. Hancock, Mr. Harris, and gentlemen from the South. 

A committee was appointed to memorialize Congress in reference to 
Federal aid to assist us to bring our people up to the proper standard, 
and Kentucky to-night extends to you her profoundest gratitude for the 
work which you have done in influencing the State Legislature, which 
gave to the State a new law which has incorporated all good features, 
which has established systems of instruction, and which takes an in- 
terest in favor of popular education. If you will pardon me, I want to 
say something in regard to my native State, and I want to mention otie 
point here which seems to me works in beautifully in reference to the 
discussion just had. If you are agreed that popular education is nec- 
essary for the white man in order that he may properly be prepared to 
exercise citizenship, how does it come to pass that the white man should 
have it and not the negro ? If it is necessary in one case, it is necessary 
in the other. In Kentucky a colored man stands upon the same level 
as a white man. 

I desire to say that we are proud of our system of public instruction. 
The city of Louisville has its primary schools, its intermediate schools, 
and its high schools, extending to the same level for each race, except 
that the negro is in a separate school. The same qualifications for 
teachers are required, the same rules are in force, the same course of 
study is pursued, and the same salary is paid; and I believe that the 
public school system of the city of Louisville to-day is built upon a foun- 
dation which will reflect honor and credit upon itself and upon the State. 

It is not necessary for me to enlarge further in reference to the pro- 
visions which have grown out of the last convention held at Louisville. 
Nearly everything recommended by that convention was incorporated 
in the new school law. It only remains for me, in the spirit of our great 
son, Henry Clay, to place the hand of the northern brother in the hand 
of the southern brother, and say that the teachers of this country are the 
saviors of this country, and that in the work of removing illiteracy and 
elevating the intellectual and moral standards you must adopt the motto 
of my State, " United we stand, divided we fall." 

Dr. Hancock:, from the Committee on Eesolutions, reported the fol- 
lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : 

To the International Congress of Educators : 

The undersigned committee, appointed to draw up suitable resolutions to express 
the pleasure and interest which the members of this body have derived from their in- 
spection of the extent and perfection of this, the largest of world expositions ever 

291 



54 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

held, and to set forth in fitting terms their gratification at the friendly zeal and as- 
sistance manifested by its managers in the cause of education, which has thus been 
enabled to offer for study so complete a display of educational work and appliances^ 
hereby offer the following resolutions : 

Resolved, That this Congress bears its testimony to the fact that the World's Indus- 
trial and Cotton Centennial Exposition is not only more extensive in its buildings and 
space occupied, but may claim precedence on the far more just grounds that it has ap- 
plied the skill gained by former experience in similar expositions in such a way as to 
bring together all the valuable devices heretofore discovered for showing to the eye 
at a glance the resources of a country, the quality and peculiarities of mechanical 
construction, and usefulness of goods and machinery, offering in this respect an exhi- 
bition of new phases and aspects of national wealth not before thought possible to 
make objects of display. 

Resolved, That this Congress expresses its feelings of grateful acknowledgment to 
the managers of this Exposition for the recognition they have extended to education 
as one of the important elements of national strength and development, especially as 
related to industry and the production of wealth. 

Resolved, That this Congress hereby returns its sincere thanks to the citizens of New 
Orleans, to the members of the Louisiana Educational Society, the New Orleans Teach- 
ers' Association, and especially to the President, trustees and officers of the Tulane 
University, for the warm hospitality and obliging attention with which they have wel- 
comed it to their city and provided it with all the facilities for holding its sessions. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 
WM. T. HAERIS. 
J. W. DICKINSON. 

Dr. M. A. Newell then read a list of papers which were received by 
the Congress, but which were not read. 

Dr. M. A. Newell then said : 

Before we adjourn I wish to express my personal thanks to the mem- 
bers of the Congress for the great kindness they have shown me in the 
arduous task I had in making the necessary arrangements, and also my 
gratitude to the citizens of New Orleans for the attention which I have 
received from them. 

At the conclusion of these remarks, at 10 p. m., the Congress adjourned 
sins die. 
292 




293 



SECTION A— ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 



HONOKAllY CHAIRMAN. 

F. BUISSON, Inspector- General of Elementary Instruction, Paris^ 
France. 

HONORARY SECRETARY. 

J. G. FITCH, S. M. Senior Inspector of /Schools, London, England. 

CHAIRMAN. 

Hon. JOHN HAl^COCK, late Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio. 

VICE-CHAIRMAN. 

Brother NOAH, of the Christian Brothers. 

SECRETARY. 

Hon. W. O. EOOERS, JSTew Orleans. 

ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 

Hon. a. p. MARBLE, Ph. D., Worcester, Mass. 

295 



EDUCATIONAL PEOGEBSS IN JAMAICA. 
By Col. George Hicks, 

Assistant Inspector of Schools of Jamaica. 



When the Island of Jamaica shall become more fully known it will 
be noted for its wondrous beauty, its delightful and health-restoring 
climate, its fruitful soil, and the variety of its fruits and other produc- 
tions. At present it is chiefly noted as that one of the West India 
Islands which was the main battle-ground for fighting out, from time 
to time, all the great questions which arose respecting slavery in the 
English colonies, and also as the Island where, more than in any other, 
the results of emancipating the black man from the bondage of the 
white man have been investigated, analyzed, and discussed from diverse 
points of view and for the purpose of establishing diverse conclusions. 

My theme is " Educational Progress in Jamaica," and the great event 
of emancipation gives me my starting point. Speaking generally, the 
educational progress of the people of Jamaica dates from that epoch ; 
for " the abolition of slavery rendered it possible to offer education to 
the children." 

The Church of England, at that time established by law in Jamaica, 
had had its churches and ministers in the island for many years. The 
Moravians had been patiently doing what was permitted to them for 
eighty-four years, and the Wesleyans and Baptists had also planted 
their churches ; but until emancipation elementary education was un- 
der ban. When the restrictions were removed, all these churches en- 
tered upon educational work, — some of them with very great zeal. 
Other organizations also entered the newly-opened field. The London 
Missionary Society, the Presbyterians of Scotland, and the American 
Missionary Society sent their missionaries and schoolmasters to take 
part in supplying the religious and educational needs of the enfran- 
chised people. 

It yet remains for some one to write the first chapter in the history of 
educational progress in Jamaica with an adequate appreciation of the 
educational laborers. Briefly, this can be said : A number of educated 
men and women, taking with them the habits, tastes, and character of 
civilized and Christian descent and training, went to Jamaica upon the 
great event of emancipation, eager to impart that which the people, just 
treed from bondage, seemed eager to receive. The number of such men 
and women was few compared with the great need, but so far as their 
work extended it was very valuable. What they were doubtless pro- 
duced results of no less worth than what they did. With their civil- 
ized habits and Christian character, the indirect influence for good of 
their daily life among the people cannot be reckoned of less value than 
what was accomplished by direct instruction in school and elsewhere. 
But the demands of the churches upon their ministers increased, and, 
as speedily as possible, the missionaries who had engaged in school 

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60 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

work gave it over into other hands, and those who had been sent out as 
school-masters entered upon ministerial work ; and even the ablest and 
best educated of the native school -masters were very soon transferred 
from desk to pulpit. The schools suffered, while the churches gained ^ 
for very many able ministers now in the island were, at one time, school- 
masters. 

The second chapter in the history of educational progress in Jamaica 
would show some increase in the number of schools, corresponding to 
the increase of the churches, but a less number of thoroughly capable 
teachers, and less zeal for education on the part of the people. 

At first the expense of establishing and maintaining elementary- 
schools in the Island was defrayed by the contributions of missionary 
societies and philanthropists (especially English Quakers), by the in- 
come from some bequests, by a small amount of fees paid by parents, 
and by a very small government grant. This government grant seemed 
at first to be distributed upon no definite system ; but afterwards an in- 
spector, Mr. John Savage, was appointed, and the small sum granted 
by Government was awarded according to his report of merit. 

Then came the outbreak of 1865 in one of the parishes, formidable not 
in itself, but in the fear of a general insurrection ; and consequent upon 
this the Island legislature yielded up the reins of government into the 
hands of England. With the establishment of Crown government the 
third chapter in the history of educational progress in Jamaica begins. 

As one means of bringing the Island into a better state, so that such 
an outbreak would not again occur, the Government recognized the fact 
that a more systematic effort must be made to promote education among 
the people, and it instituted a system of government grants, upon a 
plan devised by Mr. Savage, to aid established schools and to encourage 
the opening of new schools. The scheme provides for organizing each 
school so that, as far as possible, the pupils will be placed in six dis- 
tinct classes; it defines the attainments expected of each class, and it 
makes provision for an annual inspection and examination. The amount 
of grant to each school is determined annually, and depends partly 
upon the number of pupils in average attendance, and partly upon the 
quality of the work as tested at the examination and reported by the 
inspector. The essential features of the scheme adopted were those of 
the English system. Instead, however, of providing for individual ex- 
amination and a payment according to individual passes, which are 
features of the English system, the scheme made the grant dependent 
upon the general state of the school. The English system has been 
somewhat modified, having been found too rigid and exact, while the 
administration of the Jamaica system is undergoing some modification, 
it having erred too much in the opposite direction. 

Since the inauguration of the system the schools have largely in- 
creased in number, and, under the influence of the annual testing by 
the inspector, the work in the schools has generally improved in 
quality. The scheme was adopted in 1868. As the system of inspection 
and the standards of attainments were new, a number of elementary 
schools in the Island did not apply for inspection. Of the 286 schools, 
which were inspected in 1868, only 96 passed, and the grant given was 
small — some £3,000. This sum increased year hj year with the increase 
in the number of schools, until in 1872 the grant amounted to £10,000. 
In another 10 years the grant reached the sum of £17,000. 

Jamaica has a population of 600,000. The whites number 14,500; 
the blacks, 450,000; and those of mixed blood (denominated in the 
census as " colored"), 110,000; and besides these there are a number of 
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INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 61 

coolies and a few Chinese. The whites, as a rule, and some of the col- 
ored, send their children to schools not aided by Government. The 
poorer whites, together with the rest — some 560,000 — send their children 
to government-aided schools, if to any. These schools now number 703, 
and have an enrollment of 57,289 children, with an average attendance 
of 33,215. The 96 schools which passed in 1868 included 1 in the first 
class, 6 in the second class, and 89 in the third class ; now there are 60 
first class, 215 second class, and 384 third class.^ 

PROGRESS Oi" THE PEOPLE. 

Before referring to several important steps taken recently to insure 
further and more extensive educational x>i'Ogress, it may be well to in- 
quire here what is the condition of Jamaica after these years of educa- 
tional effort. What that condition is generally supposed to be, I am 
well aware. Those of you who have read certain London newspapers 
and English magazines have met with frequent allusions to Jamaica 
as lyinj? in a state of ruin. This alleged state of ruin is sometimes set 
forth with much detail, but more frequently it is simply alluded to as 
a.n accepted, undisputed fact. 

In my study of the history of this English colony I find that it has 
suffered "ruin" several times. At one period Port Royal, now a naval 
station at the entrance to Kingston Harbor, was the richest spot of its 
size in the known world. It was made rich by piracy. The pirates, 
pillaging Spanish galleons and towns on the Spanish Main, brought 
their booty to Jamaica, and riches abounded ; and when the Govern- 
ment interfered, abolishing piracy and drying up this source of wealth, 
there was grievous lamentation in the Island that Jamaica was ruined. 
When the African slave trade was abolished, the houses of Parliament 
resounded with the cry that the brightest island gem in the British 
Crown was ruined. And when finally it was proposed to abolish slavery 
in the British possessions, there arose a loud wail from Jamaica that its 
ruin would be utter and complete. 

Is Jamaica, with all the effort and expenditure for its advancement, 
indeed in a state of ruin ? Were you to travel through Jamaica you 
would observe many sugar plantations, in a high state of cultivation, 
yielding in ordinary years, a good revenue to their owners; you would 
notice many coffee and pimento properties, held by their proprietors at a 
high valuation ; and you would see many and extensive stock pens, with 
large inclosures of rich pasture land. With all this, it is certainly true, 
Mr. Chairman, that you would behold on the plains and in the valleys 
many abandoned sugar estates, some " thrown up " soon after the abo- 
lition of the slave trade, and more since the abolition of slavery. And 
it is possible you might meet with some planter of the old school, who 
has not outgrown the traditions of the past (we still have some such in 
Jamaica), and who would not unwillingly embrace another opportunity 
to dilate upon the " ruin" of the Island. He would point out to you the 
ruined walls of some large mansion, the former " great house," where at 
one timeaplanterhadlived in affluence and dispensed a lavish hospitality 
to tourists. He would show you the broken-down walls of the sugar- 
works, overgrown with the cactus and the wild fig, while lying about 
in the weeds would be seen rusted iron wheels and cylinders, and, all 
around, you would notice hundreds of acres in a wild state of ruin. 

" Here," the despairing planter would say, " was once the busy scene 
of industry and prosperity, where all is now desolation and ruin. This 

^ See Appendix A. 

299 



62 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

is what Jamaica has come to ! This was once a great estate. It had a 
thousand slaves, and made a thousand hogsheads of sugar every yearf 
and now all is ruin." 

And you might reply, and the conversation be continued, somewhat 
as follows : 

" Certainly, this seems the reverse of a progressive and prosperous 
state of things. Yonder walls would indicate that the planter had a 
very fine mansion." 

'" Sir, it was palatial." 

"And those ruins are all that remains of the planter's palace ! A 
thousand people, you say, lived on the estate ? I should like to see the 
ruins of their homes." 

" Oh, they lived in huts ; mere thatched and wattled affairs that could 
be put together in a day or two, and would soon crumble away." 

"A thousand people! There must have been many children. I 
should like to see the ruins of their school -house." 

" There were no school-houses in those days, sir. And in my opinion 
it would be better if we had not so many now. They are simply spoil- 
ing the people." 

"A thousand people — quite a village. Will you be good enough to 
show me the ruins of their church 1 " 

" Well, sir, the fact is they had no church. Sunday was their day 
for working in provision grounds and for going to market. Almost 
everywhere Sunday was the market day ; and what better are they now 
with their churches *? " 

Gazing upon the ruined walls and thinking of the thousand people, 
yon might recall the words of Eassela^, Prince of Abyssinia, in Dr. 
Johnson's tale. Standing in the midst of Egyptian ruins, Easselas said : 
"My curiosity does not very strongly lead me to survey piles of stone 
or mounds of earth ; my business is with manP And you might say 
further : 

" I am thinking of the thousand people all gone from this abandoned 
estate. Did they starve to death 1 or leave the country % or what be- 
came of them I " . 

The planter would tell you that they had scattered among the hills^ 
and he would probably give you a description of the people very much 
like that of a correspondent' of the London Times, who not Ibng ago- 
wrote thus of the negro peasant of Jamaica: "Nature and circumstances 
in Jamaica have combined to give liis indolent propensities a terrible 
impulse down hill. He squats where he pleases, scrapes the soil, throws 
down a handful of seed, composes himself to sleep, and awakes to find 
his daily bread growing within reach of his arm. If he wants a few 
yards of cotton or of osnaburg he may sacrifice a day in the week in the 
interests of decency, and seek the labor that is always going a begging. 
In Jamaica the black * * * has dwindled in numbers, deteriorated 
in morals, and compromised with every feeling of decency or desire for 
comfort." 

With curiosity excited to test the accuracy of this picture, you would 
go among the people up in the hills (Jamaica is nearly all hills), and 
you would observe some things having the appearance of signs of a 
certain degree of industry and progress in civilization. You would notice 
the "jjrovision grounds," each an acre or two in extent, bearing yamSy 
potatoes, cassava, corn, beans, bananas, plantains, etc., and mango, 
breadfruit, orange, cocoanut, and other fruit trees; patches or small 
fields of coffee and sugar-cane, and now and then a small sugar mill or 
coffee barbecue. You would notice that the people, the former labor- 

300 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 63 

ers upon the estates and their descendants, were living in homes none 
worse than in former times and some much better, and in some neigh- 
borhoods the majority of homes vastly better. You would not go far in 
any direction without finding a school-house with scores of children un- 
der instruction by a native teacher, nor very far without finding a 
church where the people are accustomed to assemble for religious wor- 
ship every Sunday, neatly clad in tweed and muslin, and not a few rid- 
ing to church on horseback. Seeing these things you might feel inclined 
to inquire more fully into the condition of the people of Jamaica, to as- 
certain what is the extent of the " ruin " which it is so often asserted has 
come upon Jamaica since the time when educational advantages have 
been brought within reach of the people, and they have been free to 
make use of them. Upon inquiry you would find these facts : 

1. Population. — The 335,000 of black and colored inhabitants in 
1834, the date of emancipation (311,000 slaves and 24,000 free), have 
not "dwindled away." The cholera came and decimated them; still the 
335,000 have increased to over 560,000.^ 

2. Physical Condition. — (a) JDicellings. — A considerable number of 
people live in much better houses than in former times. In many neigh- 
borhoods the peasants, as a rule, have each a spot of land, and have 
built neat and comfortable cottages, immensely superior to the huts 
they used to live in. Inside, their houses are much better furnished than 
formerly, while the outside surroundings are of a more civilized char- 
acter. The cottages of our peasantry in such neighborhoods would 
compare most favorably with the dwellings of the major part of the 
peasantry of Ireland and Scotland. In 1871 there were 512,801 mud 
cabins in Ireland, and of these 155,675 had but one room each, but con- 
tained 227,379 families. In Scotland, in 1861, out of a total of 666,786 
dwellings, more than one-third (226,723) had but one room, and more 
than another third (246,601) had but two rooms. It must be borne in 
mind that in these cases the cooking of food, washing of clothes, etc., 
was done within the one room, or the two rooms, while in Jamaica the 
cooking, washing, etc., is never performed within the dwelling, the 
kitchen or cooking shed being always separate. A few years ago I had 
occasion to make inquiries respecting improvement in the people's cot- 
tages, and from a number of sources in various parts of the Island I 
received>*reports showing a considerable degree of improvement in the 
dwellings. This improvement, which continues from year to year, is 
not caused by any felt physical want, and is not made to meet physical 
necessities, but is due to a more civilized taste, a higher regard for re- 
fined home comforts, and a better appreciation of the moral influence of 
the dwelling. The six benefit building societies which have been estab- 
lished in Jamaica within the past few years, and which continue in vig- 
orous operation, have been helijful to some of the peasantry, who have, 
by their aid, built cottages of an expensive style. ^ 

(&) Dress. — The people generally throughout the Island are wearing- 
better clothes than heretofore. They spend more money upon dress for 
themselves, and they send their children to school better clad. The cheap 
osnaburg suit of former times would now, in most places in Jamaica, be 
quite a rarity in a Sunday congregation. With the increased expend- 
iture for dress there has been a very notable improvement in taste. The 
loud, glaring colors, inharmoniously blended, at one time characteristic 
of the dress of the women, have largely given place to what is more re- 
fined and pleasing to the cultivated eye. 

1 See Appendix B. 2 ggg Appendix C. 

301 



€4 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

(c) Food. — As a rule, the food of the people is more varied and costs 
more than formerly. Their meat does not now consist so exclusively of 
" salt fish" (cod) and herring. A dealer in cattle in a certain neighbor- 
hood, who used to slaughter one ox every fortnight and found difficulty 
in disposing of the flesh, now slaughters two every week, and the peo- 
ple buy the meat readily. This instance of an increased consumption 
of beef by the people is typical of many neighborhoods in the Island. 

3. Intellectual Condition. — The change in the intellectual con- 
dition of the people, as gauged by the establishment of schools and the 
^circulation of books, is very marked. Substantially, the advance is to 
be measured from zero. Since the opening of schools for the people, 
upon the epochal event of emancipation, great and continuous progress 
has been made. There are now more schools, more children in the 
schools, a better and more general supply of school books and school 
appliances, and a larger number of trained and capable native teach- 
ers, than ever before. More books for general reading are bought by 
the people, and they read more papers — not many, comparatively, but 
more than formerly. And a large number of people have the ability to 
read. The census shows that of our 600,000 inhabitants 230,000 can 
read, and of these 115,000 can both read and write. In 1861, 50,726 could 
read and write. 

4. Moral and Eeligious Condition. — A veteran Moravian mis- 
sionary, giving an account of Jamaica at that period in its history when, 
if we are to believe those who insist that Jamaica is now in a state of 
ruin, the Island was in an enviable condition, makes the following state- 
ment: " IJp to the year 1800, with the exception of a very few negroes, 
the whole population, white and black, appears to have been sunk in un- 
godliness, having no other god than Mammon and the lusts of the flesh. 
Though there were a few churches they were not often opened, even on 
the Sabbath day, and six or ten persons might perhaps be found in 
them when well attended." An elderly English lady, whose life has 
been spent in Jamaica, informs me that she recollects a state of things 
as to the church in her neighborhood quite similar to what is above de- 
scribed. Before emancipation the number of churches had increased, 
but the great increase has been subsequent to that event. The attend- 
ance upon worship on Sunday is very general throughout the Island. 
The Sunday market has long been discontinued, and is unknown to the 
later generation. Sunday-schools are also generally established in con- 
nection with the churches, and are largely attended. So far as tkere is 
a change in the moral condition of the Island (and the change is not 
inconsiderable) it is a change for the better, both among whites and 
blacks. For some time after emancipation it was a generally under- 
stood fact that the white overseer on a sugar estate might live in con- 
cubinage, but would forfeit his position upon marriage. There were 
not a few neighborhoods where the one married man was the minister. 
The example of the wealthier class had its influence for evil upon the 
laboririg population. A former mayor of Kingston, so highly respected 
that his statue now stands at the entrance to the public park, gave in 
1866 his testimony respecting the people, stating, as one of the causes 
of their immorality, the "bad example set by the better class in an 
open and unblushing manner, unknown in other British colonies." 
Within the last fifteen years there was an important town where the 
judge, the doctor, the customs officers, and all other officials except the 
clergyman, lived in a manner to verify this testimony. In this respect 
matters have changed, and the present state of morality, unsatisfactory 
as it is, is a great improvement upon what it was twenty years ago. 

302 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 65 

5. Public Works and Institutions. — With imjTuovemeuts in other 
things, the public works and institutions have been improved so as to 
contribute more than formerly to the welfare of the people. The means 
of communication — the token and the efficient cause of progress in civ- 
ilization — have been greatly enlarged. There are more roads and bet- 
ter roads; more of the streams are bridged: the railway is greatly ex- 
tended ', tbere is steam communication around the island coast, and an 
increase of steam communication with the outer world; the inland 
telegraph has been established, bringing every part of Jamaica into 
telegraphic connection with the civilized world ; there are many more 
post-offices, and the rates of postage are lower ; many market-houses 
have been built, so that instead of a bare spot of land, open to sun and 
rain, for a market-place, the peo[)le have the use of fine structures which 
now are found in many ])laces in the Island ; the Jiospitals have been 
increased, and medical assistance is much more accessible to the people; 
and several towns are provided with water- works. 

6. Labor. — The people do not labor so much as formerly. Man for 
man, there is less of labor in Jamaica than in the olden time. The la- 
borer does not get out to work by suni'ise and remain at work until sun- 
set for six days in the week, and take the seventh for working in i)ro- 
vision grounds or for going to market. Jamaica, however, retains at 
home far more of the results of laboi', in all that contributes to the well- 
being of the people, than before. Eeleased from compulsory continuous 
toil, the Jamaica laborers find that with one day's work in the week 
they can provide the bare necessities of life — the bread fruit, or yam, 
and fish, and the osnaburg ; but they are not content with bare neces- 
sities. Many of them desire to possess freeholds, good houses, ex- 
pensive furniture, horses, and other stock, and these they procure by 
labor. Yeiff many desire better food, and they get it by labor. All, 
with hardly an exception, must have more costly dress, and they obtain 
it by labor. The contributions from abroad for building churches and 
maintaining religious services have nearly ceased, and now nine-tenths 
of the cost of maintaining the churches and building church edifices is 
defrayed by the people of Jamaica. More ministers of religion are now 
maintained in Jamaica than ever before, and in the jjast few years the 
number of church edifices, with school-houses, parsonages, and teach- 
ers' residences, have been largely increased, the exj)en8e being met, 
mainly, by the labor of the people. The greatly increased exj^enditure 
for the education of their children has been made- possible by labor. 
Besides what they invest in lands and stock and expend for house com- 
forts and schools and churches, they make use of the savings bank, de- 
positing small amounts of money obtained by labor, and the number of 
small depositors is steadily increasing. In the main, the cost of the 
public works — the roads, bridges, railway, telegraph, markets, hospi- 
tals, water- works, &c. — is j^aid, ultimately, by the people by their labor. 
In extending the railway, lately, laborers have been in demand, and 
there has been no lack. In Jamaica, as everywhere, high wages attract 
labor ; and the Panama Canal, bidding for Jamaica laborers, gets them 
by thousands. They leave their homes for a strange land, endure many 
privations, run many risks, toil laboriously, and return (many of them) 
with considerable amounts of money earned and saved. Manifestly, 
the schools have not wholly spoiled the people for labor.^ 

These are facts respecting the condition of the people of Jamaica 
which careful inquiry would bring to your knowledge. When I recall 

1 See Appendix D. 

7*JoO COT,, PT. 3 :5 303 



S6 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEATSTS EXPOSITION. 

these facts, the steady growth of the population, the lessened hours of 
toil, with the vast increase of what toil can procure of the comforts of 
life, and all that ministers to the physical, intellectual, and spiritual wel- 
fare of the people, and, in a word, the great increase in Jamaica in the 
past few years of the elements and the means of civilization, and then 
read the statements of English newspaper correspondents and maga- 
zine essayists that Jamaica lies in a state of ruin, I am both curious 
and impatient to know what they mean by " Jarnaica," and what they 
mean by " ruin." If by "Jamaica" they mean the small class of landed 
proprietors, a large proportion of whom lived in England, spending 
there the fortunes realized from Jamaica sugar and rum,^ and if by 
" ruin" they mean the loss of luxuries dei3eudent upon the receipt by 
this small class of £25 annual profit from every able-bodied laborer in 
the Island, it may lie conceded that to such extent "ruin" has come 
upon Janjaica. But when they tell me that the country is " gone to 
the dogs," I must dispute that. The country has not gone to the dogs. 
In part it has gone, and more and more it is going, to the laborers. 
The day I left Jamaica for New Orleans a government surveyor told 
me that the laboring people now hold, as owners or as tenants, more 
than one-half of the utilized land in the island, and that the major part 
of the work now done by the government surveyors is to divide the 
large properties into small holdings of a few acres each, to be sold to 
the peasantry. The number of property-holders and tax-payers is 
steadily increasing. From 1874 to 1884 the increase of population was 
14 per cent., while the increase in the number of tax-payers for the 
same time was 17 per cent. — 86,655 in 1884, as against 73,924 in 1874. 

And now, perhaps, some one, hoping the best from the educational 
and other efforts made on behalf of the emaiicipated people of Jamaica, 
will say, "The results, then, are satisfactory'?" No, not^ altogether. 
And some one, of opposite prepossessions, hearing this reply, will say, 
" After till, then, the results are disaiipointing?" To those who looked 
for greater results the results actually achieved are, in part, disappoint- 
ing. Some seemed to think that the change from compulsory to volun- 
tary labor would of itself change inherited tastes and tendencies and 
life-long habits and desires; that the privilege to enjoy the highest 
fruits of civilization would create a strong desire for them in natures 
habituated to be quite satisfied with what is lowest. Not a few, know- 
ing that the public school is characteristic of New England, and know- 
ing what New England is, seemed to suppose that if yen planted the 
public school in Jamaica you would produce New England intelligence, 
industry, enterprise, ingenuity, and thrift, while wholly omitting the 
thousand influences preceding the child's entrance into the school of 
New England, accom[)anying him all through his school life, and follow- 
ing him after leaving school, and from first to last molding his charac- 
ter and iuflueneing his destinv immeasurably more than the school it- 
self. 

There is a little feeling of disappointment, also, on the part of some 
who think the most has not been made of the opportunities offered for 
improvement. The fact seems* to be that the laborers of Jamaica have 
suffered both from those who did not, seem to like them and from those 
who sought to benefit them. Much has been writtoi to delineate the 
characteristics of the negro, but the best description Thnve seen is that 

1 As long iigo as 1811 the Jamaica Assembly, in a petition to the Prince Kegent, said : 
"There are hirge districts, whole parishes, whore there is not a single proprietor of 
a sugar estate, resident." 
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INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 67 

by General Saxton, who, iu lieu of filling n\} a sbeet with minute dis- 
tinctions and particulars, as requested, described the negro simply as 
" intensely human." Now Goethe, the German thinker and writer, 
speaking of universal humanity, says: " A great deal may be done by 
severity, more by love, but most by a clear discernment and impartial 
justice, which pays no respect to persons." And Stanley, with sufficient 
experience to t^peak authoritatively, says of tl.-e African : " What is re- 
quired is pure, simple justice between man and man." What is true of. 
humanity, according to Goethe, is true of the negro, according to Stan- 
ley. In many cases, 1 think, planters and missionaries have both erred, 
the one iu not awarding to the Jamaica laborer what was due to him, 
and the other iu not exacting from the Jamaica laborer what was due 
from him. Undue partiality has had its ill-effect, as well as undue 
severity. I think I have observed in some quarters a tendency, when 
dealing with the Jamaica people, toestimate the small asif it were large; 
the crude as if it were perfect ; a partial performance as if it were full 
performance ; an attempt as if it were a thing accomplished ; and to ac- 
cept an easily made excuse and a readily made promise as sufficient sat- 
isfaction for untulfilled engagements. Some of ray friends among the 
ministers of religion in Jamaica confess that their kindness has often 
defeated its own purpose ; that their gifts have not proven to be bene- 
fits, and that, by the ill-judged bestowing of favors, a spirit of depend- 
ence has been fostered where a S])irit of self-reliance should have been 
developed. Doubtless, if some mistakes had not been made, greater re- 
sults than those accomplished might have been achieved. Still (to use 
Daniel Webster's phrase), one "would dispute against the sun," who 
would deny that the change for the better in Jamaica is a very great 
change, and the results achieved for good exceedingly valuable. 

I jecoguize how difficult it is to frame a statement that shall satisfy 
my own mind as being the exact truth in this matter, and how much 
more difficult it must be to communicate the exact ti'uth to another 
mind. 1 may say simply this : Standing here, where the question is to 
be answered whether educational progress in Jamaica has been accom- 
panied by a general progress of the people, I put the emphasis upon all 
that has been achieved by a considerable number of the people, and, in 
some neighborhoods, by the greater number. When I am in Jamaica, 
as occasion offers, T put the emphasis upon what remains to be accom- 
plished to bring up the many to the heights reached by the lesser num- 
ber ; to improve the home life; to elevate the condition of woman ; to 
arouse a deeper interest in the education of children ; to have the homes 
supplied with books and i)apers ; to break the bonds of heathenish 
customs and superstitions, and to create a more general moral public 
sentiment which shall be founded upon the truth that that tree of re- 
ligion that is barren of the fruits which include the moral virtues 
abides under the curse of the Master. 

THE NEW EDUCATIONAL ERA. 

Within the last four or five years Jamaica has entered upo7i a new 
era in her educational progress. There is an advance all along the line. 
We have now the ladder which reaches from the elementary school to 
the English university. During the governorship of Sir Anthony Mus- 
grave, and at his instance^ the Governujent Ibunded a university 
scholarship of the annual value of $1,(100, open to thecomi)etition of all 
Jamaica boys. The Jamaica High School has also been established, iu 
which boys ^ire prepared for the university, and admission to this school 

;50r) 



68 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

isdetermined by competitive examination. Our best elementary schools 
will soon be sending boys to the high school, and they will have their 
chance for the university. 

There is an increase in tlie number of schools for secondary instruc- 
tion, some of which have been established for many years and are of 
high repute. The Cambridge local examination is now extended to 
these schools, and there is no doubt that they will feel a beneficial effect 
irom submitting their pupils to the same tests that are applied to the 
pupils of similar schools in England. Some of the Jamaica pupils have 
gained high honors at these examinations. 

Greatly increased attention is given to female education in Jamaica. 
Our new Governor, Sir Henry W. JSTorman, makes the first year of his 
administration memorable by establishing upon a liberal basis a normal 
college for the training of female teachers, an event which is to have a 
most important influence upon the educational future of the Island. The 
Wesleyans have recently added to their educational institutions a high 
school for girls, which at once reached a success requiring enlargement 
of the premises, and the Baptists have just established a similar school 
of a less advanced grade and designed to meet the needs of the les.s 
wealthy members of the communitj'; this school, also, is filled to the 
limit of its capacity. 

Increased effort is made to supply trained and competent teachers for 
the schools. Soon after emancipation some normal schools were estab 
lished, and a few years ago the Government instituted a normal col- 
lege. This is now to be enlarged, and as other training institutions are 
subjecting themselves to the government examination, their efiBciency 
will doubtless be increased. These normalschools include oueforfetnales, 
established uj)on a limited scale by the Moravians, to meet their own wan ts. 
The larger institution for the training of female teachers just estab- 
lished by the Government will meet a more general want that has been 
greatly felt throughout the Island. One of the most iaiportant ste})s 
taken by the present chief inspector of schools, the Hon. Thornas Oa])- 
per, to improve the educational system, is the admission of teacliersto 
the examination of normal students, and providing for the grant of a 
bonus of from $25 to $75 yearly to each teacher who passes,— thus giv- 
ing teachers substantial inducements to fit themselves more thoroughly 
for their work. 

Within the past three years teachers' associations have been forn)ef] 
in ten of the fourteen parishes of the Island. Wliile the existence of 
most of them is due, in some measure, to efforts put forth by myself, it 
gives me great pleasure to state that the last one formed, a veiy good 
one, is the result of the spontaneous action of teachers themselves. 
These associations hold quarterly meetings for essays and discussions, 
and circulate among their members the best works on teaching and 
such educational periodicals as the Journal of Education^ American 
Teacher, Canada /School Journal, and some from England. In sotr/o 
of the parishes the Church of England has also formed parochial tead! 
ers' associations, doing work similar to the others. As one means ro 
aid teachers and students in the normal colleges to become thorougliiy 
acquainted with the literature of the teacher's profession, the ])ublic 
library in Kingston has added an educational section, which now con- 
tains several hundred educational works. I beg to express my personal 
thanks to the many members of this International Congress who, in re- 
spouse to my request, have contributed to this library many and valu- 
able educational reports, 
i?Q6 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OE EDtlCATOilS — PAPERS. 69 

During these past three or four years there have been held more edu- 
catioual meetiugs in Jamaica, and there has been more discussion of 
educational topics in the local i^ress, than in all the previous history of 
the Island since the first African was brought to its shores. At some 
of these meetings planters and landed proprietors have tahen a promi- 
nent part, expressing their cordial sympathy with the educational efforts 
made on behalf of the people. Among the chief questions engaging the 
attention of the legislative council, now in session, is that of perfecting 
the educational system so as to extend its benefits to all the children in 
Jamaica. 

During the past year an effort has been made to introduce into the 
homes of the people, and into the schools, a continuous supply of 
suitable and attractive periodical literature — a movement which many 
regard as one of the most important which* has been made for many 
years. Finding that much of the work of the schools seemed to be lost 
because of the dearth of literature in the homes of the people — the 
children who had learned to read in the schools afterwards losing the 
desire, if not the ability to read, because of the lact of anything to in- 
terest them after leaving the school — I have suggested to the working 
people of Jamaica that they should supply themselves with some of 
the penny and halfpenny illustrated monthly pai^ers published for the 
benefit of the working people of England. To some extent this has 
been done by the forming of shilling reading clubs among the people.^ 
A few members of a congregation send for several different periodicals 
and exchange them every week among themselves, so that each has the 
reading of several at the expense of paying for one. Similar clubs are 
formed in schools, so that at a slight expense Jamaica boys and girls 
may have the advantage of reading the beautiful and interesting peri- 
odicals prepared for the instruction and delight of English children. 
A few " clubs of four" have also been formed among young men, to 
obtain monthly periodicals of a higher price, each contributing the price 
of one, and all having the privilege of reading the four during the 
month. Just before leaving Jamaica I had a small pamphlet printed, 
giving fuller information respecting these clubs, and I have a few 
copies with me, which I shall be happy to furnish to such members of 
the Congress as may feel a special interest in the subject. Samples of 
the periodicals which are circulated among members of the shilling 
reading clubs and the school clubs can be seen in connection with the 
school exhibit from Jamaica, at the Jamaica Court in the Exposition. 

Having referred to our school exhibit, I may say that after seeing the 
very extensive and admirable educational exhibits from many States iu 
America and from foreign countries, constituting one of the most inter- 
esting features of this great Exposition, I could hardly venture to 
make mention of the small exhibit from Jamaica if it were not that, 
small as it is, it is fairly representative. Owing to various causes, the 
notice given to the schools was very brief, and only a few schools pre- 
pared exhibits to be sent to the Exposition ; but these exhibits were all 
prepared under such strict conditions and with such careful precau- 
tions to secure the individual, unassisted work of the pupils, that they 
are of considerable educational value, for they furnish a fair sample of 
the work that can be done in the ordinary first-class and second-class 
elementary schools of Jamaica on any day without any special prepara- 
tion. 

' See Appendix E. 

307 



70 JiDUCATiONAL COKVliNTiONS At NEW OELtANS EXPOSITION. 
CONCLTJDINa WORDS. 

In conclusion, I beg to express the gratification it affords me to be 
present at this Congress and to participate in the i^roceedings of such 
an ussemblage of educators, and I beg also to express the hope that 
some of you^ with your thorough knowledge of the best methods of 
school work and your enthusiasm in promoting educational progress, 
may, in the course of some of your holiday excursions, find your way 
to our beautiful island in the Caribbean Sea, for we need the instruc- 
tion and the stimulus you would bring to us. In return, Jamaica would 
give to you upon her myriad hills a constant succession of your most 
perfect June and October days, with scenery which at one and the 
same time displays the beauties of vernul bloom and summer loveli- 
ness and autumnal fruitage-. And if any, suffering loss of health from 
the rigorous climate of the North or from extreme changes of tempera- 
ture, should tiy to our sunny and equable clime, I am warranted in ex- 
pressing the hope that Jamaica, my adopted home, would deal as kindly 
with you as it has with myself, in restoring in large measure the lost 
and inestimable blessing. 



APPENDIX A. 

Jamaica School System. 

All elementary schools aided by Government are required to "have an average at- 
tendance of at least 20 scholars and to be kept in operation 180 days in the year. lu 
ordinary practice the latter requirement is met by keeping the school open 4 days in 
the week for 45 weeks in the year. 

The inspector of schools and the assistant inspectors make special unannounced 
visits to the schools, as often as convenient, and an annual visit, when the school is 
fully examined. For the purpose of this annual inspection the teacher prejjares for 
the inspector a clas^ list, giving the uame of each pupil, with the following particu- 
lars: age; date of admission; class in reading, dictation, and arithmetic, in which 
the pupil was placed upon admission; the class in these subjects in which the pupil 
appeared at the last previous inspection ; number of days of attendance at school 
since last inspection ; class in these three subjects in which the j)upil is placed for ex- 
amination. 

The inspector (or assistant inspector) reports the condition of tbe school, giving 
marks for each subject, upon a graduated scale, according to merit. The three chief 
subjects are reading, writing from dictation, and arithmetic, for each of which the 
maximum of marks is 1'2. For the secondary subjects the maximum of marks is 
6, the secondary subjects being scripture knowledge, general knowledge (common 
things), grammar and composition, geography and history, handwriting (.including 
map-drawing), and singing. Marks are also given for discipline and for organiza- 
tion upon tbe same scale as for secondary subjects. The marks for organization ai'e 
awarded xjartly with regard to the state of the school-room, school appliances, etc., 
partly with regard to the proper classification of the pupils and a judicious time- 
table, and partly with regard to the state of the school records. These records com- 
jirise a journal or logbook, an admission register, an attendance register, and (where 
sewing is taught) a sewing-class register. 

For the purpose of giving instruction in the secondary subjects the pupils are usu- 
ally grouped in two or three graded divisions. The standards of classification for the 
six classes of a school, for the chief subjects, are as follows : 



I. The alphabet and easy words of from two to five letters ; primers. 
II. The First Reader. ^ 

III. The Second Reader. 

IV. The Third Reader. 
V. The Fourth Reader. 

VI. The Fifth and Sixth Readers ; any kind of reading, poetry or prose. 



1 The "Eoyal Series" of readers ia in general use. 



INtERNATlOKAL CONGRESS OF EDtlCATOES — MJPERS. 



71 



WKITING FRO.M DICTATION. 

I. Forming"lettei's and eusj- words on slfitea, from copies set on the blackboard, 
or from ■writing sheets. 

II. Copying words and sentences on slates, from copies set on the blackboard, or 
from writing sheets; transcribing from the daily Reading Lesson. 

III. Writing on slates a portion of the daily reading lesson, from dictation. 

IV. Writing on slates, from dictation, sentences containing words liable to be mis- 
spelled ; also from Reading Lesson. 

V. Writing on slates or paper sentences or short paragraphs, dictated from the 
Beading Lesson ; exercises illustrative of the rules of orthography. 

VI. Writing on paper selections dictated from the highest readers and from news- 
papers; or, from memory, business forms, notes, bills and receipts, etc. 

ARITHMETIC. 

I. Counting objects ; making figures ; addition and subtraction to 100 from dicta- 
tion. 

II. Simple addition and subtraction on slates, from dictation, to hundreds of thou- 
sands. 

III. Simple multiplication and division, on slates, to hundreds of millions. 

IV. The four compound rules in money, weights, and measures; also reduction. 
V. Simple proportion, practice, and simple interest. 

VI. Compound proportion, percentages, fractions, etc. 

Schools are ranked according to the number of marks awarded in each of the three 
chief subjects, together with the total number awarded altogether, as follows : First- 
class schools, a minimum of 8 marks m each of the chief subjects, and a total of 56 
marks — two-thirds of the total maximum ; second-class schools, a minimum of 6 marks 
in each of the chief subjects, and a total of 42 marks; third-class schools, a minimum 
of 4 marks in each of the chief subjects, and a total of 28 marks. New schools which 
fail to reach third class, but obtain :'4 marks, are ranked as exceptional. 

Grants are allotted to the schools according to the number of j)upils in attendance 
(the capitation grant), and the attainments of the school as indicated by the marks 
(the class grant). Because the pimento-picking or the coffee-pickifig season, or the 
rainy seasons in May and October, or special seasons of labor on the sugar estates, 
seriously aiiect the attendance and diminish the ordinary average attendance, the 
teachers are permits ed to select 144 of the best days of school attendance for the year 
as the basis upon which to calculate average attendance. The capitation and class 
grants are as follows : 





First- 
class 
schools. 


Second- 
class 
schools. 


Third- 
class 
schools. 


Exceptional 
schools, half 
of third class. 


Capitation grant. 
For each pupil in average attendance during the year. .. 

Class grant. 
For each mark obtained at the annual examinations 


s.d. 
6 

8 


s.d. 
5 

7 


s.d. 
4 

6 


s.d. 

2 

3 



Sewing is not compulsory, but is taught in nearly every school, one hour per day- 
being devoted to it. The grant for sewing is three shillings to each girl in average 
attendance at the sewing-class, the basis for calculating average attendance being 
similar to that for calculating the average attendance of the school. 

Annual grants are also given by the Government to first-class schools only, for the 
training of pupil teachers, who shall personally pass a satisfactory examination in 
accordance with the government regulations relating thereto. The following are the 
rates : 





To each 

pupil 
teacher. 


To the teacher for instructing 
them (each year). 


Year. 


For one For two 

in the same in the same 

school. school. 


For three 

in the same 

school. 


First year 


&S. d. 

4 

5 

6 


£,s.d. £ s. d. 
i 3 4 10 


£s.d. 




6 


Third year 









309 



72 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Ill adilitioii to these grants, tlie sum of £1,500 is distributed auuually among school 
managers to aid in the erection, enlargement, and repair of schoid b«ildings. As a 
rule, the government grant <loes not exceed 50 per cent, of the amount ex))ended in 
each case. 

APPENDIX B. 

Increase op Population. 

From the time Jamaica ceased to import slaves from Africa (1807) until emancipa- 
tion (1834) there was but very slight, if any, increase in the number of black and 
cohin^d iiiliabilauts. Of such inhabitants there were, in 1791, 250,000 slaves and 
11,400 free (Edwards). lu 1807 the slaves numbered 319,000 (Jamaica Handbook), 
and the free could not have numbered less than 13,000 — a. total of 332,000. In 1634 
the slaves numbered 311,000 and the free (a large « stimate) 24,000^a total of 335,000. 
This estimate assumes that there was an increase of at least 8 x'^^ cent, in the decade 
from 1834 to 1844. In the decade from 1861 to 1871, the increase was 13 per cent.; 
from 1871 to 1881, 12i per cent. 

That the former condition of things was not favorable to the increase of population 
is very manifest. A late prominent citizen of Jamaica, in a carefully prepared letter 
to the editor of the London Times, presented the following significant facts: 

"We tind by a return made to the House of* Assembly in 1815, that the -number of 
slaves in the island in the year 1800, was 300,939; in the year 1810, the number was 
but 313,683; yet in the interval 78,937 slaves had been imported. There was thus 
an actual decrease of 66,193. * * * By a return to Parliament it ai)pears that 
between 1817 and 1829 the slave population Itad decreased by 18,074." 

A complete census of the island was taken in 1844, and again in 1861, 1871, and 
1881. The steady increase in the black and colored population shown by these returns 
stands out in prominent contrast to the state of facts prior to 1834. 

The census returns for the years specitied, of the white, colored, aud black popula- 
tion, are as follows: 



Tear. 


Wliite. 


Colored. 


Black. 


3844 


15, 776 
13,816 
13,601 
14, 432 


68, 529 

81, 065 

100, 346 

109, 946 


292,128 


1861 


346, 374 


1871 


392, 707 


1881 


444, 186 







APPENDIX C. 



Improvement in Dwellings. 

The information furnished me respecting improvement in the people's cottages 
shows that while in some parishes the improvement is not great, in most it is very 
considerable. 

A large proportion of the cottages in many districts in the parish of Manchester 
is of a superior order. In a letter received from the Rev. A. G. Hogg, a Presbyte- 
rian minister, when he was residing at Woodlands, iu Manchester, mention was made 
of a man who iu early life was a slave on that property, but who then had a good 
house, and had his five sons and a married daughter settled on Woodlands near him. 
Mr. Hogg wrote : 

"Each of the six has a neat and comfortable cottage, such as I am about to de- 
scribe. These cottages were planned and built by a very good native carpenter. 
They are all shingled and floored, aud each has its barbecue and its tank, or ' kick-and- 
bnck ' pond, and a coftee piece adjoining. I think they are all about one size and 
form, 20 feet long by 12 feet wide, height from floor to ceiling 9 feet, and from foun- 
dation to eaves 14 or 15 feet. Each cottage has a jjorch, a hall (sitting-room), and 
either two bedrooms, or one bedroom and an additioual bedroom in the yard. Each 
has a wooden frame, and foundation of stone and lime to the height of from 4 to 
6 feet. The walls are of Spanish walling aud plastered, the floors are all boarded, 
the roof shingled, and inside there is a boa,rd ceiling. Each house has five doors and 
ten jalousies. There is a partition- wall between the portico (a small room) and hall, 
also between hall and bedrooms. The doors and molding are of cedar; the ( iliCv 
wood-work, of bullet-tree. The cottages are painted inside and waslied outsidv, ;iii<l 
each is tastefully finished. Being a large family, the members helped each other in 
310 



INTERNATIONAL CON&RESS OP EDUCATORS PAPERS. 73 

Imilding. Thej^ linriicd their own lime, qiiarricd stone, mixed mortar, and did a 
good deal of the unskilled work i.hemselves. Each cottage cost in cash abont £60. 

"I might name similar cottages in Salmon Town, at Bronghtou, Resource, Grove, 
and Plowdeu ; but I restrict myself to one more cottage at Salmon Town. This is a 
beautiful and tasteful house, built by David Booth, carpenter, for Robert Ansem, a 
negro, head man to George Miles, Esq. It looks like a two-story house ; but, like those 
I have described, the under x)art is used as a storehouse, a cellar for crops, etc. There 
is a tine porch, a tlight of cut-stone steps on each side, a tine hall, and two good-sized 
bedrooms. There are suitable outhouses and a tank. This house cost in cash £150." 

My attention has recently been directed to the fact that a large number of young 
.men from twenty to twenty-live years of age are now building tine cottages in St. 
Ann, Trelawuy, and other j)arishes. While there are instances where the sons build 
cottages inferior to those erected by their fathers, the general fact is that ^Trhere there 
is difference there is improvement. 'The Rev. A. B. Lind, of Westmoreland, has 
noticed what he terms " three generations of houses" : the first, built by the grand- 
father, — a hut, with posts in the ground, and no floor; the second, built by the father, — 
floored, and otherwise somewhat improved ; the third, built by the son, — a framed 
bouse on a stone foundalion. A notable case, where one man in Ihecoiu'se of his own 
lifetime had the "three generations of houses," was that of James Kinlock, a black 
man, of the parish of St. Elizabeth, recently deceased at the age of fifty. He was 
born in slavery, began life as a blacksmith, and, with his industrious and frugal wile, 
lived at first in a house of the ruder sort ; later, he moved into a better cottage ; and, 
belbre his death, he had erected an exceptionally fine residence at a cost of £600, and 
furnished it very elegantly. I have heard of a similar instance in the parish of St. 
Andrew. 

Rev. W. M. Webb, of Stewart Town, wrote to me in 1879 respecting the improved 
cottages in the Gibraltar district, on the border of the parishes of St. Ann and Tre- 
lawuy, where the people are " small settlers and growers of coffee." Mr. Webb said: 

'• I was counting wp with one of my deacons there the number of new and improved 
houses which have been erected within the last ten years in his district alone— a dis- 
trict called Watt Town. We counted no less than fifteen new houses, and others in 
course of erection — all upon an improved scale — real neat, commodious, peasant family 
cottages. * * * I will now describe one of these nice cottages that have spruug 
up in these mountains within Ihe last ten to twelve years. There is a solid base wall, 
25 feet by 15 feet, 7 to 8 feet high — probably on a hillock or on the slope of a hill. 
In any case there al'e two rooms below ; the sous occupy one as a sleeping room, and 
one is used as a lock-up for coffee or ground x^rovisions for market, etc. Upstairs 
there are two sleeping rooms — one for the parents, and the other for the daughters.' 
There is what is called a hall, where a few pieces of mahogany furniture show off" to 
advantage. Upon a corner table ai-e cups and saucers, mugs, etc., all of the latest 
and most approved designs, placed there more for show and ornament than for use. 
There is also another hall which is used for dining and for general family chit-chat. 
A passage, which in many cases leads into a neat portico in front of the house, com- 
pletes the design." 

Instead of quoting from a number of similar letters from other ministers, received 
at abont the same time, I will append here a letter received from Mr. Webb since 
preparing the paper read at New Orleans. Replying to my request for later infor- 
mation, Mr. Webb has written as follows : 

"In response to your request that I would furnish you as early as possible with a 
supplementary statement to that which, along with others, I made some few years ago 
on the improved dwellings of our peasant farmers or small settlers, I now submit a 
few facts on the subject. 

"I confine my remarks to the districts with which I am best acquainted (though I 
have no Doubt that they apply prettj' generally), whore our people have become in- 
dexjendent of the small wages per diem on the sugar estates, have bought and gone 
to reside upon their own small holdings, and have had sufiicient time audopportunity 
to develop the resources of thair land on their own account. 

1. — Watt Town. 

" i begin with this district, having referred to it in my former communication to you. 
Here I have a class of intelligent, thriving people, connected with the Gibraltar 
Church. The marked progress in their dwellings is very gratifying. Since my former 
letter to you, about t welve new houses upon the same improved scale, and if anything 
a. little better, have been commenced, most of which have received their finishing 
touch in colored walls and jjaint. Let me describe three of the largest and best, good 
enough for persons in much higher stations of life. 

" ilouse No. 1. — This is a large two-storied house, with three sleejiing rooms above, a 
sitting hall and a dining hall. On the first floor there are two sleeping rooms and 

311 



74 EDUCATlOiJAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

a lock-up room for coffee and bread kind for market, etc. There tire five sash win- 
dows in the house besides jalousies. This is one of the finest houses in the district, 
and occupies a commanding situation on a hillside. 

" House No. 2. — This house is near completion ; is situated upon the top of a small 
round hill, and belongs to one of the young men of the Gibraltar Church, who has, 
not long ago, taken to himself iu a respectable manner a wife. It is also an upstairs 
house with a front portico. There are in it three sleeping rooms and two halls, and 
will be when quite completed a nice comfortable liome for our young friend and his 
wife. 

" House No. 3. — This is one of the lately finished houses in the district. It is, like all 
the rest, built upon a hill, and presents a fine appearance from the road. There are. 
two sleeping jooms upstairs, a large sitting room or hall, and a passage, with the 
necessary rooms below. Its colored walls, painted jalousies and blinds, barbecues in 
front, and outbuildings, make up quite a pleasing picture of a peasant's cottage in 
the St. Ann's Mountains of Jamaica. I visited unexpectedly the friends residing in 
this house a few weeks ago, and was very pleased to observe the general neatness and 
order of all the internal arrangements. Had they expected me, I should have inferred 
that they prepared tbe house to receive " minister" ; but as my visit was unexpected 
it was to me no ordinary pleasure to observe tbe nicely-polished floor, the clean furni- 
ture, tables and chairs all in order, and the inside of the house quite in keeping with 
its outward appearance. 

" One noticeable feature of progress in this district is the attention that necessary 
family conveniences are receiving, in addition to the improved dwellings of the peo- 
ple. These are seen in the erection of better kitchens and closets, so long neglected by 
most of our people, and provision for water supply by the erection of tanks. This 
water supply is of great importance in those districts of the island where there is the 
limestone formation ; fissures in the rocks above and under ground, and cavities here 
and there in the earth, prevent a collection of surface water in ponds, and are equally 
inadmissible of running streams in the shape of rivers and springs, so abundant in 
more favored parts of the island. Many of the lately erected tanks of the people 
contain sufficient water to sustain a reasonably long drought. 

2. — Madras. 

"A similar progress in the dwellings of our people is observable in this district. 
Madras is an old coffee plantation, aniTwas some years ago cut up into small holdings, 
which the people purchased. More recently Bryan Castle and Brampton, Bryan 
Mountains, have undergone a similar process, to the great advantage of the people. 
Here some very commodious and neat houses have been erected, with the family con- 
veniences already described. The water supply of our people here is very plentiful, 
nearly every house having a tank or wooden butt, so that in the late prolonged 
drought the people had enough for themselves and to spare. 

"The first indication of a new house is the burning of a lime kiln ; next, a spot is 
selected and cleared ; then timbers and other building materials are collected, after 
which a mason is employed to build the foundation walls and the carpenter's work 
progresses according to the means of the owner. Judging from the number of lime- 
kilns lately burnt in this district and spots cleared, we shall in the near future have 
quite a number of improved family dwellings. 

3.— GOMERSAL. 

" Here lived for a number of years, and died lately in a good old age, Mr. Benjamin 
Hilton, whom we delighted to call " Father Benjamin." He was one of God's nobility, 
though at one time a poor slave. He was an humble and genuine Christian, in all 
the relations of life. By dint of industry and force of character he bought from his 
old master the coffee plantation on which he was formerly a slave. He lived to see 
gathered around him a host of children and grandchildren, walking in the hallowed 
footsteps of their aged father and mother. Benjamin* Hilton died a few years ago, 
and left at the death of his aged widow his property to be divided equally between 
his six daughters.. The widow followed to an honorable grave not long after. The 
property has been divided according to the tenor of the will, and upon each share 
there has been erected a real comfortable family dwelling of the most approved style. 
The younger men, who bought portions of the property from Mr. Hilton, have also 
erected, or are now engaged in erecting, similar houses on their freeholds. 

" I might name the Ulster Spring and Sherwood districts of the parish of Trelawny, 
whereto my knowledge similar improvements in the dwellings of the people have 
within a comparatively short time taken place, but probably those residing in the 
districts will be better able to describe such improvement* than T. 

" I will now point to three results which I have noticed as following in the wake of 
improvements in the dwellings of our people. 
312 



International congress of educators — papers, 75 

'^(1) The moral'siatidard is <it Olive cltvatcd. v 

"I have for several years observed that my church exclnsious for th« sin of immo- 
rality increase or remain the same, painfully numerous, where the people continue to 
live in so-called houses, in which no decency can be maintained and no religious vir- 
tue cultivated ; while, on the other hand, in such districts as I have named, where 
the people are rapidly improving their dwellings, exclusions for iramovality decrease 
in the ratio of such improvements, and in the houses I have already described exclu- 
sion from church fellowship for this social sin is very rare. 

"(2) The religious avd educational advantages at command are more readily laid hold of 
and apjrreciatf.d. 

"The small settlers owning their own plots of land, and who are fast rising up into 
a respectable middle class, are the strength of the Church and State. They contribute 
li berally to erect their places of worship, to support gosx>el institutions, to erect their 
school-houses and teachers' residences. For such there is no need of a compulsory 
scheme of education, as they voluntarily and gladly keep their children at school 
during a reasonable period of the year. 

"(3) Trade is benefited ig such, and the revenues of the country proportionately increase 
as the people are induced to improve their dwellings. 

"These householders are the most honest dealers the shopkeepers have on their 
books. Having their hard-earned property at stake they cannot afford to be sued and 
levied on, while in their dress and food they add considerably to the indirect reve- 
nue of the country, not to speak of their direct contribution to local or parochial 
rates. 

"In conclusion, I would observe that whatever can be done by the Government to 
assist this growing desire among our better-class people for ''better homes" will 
be substantial gain to all concerned in the very near future." 

APPENDIX D. 

.Iamaica Laborers. 

Sir Anthony Musgrave, late Governor of Jamaica, made an address in 1880, before 
the Royal Colonial Institute, London, in which he said: 

" I am convinced that the same great laws which regulate the action of capital and 
labor everywhere will be found now to operate in Jamaica, as everywhere else, and 
that the negro laborer only noeds to be treated with the same justice and considera- 
tion accorded to his fellows in other places. All that is required now is to dismiss, 
on the one hand, any sentimental philanthropy, and on the other the notion that any 
one class of men is bound to work for another class, unless it is to the interest of the 
class that they should so work." 

Upon this text the experience of the contractors who have undertaken the exten- 
sion of the Jamaica Railway is a very good comment. Mr. G. M. Cariipbell. manager 
of the railway extension, has given me the following information : 

" I had no difiSculty in obtaining all the labor I required, i began by paying the 
men Is. Gd. per day and the women 9d. and Is., and found no difficulty in getting all 
the labor I wanted. We began work in February, 1882. During that year the aver- 
age number of laborers at work daily was 4,145 ; during 1883, 3,836 ; 1884,3.074. We 
have as many peojile at work as we desire or can employ to advantage. 

" Wages paid per day : Masons, 3s. 6d. to 4s. Gd. ; carpenters, 3s. M. to 4s. 6^. ; black- 
smiths, 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. ; laborers. Is. 6d. to 2s. ; women, 9(Z. to Is. ; boys and girls, 6d. 
to 9fZ. 

"A considerable portion of the work was done by subletting it as subcontracts at so 
much per cubic yard. Our best subcontractors were the black men, who worked them- 
selves and made their men work. The men who were above work and 'bossed the 
gang ' from under the shade of an umbrella, were worse than useless, and had soon to 
be got rid of, both in the interests of the men and ours. 

"As instances of their amenability to teaching, I may mention that Carr, who 
built the three splendid viaducts which would be creditable to any country, and 
Brown, who erected the scaffolding, never saw such works before ; yet now they 
would be considered first-cl ass foremen in England ; it paid us to teach them, and 
they taught their men. To come down lower, the common laborers in the tunnel, 
before they had been at work a month, could work the compressed- air drills as well, 
nearly, as the English miners ; and before the tunnel was tinished we had not an 
Englishman in it ; all the work was done by Jamaicans, and well done too. 

"In all my experience of labor, extending over eighteen years, and including the 
,navvy, Chinaman, Malay, Cingalese, and all the laboring races of British India, I 
have not had to do with a more orderly, well-behaved, cheerful, obedient workman 
than the Jamaicanegro. Since we began the works we have paid out nearly £200,000 
in wages, and during all the time there was not a row calling for the interference of 
a single constable, 

313 



76 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

"It is my own linm]3le opinion, come to after careful consideration of the su'b.iect, 
that a fair day's pay for a fair day's work will secure any labor that is ever likely to 
he required iu Jamaica. Had I another contract here ou which I cauld employ six 
thousand men, I should have little fear of not getting them." 

Mr. E. H. Lowndes, foreman of one sectioji, including the tuunel, states that the 
workmen labor nine hours a day six days in the week, and that substantially the 
same hands employed the first year still continue at work on that section. 

APPENDIX E. 
EEADiNa Clubs. 

To organize a shilling reading club, eight or more members of one congregation 
join together, contributing each one shilling in advance, thereby constituting them- 
selves members <:f the club for one year. The money is then transmitted to some 
bookseller in England, ' together with an order that certain specified illnstrated month- 
lies be sent by post, iu monthly parcels, for one year, to some one person named, — 
usually the minister of the congregation. As a rule, the net cost of periodicals thus 
sent and delivered at any post-office in the Postal Union will be 50 per cent, above 
the London price. Thus a club of two dozen members could obtain, with their 24 
shillings, 16 x^enny periodicals each month, amounting to 192 periodicals during the 
year. The order should be so given that the periodicals for tico months will be in- 
cluded in the first parcel. The periodicals are to be distributed weekly (usually on 
Sunday) by some one appointed to take charge of the matter (usually the school- 
master), each member receiving one periodical. This is to be retained for a week 
(and not over two weeks under penalty of a hue to be fixed by the club), and when 
returned the member will receive another ; and so, week by week, the periodicals are 
read and exchanged. By the time any one member has read four or five of the peri- 
odicals first received, the supply for another month will have come, and thereafter 
during the remainder of the twelve mouths there will always be on hand periodicals 
rtiore than enough to give fresh reading matter every week to each member. After 
tlie first quarter, when the periodicals will have accumulated, if any members de- 
sire to read two in one week they should be permitted to do so. At the eud of 
twelve months all the periodicals for the year will be divided equally among the 
members of the club. 

The plan for school clubs is similar ; but as many children's papers and magazines 
cost only a half-penny monthly, the rate of payment for the year is fixed at sixpence ; 
and because many children might find it difficult to obtain a sixpence, the school clubs 
are organized for six months, and each member pays threepence, the club to be re- 
newed half-yearly instead of yearly. Frequently the teacher contributes one shilling 
or more, so that some of the penny magazines for children may be included in tbe 
order for the school club. On one day in the week the periodicals are exchanged, 
and on that day it is intended that a portion of the reading exercises be selected from 
the periodicals instead of the ordinary school books. 

In a few clubs the fee is increased so as to procure a larger supply of the penny, 
magazines. Wlien circumstances will permit, this increase would be desirable. 

Most of the religious denominations publish attractive periodicals for adults and 
for children. Among the most interesting of the undenominational penny and half- 
penny periodicals are the following: 

For adults : At one penny — British Workmen, Cottafier and Artisan, Friendly Visitor, 
Home Friend, Light and Love, Mother's Friend, Mother's Treasuri/, National Temperance 
Mirror, Tract, Magazine, Welcome Hour. 

For children : At a half-pennjr — Band of Hope Eevien-, Band of Merog, CyhihVs Own 
Magazine, Childrem's Paper, Dayspring, Gleanings for the Young, Sunrise, Young Stand- 
ard Bearer. At one jienny — Child's Companion, Children's Friend, Little Gleaner, Oar 
Own Magazine, Prize, School Newspaper, Young Days, Youth's Miscellany. 

'Guest, Hayivortli & Co., 29 Paternoster Row, Lontlou, E. C, attend to orders -which I send. 

314 



PEOGRBSS OF BDUCATIOI^ IN THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO, 
CANADA : AN HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

By J. George HoDams, M. A., LL D., 

Deputy Minister of Education. 



The educational history of Ontario (formerJy Upper Canada), natu- 
rally divides itself into three periods, viz : 

I. The Early Settlement, or United Erai)ire Loyalist, Period. 

II. The period preceding the union of the two Provinces of Upper 
and Lower Canada, 

III. The period since that union, and including the administration of 
the Rev. Dr. Egerton Ryerson, Chief Superintendent of Education. 

During the early settlement period, and that preceding the union of 
the two Provinces (in 1841), two social forces were slowly taking form 
and shaping themselves into antagonistic relations to each other. This" 
was apparent from the attitude which each assumed on the religious, 
political, and educational questions of the time. And, although they 
frequently expressed strong and opposite views on educational topics, 
yet the question of an educational system for the Province had, during 
all this time, taken no definite shape in the public mind. Indeed, such 
a thing was not deemed practicable, except by men who were years in 
advance of their times. 

It will sim])lify my statement of the case if I take a somewhat pros- 
pective view of events in the order in which they afterwards transpired. 
For convenience, therefore, I select two noted men of their times as rep- 
resentatives of the two social forces to which I have referred, and of the 
opposite opinions on education and other subjects which then prevailed. 

The first was the Rev. Dr. Strachan (afterwards first Church of Eng- 
land Bishop of Toronto), and the other was the Rev. Dr. Ryerson, the 
trusted leader of the Methodist body, 

Dr, Strachan was the undoubted representative of the English and 
European views on popular education. Dr. Ryerson, on the other 
hand, was the equally true and faithful exponent of the British Colonial, 
or United Empire Loyalist, views and opinions on the same subject. 
What these latter views and opinions were may be gathered from a 
reference to the early colonial history of the thirteen colonies. 

The first real systematic efforts put forth in America to promote popu- 
lar education began in New England, and thence spread in all directions. 
In 1635 the first school was opened in Boston, and in 1647 the firsc leg- 
islative enactment in favor of schools was passed in Massachusetts. In 
1670 the Governor of Connecticut declared that "one-fourth of the reve- 
nue was devoted to schools." General Eaton, in his valuable and com- 
prehensive report for 1875, says : 

Hislory, with hardly a dissenting voice, accords to the English colonisis of New 
England tho credit of having developed those forms of action, in reference to the edu- 
cation of children, which contained more distinct features adopted in the systems of 
the country, than any other. 

315 



78 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Traiiied iu such an educational school, aud filled with the educatioual 
traditions of these old colonial times, the " United Empiie Loyalists," 
or " defenders of the unity of the Empire," as they were called, brought 
with them into Canada their zeal for education and their devotion to 
the sovereign. 

The tirst settlers of Upper Canada were " exiled tories," so called, 
from the revolted colonies. In that, and in the other Provinces, they 
were warmly received and welcomed as the heroic defenders of the royal 
cause. They sacrificed everything but their principles and their honor 
in maintaining " the unity of the Empire." Even after the struggle 
was ended, they adhered to the "lost cause'' with the same devotion 
as they had shown in following the royal standard, not only to victory, 
but even to disaster and defeat. They were men of wonderful resolution 
and daring, as well as of superior intelligence. Such were the first set- 
tlers of Upper Canada. 

There were nine colleges founded in the thirteen colonies before the 
Kevolution of 1776. ^ Dr. D. C. Grilman, President of Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity, speaking of these old British colonial colleges, pays the follow- 
ing high tribute to their value in giving breadth and culture to the dis- 
tinguished colonists who afterwards shaped the destinies of the American 
Republic. He says: 

These niue colleges were nurseries of virtue, intelligence, liberality, and patriotism, 
as well as learning; so that when the Revolution began, scores of tiie most enlight- 
ened leaders, both in the council and on the field, on both sides, were found among 
their graduates. 

Soon after the arrival of the " U. B. Loyalists" in Upper Canada, a 
tide of emigration set in, chiefly from the three kingdoms. These im- 
migrants brought with them the feelings and habits of home life in the 
old world, with the opinions and prejudices of their class, illustrating the 
truth of the old Latin quotation, ^^Gcelum, non animum, mutant qui trans 
mare currunt?^ 

By degrees portions of the U. E. Loyalists and of these immigrants, 
whose views on " Church and State" coincided, united their forces and 
formed a powerful and dominant party. They ruled the Province with 
a high hand for many years. From their social position and frequent 
intermarriage they became a compact and exclusive party, aud were 
distinguished by the sobriquet of the "Family Compact." Against this 
powerful party was arrayed the majority of the U. E. Loyalists and 
their descendants, and the entire liberal and progressive party, under 
the leadership of Dr. Ryerson and other noted men, some, of whom after- 
wards left his standard and became involved iu the political troubles of 
the rebellion of 1837-'38. It is sufficient to say in this connection that 
under the skillful leadership of Dr. Ryerson aud other prominent men 
of moderate views who acted with him, the power of this Family Com- 
pact was broken, the compact itself dissolved, and its opponents be- 
came in turn the ruling party in this Province, a position which their 
legitimate successors still occupy. 

The Family-Compact party, in the heyday of their power and influence, 
were not averse to education. Far from it; for they were men of edu- 
cation themselves. But it took the form of zeal for higher education 
and for the higher classes. Rev. Dr. Strachan, who was the most ener- 
getic aud powerful leader of this party, occupied a seat in the Legisla- 
tive Council (Senate) by appointment of the Governor. He devoted all 

'These were Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton. Brovvu, Pennsylvania (Univ.), 
Eutgers, Willii^m and Mary, and Partmouth. 

316 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 79 

his energies to- the establishment of a university, with district classical 
Bchools as feeders. He entirely ignored elementary schools, or rather 
made no provision for them ; and it was not until nine years after these 
district classical schools were established that the U. E. Loyalists, 
combined with the progressive party, of which it formed no inconsider- 
able portion, were able to get a measure passed by the Legislature for 
the establishment and maintenance of common schools. The chief rea- 
son for the perpetration of this educational anachronism was, that the 
friends of popular education, while all-powerful in the House of Assem- 
bly, were few and consequently uninfluential in the Legislative Council, 
and were, therefore, not able at all times to influence that body so as to 
secure its assent to the education bills passed by the popular branch. 

But in order co understand more fully the sequence of events which 
led to the development of the educational spirit in this Province, it will 
be necessary to give a condensed summary of the facts. With this his- 
torical background in prospective view, the distinguishing features of 
that comprehensive system of education which, in later years, Dr. Eyer- 
son was i)rivileged to found, can be more clearly seen. 

The U. E. Loyalists settled in British America in 1783, the date of 
their exile. Most of them settled in Upper Canada along the north shore 
of the St. Lawrence River and the corresponding margin of Lake Onta- 
rio. They brought with them from the old colonies their zeal for edu- 
cation and their devotion to the flag of England. Those of them who 
had settled along the Bay of Quinte united in 1789 in framing a memo- 
rial to Governor General, Lord Dorchester (Sir Guy Carleton), in which, 
lamenting the educational privations which they had endured, they 
prayed the Governor to establish a "seminary of learning" atFronte- 
nac (Kingston), at the east end of Lake Ontario. Their prayer was 
granted, so far as the setting apart of lands for the support of the sem- 
inary was concerned, as well as for the support of schools wherever the 
expatriated colonists had settled (or might settle) in the country. 

Immediately after the passing of the Constitutional, or Quebec, Act of 
1791, by which, among other things, Uijper Canada was separated from 
Quebec, the Governor of the new Province (J.Graves Simcoe) sought the 
co-operation of the Church of England bishop having jurisdiction over 
both provinces, in urging upon the Home Government the necessity of 
providing for a university and for classical schools in Upper Canada. 
Provision for elementary schools formed no part of this plan. The Brit- 
ish colonial idea of providing for such schools first never crossed the 
minds of the leaders of public opinion in these days nor that of the 
bishop. They were cbiefly Engbshmeu, with the old-fashioned English 
ideas of those times, that the education of the masses was unnecessary, 
for it would tend to revolution and the upsetting of the established order 
of things. 

After the retirementof Governor Simcoethe Legislature of Upper Can- 
ada presented an address to the King in 1798, praying that a portion of 
the Crown lands should be set apart for the maintenance of higher edu- 
cation, as proposed by Governor Simcoe, King George III, in the same 
year, gave a gracious answer to this address, and instructed his colo- 
nial minister, the Duke of Portland, to issue directions to the Acting 
Governor (President Russell) to have the lands asked for set apart. 
This was done, and 549,217 acres were devoted to the purposes set forth 
in the address. The share which afterwards fell to the university was 
225,278 acres. ' 

As these lands thus set apart were, in those early days, unproductive 
uf revenue, nothing could be done to give practical effect to the gracious 

317 



80 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

act of the King. A principal for the proposed university was, however, 
selected in Scotland. The position was first offered to the afterwards 
justly celebrated Rev. Dr. Thomas Chalmers, but declined. It was then 
offered to a successful ijarish schoolmaster, Mr. (afterwards so distin- 
guisbed in this Province as the Eev. Dr.) Strachau, amo:jg whose pupils 
was the gifted pa inter, Sir David Wilkie. When it became apparent 
that no university was then possible, Mr. Strachan became a private 
tutor in the family of the Hon. Richard Oartwright, of Kingston, and 
was afterwards the highly successful head master of the Cornwall Dis- 
trict Grammar School. 

Dr. Strachan's early and practical experience as a teacher gave to 
him an additional and keen sense of the educational wants ot the coun- 
try. His success as an educator j)roved to him what could be done in 
that direction. It also enlisted his feelings and fired his ambition to be 
the founder of an institution of superior learning, in which the young 
men of the Province could be thoroughly educated. The education of 
tiie masses was not provided for by him, but in an Act passed in 1819 
and relating to classical schools (which he promoted), it was agreed — 

That in order to extend tbe benefits of a liberal education to promising children of 
iihe poorer mhabilants, trastees. [of coBimon schools wherever established] shall have 
the power of sending scholars, not exceeding ten in number, to be chosen by lot every 
four years, to be taught gratis at the [classical] schools. 

Thus, in this exceptional manner, provision was made, so that, should 
a limited number of the children of the poorer inhabitants develop abil- 
ity or taste for learning, they should not be wholly excluded from the 
privileges so liberally provided for children of the richer classes. These 
class distinctions have, happily, forever di8ai)peared from our statute- 
book. They were no doubt conceived in a benevolent spirit, and were 
characteristic of the social ethics of the times, but they were pernicious 
as a principle to embody in a school law. 

In his "Appeal" in behalf of a university for Upper Canada, published 
in- 1827, Dr. Strachan gave a fuller expression to this idea of providing 
education only for the wealthier chisses. He said : 

It is indeed (jnite evident that the consequences of a university * * * pos- 
sessing in itself sufficient recommendations t;o attract to it the sons of the most opu- 
lent families, would soon be visible in the greater intelligence and more confirmed 
principles of loyalty of those who would be called to various public duties required iu 
the country — L e., iho governing classes. 

In justice to Dr. Strachan, it is proper to state that a few years after- 
wards (in reply to a question put to him by a committee of the House of 
Assembly) he laid down a broader, a nobler, and a more comprehen- 
sive principle in regard to a system of national education. He said : 

The whole expense [of education] iu a free country like this should be defrayed 
by the public ; that promisiug boys, giving indication of high talent, though poor, 
might have an opportuniry of cultivating their faculties, and, if able and virtuous, 
taking a lead in the community. 

During all this time the friends of popular education were not idle. 
Prom 1827 and for many years Dr. Ryerson was engaged in waging war 
against the opponents of liberal institution-; and religious equality. His 
chief antagonist was Dr. Strachan. The subjects in dispute related to 
a dominant church, the application of clergy -reserved lands to the pur- 
poses of education, and the liberation of the ]>rovincial university from 
exclusive control under the presidency of Dr, Strachan, first as arch- 
deacon and afterwards as bishop. ISTot being eligible to the popular 
branch of the Legislature (being a minister), Dr. Ryerson had to develop 
his powers of resistance to the dominant and ruling parly in other dl- 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 81 

rections; and this he did with wonderful success. As a writer and de- 
bater few equaled him in his presentation of facts, and in his skill in de- 
tecting- the Aveak points of his adversary's position or argument. As a 
controversialist and pamphleteer he had confessedly no rival. He, 
therefore, was able to furnish his frieods in the House of Assembly with 
facts and arguments which were irresistible. There were, too, in that 
Assembly some men of rare power and ability, who did coble service in 
the popular cause. They passed resolutions and school bills time and 
again, but could not always induce the Legislative Council (Senate) to 
concur in their adoption. This state of things continued for mauy years, 
and with disastrous effects on the intellectual growth and well-being of 
the Province. This fact is attested by indubitable witnesses, and is re- 
corded in the proceedings of the House of Assembly of the time. I shall 
quote a few examples j 

In a petition of the United Presbytery of CJpper Canada, presented 
to the House in 1830, the clergy who signed it say : 

It is with deep regret that your petitioners (iu their ministerial capacity, as cou- 
nected with a very large portion of His Majesty's subjects iu this Province) are com- 
pelled to say that the state of education is, in general, in a deplorable condition. 

The House of Assembly itself, in a report of a committee on a peti- 
tion laid before it in 1831, says: 

The common schools of this Province are generally in so deplorable a state that 
they scarcely deserve the name of schools. 

The reason for this state of things is thus set forth by the House of 
Assembly in an address to the Governor, adopted in the same year: 

We, the Commons of Upper Canada, in Parliament assembled, most respectfully 
represent that there is in this Province a very general want of education ; that the 
insnfficiency of the school fund to support competent, respectable, and well-educated 
teachers, has degraded common-school teaching from a regular business to a mere 
matter of convenience to transient persons, oj- common idlers, who often teach school 
one season and leave it vacant until it accommodates some other like person, whereby 
the minds of our youth are left without cultivation, or, what is still worse, frequently 
with vulgar, low-bred, vicious, or intemperate examples before them, in the capacity 
of monitors [i.e., teachers]. 

Fer contra, the House, in its address to the Governor, further says : 

If provision were made for the liberal and punctual payment of teachers, * * * 
gentlemanly, well-educated persons would not he ashamed to take charge of our j^outh, 
our schools would be no longer vacant, nor our youth ignorant, etc. 

In the Third General Report of the Education Committee of the House 
of Assembly, presented in the session of 1832-'33, the committee present 
the financial aspect of the question in the following graphic language : 

Your committee most earnestly draw the attention of yoiir Honorable House to the 
astounding fact that less is granted by the provincial Legislature for educating the 
youth of 300,000 people than is required to defray the contingent expenses of one ses- 
sion of Parliament. 

To place this in a point of view more striking, it may be observed that one-third o;f 
the poiJulation of any country are subjects of school education, but, allowing one- 
fourth, we have a grant from the provincial treasury of $16,000 for educating 75,000 
children (a little more than 20 cents per annum for the instruction of each scholar), a 
provision so pitiful, so miserable for this most important of all objects, that it cannot 
fail, when thus presented, of exciting astonishment ; and when contrasted with the 
vast sums expended by other countries in support of public instruction, reflects no 
credit on the Province. 

The chairman of this committee of the House of Assembly, in a per- 
sonal memorial which he presented to the Governor of the Province iu 
1835, uses the following language : 

This rapi<lly-growiug colony * * *■ ^y^y be pronounced ii.t ihis moment totally 
uneducated, foi- llic little instruction given to the children, under the name of educa- 

7900 cox, PT. 11 G 319 



82 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

tion, has uo influence over their morals — does nothing to open or exi>aud their intel- 
lectual faculties, much less to direct them in their conduct through life. English 
reading, imperfectly taught ; something of writing, and the iirst five rules of arith- 
metic, which the teachers we employ are seldom able to explain, make up the meager 
sum total of what the risijig generation learn at our common schools. 

Several aotempts have been made to amend the law and to increase the assistance 
from the provincial treasury to more than its original amount, but hitherto without 
effect. 

The Legislative Couiici!, which had been the chief obstructive in school 
legislation, in invitiug a conference with the House of Assembly in 1838, 
makes the following statement, iu giving reasons for the rejection of the 
last educational measure passed by that House : 

The Legislative Council have to acquaint the House of Assembly that they cannot 
pass the School Bill [sent up to. (hem], because it proposes to levy an assessment at 
the extent of IM. [3 cents] in the pound [$4] to support common schools ; and as Acts 
have lately passed imposing additional rates Tor thi^ purpose of defraying the expense 
of building jails and court-houses aud macadao^ized roads, the Council fear that the 
a.ssessment for common schools might be found bnrdeusome, &c. 

Thus, and because jails, court-houses, and even roads were considered 
of more importance than schools and teachers, the last measure for the 
promotion of education ever passed by the House of Assembly of Upper 
Canada was rejected by the Legislative Council. 

In three years afterwards the House of Assembly and Legislative 
Council of Upper Canada ceased to exist, and the two Provinces of 
Uijper and Lower Canada were united under one Legislature.- 

Such was the untoward aspect of affairs when this legislative union 
took place. 

The momentous political events which preceded this union, and which 
led to the total disruption of all political parties and combinations, were 
very salutary in their effects. Under the liberal policy pursued by the 
Home Government grievances were redressed, and a broad and com- 
prehensive scheme of popular government inaugurated. The result was 
that the wise and statesmanlike measures, designed to promote public 
tranquillity and local self government, were proposed to and adopted 
hy the Legislature. 

Amongst these was a measure providing for the establishment of a 
municipal council in each local division of the Province of Upper Canada 
(aud ])artlyso in Lower Canada) for the regulation of internal matters. 

On this system was ingrafted, by means of a separate Act applicable 
to the whole Province, a scheme of public educa.tion, with a liberal pro 
vision for its maintenance. 

In recommending this scheme to the favorable consideration of the 
first Parliament of United Canada, in 1841, Lord Sydenham, the first 
Governor-General, used the following language: 

A due provision for the education of the people is one of the first duties of the state, 
and, in this Province especially, the want of it is grievously felt. The establishment 
of an efficient system, by which the blessings of instruction may be placed within the 
reach of all, is a work of difficulty, but its overwhelming importance demands 
that it should be undertakeu. I recommend the consideration of that subject to your 
best attention, and I shall be most anxious to afford you, in your labors, all the co- 
operation in my power. If it should be found impossible so to reconcile conflicting 
opinions as to obtain a measure which may meet the approbation of all, I trust that, 
at least, steps may be taken by which an advance to a more perfect system may be 
made, and the difficulty under which the people of this Province now labor may be 
greatly diminished,' subject to such improvements hereafter as time and experience 
may point out. 

The enlightened expectations of the Governor-General were, happily, 
realized. But so diverse were the populations of the two Canadas thus 
united, and so different were their social conditions, that the School Act 

320 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 83 

then passed was repealed two years afterward (iu 1843), and a school 
bill for each Province was iiassed by the Legislature in that year. 

Up to this time Dr. Eyerson's energies, as I have shown, were wholly 
engrossed in contending for the civil and religions rights of the people. 
He had also ten years before projected and collected money for the es- 
tablishment of an academy or college for higher education at Coburg, 
on the north shore of Lake Outario. This he did so as to provide a 
sui^erior institution for members of his own church and the public gen- 
erally, and as a protest against the exclusiveness of King's College (to 
which I have referred), which was projected and afterwards established 
at Toronto, by Bishop Strachi^n. His efforts in this, and in the estab- 
lishment of the Victoria College at Coburg, as a university, in 1840, 
aroused a widespread interest in education generally, which bore good 
fruit afterward. This university has now been in operation forty-five 
years, and from it the first arts graduate in Upper Canada was sent 
forth in 1846. Its first president was the Rev. Dr. Eyerson. Its pres- 
ent distinguished president, the Eev. Dr. Nelies, was his pupil, and has 
held his position with honor to himself for the last thirty-five years, an 
unprecedentedly long period in the history of colleges in this country. 

Dr. Eyerson enjoyed much of the confidence of the Governors during 
these times, and was often consulted by them. He would have been 
appointed to take charge of education in 1842 had not the then Governor- 
General (Lord S3''denham) suddenly died, as the result of an accident. 
He was, however, appointed in 1844, and for thirty-two years was, first 
the founder, and afterwards the successful administrator, of the school 
system of Upper Canada, now Ontario. It was my good fortune to be 
associated with him from the time of his appointment in 1844 until he 
retired from office in 1876. 

Immediately after his appointment. Dr. Eyerson went to Europe, re- 
maining for over a year to familiarize himself with the systems of edu- 
cation there. On his return he published an elaborate report on his 
projected scheme of "Public Instruction for Upper Canada." That re- 
port was approved by the Governor-General in Council, and he was 
directed to prepare a bill to give elfect to his recommendations, which 
he did in 1846. A brief analysis of that report may be interesting, and 
is as follows: It is divided into two parts : 1, Principles of the system 
and subjects to be taught ; 2, machinery of the system. 

After defining what was '" meant by education," the principles of the 
system were laid down as follows : 

1. It should be universal. 

2. It should be practical. 

3. It should be founded on religion and morality. 

4. It should develop all the intellectual and physical powers. 

5. It should provide for the efficient teaching of the following sub- 
jects : Biblical history and morality, reading and spelling, writing, 
arithmetic, grammar, geography, linear drawing, vocal music, history, 
natural history, natural philosophy, agriculture, human physiology, 
civil government, political economy. Each of these topics was fully 
discussed and illustrated in the first i)art of the report. 

The second part explained the machinery of the system, which was 
summarized as follows : 

1. Schools — their gradation and system. 

2. The teacher ard his training. 

3. The text-books recommended. 

4. Control aiid inspection on the part of the Government. 

5. Individual and local efforts. 

321 



84 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

These several topics were also fully discussed and illustrated, so that 
the whole comprehensive scheme of education i)roposed by Dr. Eyer- 
son was clearly and fully understood. The report occupied nearly 200 
pages. 

The school law founded upon this report provided, amongst other 
things, for — 

J. A general Board of Education for the Province, to take charge of 
a normal school, and to aid the chief suiieriuteudent in certain matters. 

2. A normal school, with practice or model schools attached. 

3. The establishment of school libraries. 

4. Plans of school-houses. 

5. Appointment of district school sui^erintondeuts. 

6. Apportionment of school moneys to each school according to the 
average attendance of pupils at such school. 

7. Levy of a school rate by each district (county) municipal couucil, 
of a sum at least equal to the legislative grant to each such district. 

8. The collection, by the local school trustees, of the balance required 
to defray the expenses of their school, iu any way which the school-rate 
I)apers (at the annual meeting) might determine. 

9. The recommendation of a uniform series of text-books, with the pro- 
viso that no aid would be given to any school in which books disa^j- 
proved of by the general Board of Education might be used. 

10. The establishment of district model schools. 

11. Examination and licensing of teachers. 

12. Visitation of schools by clergymen, magistrates, municipal coun- 
cilors, etc. 

13. Protection of children from being " required to read or study in 
or from any religious book, or join in any religious exercise or devo- 
tion, objected to by parents." 

14. Establishment (as provided in the law of 1841) of Roman Catholic 
separate schools, where the teacher of the locality was a Protestant, and 
vice versa. (These schools received grants in accordance with their av- 
erage attendance of pupils.) 

15. Levy of rates by district municipal councils, at their discretion, 
for the erection of school-houses and teachers' residences. 

Such were the principal provisions of the first School Act, proposed 
and adapted from other school laws by Dr. Eyerson in 1846. 

It was not to be expected that so comprehensive a scheme of educa- 
tion would meet with universal acceptance. The very reverse was the 
tact, and it was assailed as revolutionary and oppressive. It certainly 
was revolutionary in the best sense, but not oppressive, for it was largely 
permissive and wholly tentative. It authorized councils and trustees, at 
their discretion, or with the assent of the rate payers, to do certain 
things, but it did not compel them to do them. The new system was so 
far revolutionary that it was almost wholly different from the former 
one. It was comj)osite. 

One of the ablest of the leading pai:)ers of the day assailed the new 
system and its promoter in the strongest terms, chiefly with a political 
animus in its assaults, and urged the dismissal of the offender from 
office. The Government of the day, being personally friendly, stood 
firm and gave the assailed superintendent of education all necessary 
support. 

The machinery of the system was adaj)ted chiefly from Kew York, 
the principle on which the schools are supported was taken from ISTew 
England, normal schools from G-ermany, and the uniform series of text- 
books from Ireland. All were, however, so blended and harmonized to 
323 



liStf ESiSTATiOKAL COiSTGRESS OF EDtJCATORS PAPERS, 85 

meet the requirements and circumstances of the country that they be- 
came, in Dr. Eyerson's molding hands, " racy of the soil." 

It was fortunate that just at this crisis Canada was favored with the 
j)resence of one of the most accomplished, in every sense of the term, 
of the Queen's representatives, the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine. 

That distinguished statesman, who afterwards filled with great dignity 
the highest post in the civil service of Great Britain, that of Governor- 
General of India, reached Canada at a critical transitional period in 
our history. Few can recall the incidents of those days without a feel- 
ing of admiration for the fearlessness, tact, and ability with which he 
discharged the delicate and difliculfc duties of his high office. 

When Lord Elgin arrived in Canada in 1847, and when he removed to 
Toronto, after the riot and burning of the Parliament- House in Mon- 
treal in 1849, educational affairs were fiercely discussed and were yet 
almost at the low ebb at which Dr. Ryerson had found them. ISTot that 
they had previously reached a higher plane and had gradually settled 
down to a lower one. The reverse was the fact, but the question of ed- 
ucation had only then (in Dr. Ryerson's hands) begun to attract serious 
public attention. It was, however, as 1 have explained, in an adverse 
direction, for the whole subject, in the advanced form in which it was 
presented by Dr. Ryerson, was unpopular. It involved taxation and 
other unpalatable "• burdens," as its opponents averred. 

Up to this time no one else had ventured to give a practical turn in 
the j)ublic mind to the crude theories then held in regard to systems of 
popular education. Dr. Ryerson paid the penalty of all reformers like 
him, but yet lived to see that the after-details of the system of education 
were worked out "on his lines." 

It is needless to say that Dr. Ryerson's scheme was assailed as im- 
practicable. This I have explained. It was held to be too comprehen- 
sive for this country. Even his reference to the com])act and system- 
atized plan adopted in Prussia was seized upon as an indication of his 
covert design to introduce the (as then so considered) baleful system of 
" Prussian desj^otism." His commendation of " free schools," as a pros- 
pective feature in our educational system, was denounced as an attempt 
to legalize an "outrageous robbery," and as a " war against projjerty." 

It was at this period of our educational history that Lord Elgin first 
came into official contact with our educational system. He at once 
mastered the whole subject, and soon perceived the great importance to 
the whole country of the question which was then being so fiercely dis- 
cussed. 

I shall not dwell upon the great services which Lord Elgin then ren- 
dered to the cause of education at a critical period of its history in 
this Province. Suffice it to say that his speeches and addresses on 
that subject and at that time had a wonderful effect in moderating 
the opposition which Dr. Ryerson received in laying the foundations 
of our system of education. They had also the potent effect of popu- 
larizing that system in the estimation of the people which it was de- 
signed to benefit. That popularity has, happily, continued to this day, 
thanks in a great degree to the dignity imparted to the subject by the 
persuasive eloquence of Lord Elgin. His eminence as a distinguished 
graduate of Oxford, and his general knowledge of European systems of 
education, enabled him to speak wdth a precision and certainty which few 
could gainsay. It was a gratifying fact that he identified himself per- 
sonally, as well as officially, throughout the whole of his seven years' 
administration, with the general education and intellectual improve- 
ment of the people of Canada. The first bill to which His Excellency 

323 



86 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

assented in Her Majesty's narae after the removal of the seat of gov- 
ernment to Toronto was the school bill passed in 1850, and which con- 
stitutes the legal charter of the educational system of to-day. He after- 
wards laid the corner-stone of the handsome buildings for the normal 
school at Toronto, accompanying the act with one of his most eloquent 
and powerful speeches on the subject of our system of education. And 
one of His Excellency's last acts in Toronto, when about to leave tbe 
country, was to visit those buildings and express his satisfaction with 
the several departments of the system therein conducted. 

In founding the system of public instruction for Uiiper Canada, Dr. 
Eyerson wisely laid down certain fundamental i^rinciples which he be- 
lieved to be essential to tbe success and stability of that system. These 
general principles may be thus summarized : 

1. That the machinery of education should be in the hands of the 
people themselves, and should be managed through their own agency ; 
they should, therefore, he held, be consulted, by means of public meet- 
ings and conferences, in regard to all school legislation. This he him- 
self did every few years. 

2. That the aid of the Government should only be given where it 
could be used most eiiectually to stimulate and assist local eftbrtin tliis 
great work. 

3. That the property of the country is responsible for, and should 
contribute toward, the education of the entire youth of the country ; 
and that, as a complement to this, " compulsory education " should neces- 
sarily be enforced. 

4. That a thorough and systematic inspection of the schools is essen- 
tial to their vitality and efficiency. 

These, with other important principles, Dr. E-yerson kept steadily in 
view during his long administration of the school system of Ontario. 
He was not able to embody them all at once in a school bill, but he did 
so in the final school legislation with which he was connected in 1871. 
Their judicious application to the school system contributed largely, 
under the divine blessing, which he ever sought, to the wonderful suc- 
cess of his labors. 

But to return. Notwithstanding the zeal and ability with which Dr. 
Eyerson had collected and arranged his facts, analyzed the various 
systems of education in Europe and America, and fortified himself with 
the opinions of the most experienced educationists in these countries, 
the system which he projected, and the school law which embodied 
it, continued to be fiercely assailed by a portion of the press, and by 
hostile politicians. This hostility culminated in an event which brought 
things to a crisis in 1840. 

In that year a provincial administration personally unfavorable to 
Dr. Eyerson was in office. A prominent and popular member of it, 
with the inexperienced aid of some malcontents outside, concocted a 
singularly crude and cumbrous school bill, covertly designed to oust 
Dr. Eyerson from office. This bill, as was afterwards explaiyed, was taken 
on trust by the other members of the Cabinet and, at the very close of 
the session, it was hurriedly passed through the legislature and became 
law. Dr. Eyerson at once called the attention of the G-overnment to 
the impracticable and nn-Christian character of the bill, as, under its 
operation, the Bible, among other things, would be excluded from the 
schools. Eather than administer such an act. Dr. Eyerson tendered 
his resignation of the office he held to the Government. The late Hon. 
Eobert Baldwin, C. B., Attorney-General, the Nestor of Canadian poli- 
ticians and a truly Christian man, declined to recommend the accept- 
324 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 87 

ance of the resignation, and was so convinced of the justness of Dr. 
Eyerson's views', and the reasonableness of his remonstrance, that he 
took the unusual course of advising the Governor-General, Lord Elgin, 
to suspend the operations of the new act until Dr. Ryerson could pre- 
pare a draft of a school bill on the basis of his former act, embodying in 
it the conclusions suggested by liis own experience up to that time. 
The result was that a .school law was passed in 1850 adai)ted to the 
municipal system of the Province, and so po])nlar in its character and 
comprehensive in its provisions iind details that it is still (in a consoli- 
dated form) the primary basis of the Ontario school system. 

In 1850-51, Dr. Eyersou, while in England, made preliminary ar- 
rangements for establishing a library, and a prize book and map and 
aijparatus depository in connection with his department. His reasons 
for doing so may be brieiiy stated : 

1. He felt it to be practically useless to train teachers in the best 
methods of imparting instruction, and in the use of apparatus and 
other school appliances in the normal school, and not provide for them, 
when in charge of schools, a constant and abundant supply of these 
necessary apx^liances at the very cheapest rates. 

2. He held it to be equally necessary that the pupils, who had ac- 
quired a taste for reading and knowledge in the schools, should have an 
equally abundant and i)erennial supply of the best and purest litera- 
ture as it is issued from the press; otherwise they would be sure to pro- 
cure reading matter (often pernicious, as he had painful proof) for them- 
selves. 

3. He could see no distinction, and therefore could not admit of any, 
in the principle of providing such a twofold supply of school mate- 
rial and reading matter, and in that of providing trained teachers and 
skilled inspectors at the expense of the Province, as well as a money 
bonus to aid in maintaining the schools in a state of efficiency. 

4. He further felt that it was immaterial whether the money voted 
by Parliament was expended in one direction or the other, so long as 
in each department of the system the I test interests and necessities of 
the schools were consulted, and the symmetry and efficiency of the 
school system, as a whole, were preserved and promoted. 

5. He projected this plan of supply on a purely commercial basis, and 
so arranged and successfully carried out his scheme that while there 
was distributed nearly a million dollars' worth of school material and 
books up to the time when the depository was closed, it did not cost 
the country anything for the expenses of its management, as it more 
than paid its way.^ 

I might mention in this connection another of the agencies which 
Dr. Eyerson employed to diffuse valuable information in regard to ed- 
ucation generally, and to inform the school authorities throughout the 
Province (trustees, teachers, inspectors, &c.) of the proceedings of the 
Department. This was a monthly Journal of Education of sixteen 
pages, which he established in 1848, but which ceased to be published 
the year after he left the Department. During the early years of the 
Journal I acted as associate editor with Dr. Eyerson, but during twen- 
ty-five years of its existence I was its sole editor. The following is the 
estimate of its value, as expressed by that veteran educator, Hon. 
Henry Barnard, LL. D., himself for many years the able editor of the 
American Journal of Education. 

' This subject is discussed and illustrated in the accompanying paper on Libraries 
and the Library System of Ontario, by John Hallam, Esq. 

325 



o8 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 
He said : 

Your Journal of Education is so full of the history, the principles, the methodology, 
the biography, aud literature generally of schools and education, why do you not have 
a minute topical index of it prepared ? Such an index will make your sets valuable 
not only to your own scholars, teachers, and statesmen, but to educationists every- 
where. It is a moriimeut of intelligent and practical editorship. 

In 1855 Dr. Eyerson established meteorological stations in connec- 
tion with twelve selected county grammar schools, ten following the 
coast line of the Lakes and on the large rivers, and two entirely inland. 
In this he was aided by Colonel now General Sir (J. H.) Lefroy, E.. B., 
for many years director of the Provincial (now Dominion) Magnetical 
Observatory at Toronto. Sets of instruQients, having been purchased 
in London and tested at the Kew Observatory, were sent out to the 
twelve stations, duly equipped and provided with all necessary appli- 
ances. 

In 1857 Dr. Eyerson made his third educational tour in Europe, where 
he procured, at Antwerp, Brussels, Florence, Eome, Paris, and Loudon, 
an admirable collection of copies of paintings by the Old Masters, 
statues, busts, etc., besides various other articles of a typical character 
for an educational museum in connection with the Department. In 
1867 I was deputed to largely add to this musetim collection, which I 
did in Paris, London, etc., especially in the direction of Egyijtian and 
Assyrian antiquities, busts, casts, fictile ivory, etc. 

In 1858-'61 Dr. Eyerson took a leading part in a protracted public 
discussion before a committee of the House of Assembly, in favor of 
grants to the various "outlying" denominational universities, chiefly 
in terms of Hon. Eobert Baldwin's liberalized University Act of 1853. 
He maintained that these colleges "did the State some service," aud 
that it was right that their claims should be recognized in a substantial 
manner, as colleges of a central university. He deprecated the multi- 
plication of universities in the Province, which he held would be the 
result of a rejection jof the proposed scheme. His plan was not adopted, 
owing to i^ersoaal feeling and prejudice. Events proved the truth of his 
prediction, and universities were increased from five to eight subse- 
quently. Twenty-five years after the close of tliat discussion a scheme 
for the confederation of these colleges was again considered, and has 
been favorably reported upon by most of the colleges concerned. 

In 1867 Dr. Eyerson made his fourth and final educational tour in 
Europe and America. Un his return he submitted to the Government 
a highly valuable " Special Eeport on the Systems and State of Popular 
Education in the several Countries in Europe and the United States of 
America, with Practical Suggestions for the Improvement of Public In- 
struction in Upper Canada.'' He also made a separate and interesting 
"Eeport on the Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb in various Coun- 
tries." A few years afterwards he had the happiness of seeing institu- 
tions of a similar kind in successful operation in this Province. 

For the various objects which he had recommended during the years 
from 1850 to 1870, liberal grants were made by the Legislature. The 
policy of the Government during those years was to sustain Dr. Eyer- 
son and to second his efforts to build up and consolidate the system of 
public instruction which he had taken such pains to establish. The 
result was that our school system expanded and grew in every direc- 
tion, and became firmly rooted in the affections of the people. In this 
way it came to be regarded as one of the most successful' and popular 

326 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 89 

of all our public^ enterprises, and this is tbe feeling in regard to it at 
the present day. 

School legislation, chiefly in regard to high schools and matters of 
detail, took place at intervals in subsequent years ; but in 1871 the final 
school legislation, under Br. Ryerson's auspices, took place. This leg- 
islation was partly remedial, but largely progressive. There were then 
first introduced into our school law some important principles, which as 
yet had not received legislative sanction. They were chielly those relat- 
ing to — 

1. Governmental, combined with local inspection of the schools. 

2. A high and fixed standard of qualifications for inspectors of public 
schools. 

3. The abolition of the inferior office of township superintendents of 
schools, and the substitution of duly certificated county inspectors 
therefor. 

4. The institution of simultaneous and uniform examinations in the 
several counties for teachers desiring certificates of qualification. This 
principle was soon extended to other examinations. 

5. The fixing of a higher standard of qualifications for teachers. 

6. Giving the profession of teaching a fixed legal status, and provid- 
ing more fully for the retirement and supjjort by the profession and the 
Legislature of worn out or retired teachers. 

7. The establishment bylaw of a national system of free schools. 
Hitherto for twenty years this question was annually debated and set- 
tled for each year at the school section meeting of rate- payers. 

8. Declaring the*necessity for, as well as the right by law of, every 
child to attend school, thus recognizing the principle of, and providing 
for, '' compulsory education." 

9. Eequiring that " adequate school accommodations," both in regard 
to school-house, play-ground, and site, be provided by trustees for all 
of the resident children of school age in their localities. 

10. Prescribing a more systematic and comprehensive, yet practical, 
course of study for each kind or class of pupils in the j)ublic schools. 

11. Discriminating, by a clearly defined line, in the course of study, 
between public and high schools. 

12. Providing for the establishment of collegiate institutes, or local 
colleges. 

13. .Declaring the duty of municipalities to maintain high schools 
equally with public schools, and as part of the general system. 

14. Providing for the substitution of township boards of education in 
place of local section trustees. 

15. Authorizing the establishment of industrial schools. 

These were the main features of a wisely progressive School Act passed 
in 1871. In many respects it revolutionized the existing state of things, 
and gave a wonderful impetus to the schools and to every department 
of the school system. 

An entire revision and consolidation of the law^s relating to public and 
high schools took place in 1874, in which Dr. Eyerson took a leading 
part. But the revision related chiefly to details and to the supplj^ of 
former omissions in the law. 

The last important official act of Dr. Eyerson was to arrange for the 
educational exhibit of the Department at the Centennial Exhibition of 
1876. That was successfully carried out; and at the close of the ex- 
hibition the Ibllowiug gratii^ing ''award" was communicated to the 
then venerable ex-chief after he had retired from office. The award 

3'27 



90 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

was made by the American Centennial Commission, and was to the fol- 
lowing effect : 

For a quite complete and admirably arranged exhibition, ilhistrating the Ontario 
system of education and its excellent results ; also for tbe efficiency of an administra- 
tion which has gainedfor the Ontario Department a most honorable distinction among 
government educational agencies. 

This award was quite a gratification to the now retired chief of the 
Department, then in his seventy-third year, and amply repaid him, as 
he said, for many years of anxious toil and solicitude, while it was a 
gratifying and unlooked-for compensation for all of the undeserved op- 
position which he had encountered while laying the foundations of our 
educational system. 

In a letter to a friend toward the close of his official career. Dr. Ey- 
erson thus explained the principles upon which he had conducted the 
educational affairs of the Province during his long administration of 
them. He said : 

Dnring these many years I have organized and administered the Education Depart- 
ment upon the broad and impartial principles which I have always advocated. Dur- 
ing the long period of my administration of the Department I knew neither religious 
sect nor political party ; I knevr no party other than that of the country at large ; I 
never exercised any patronage for personal or party purposes ; I never made or recom- 
mended one of the numerous appointments of teachers in the normal or model schools, 
or clerks in the education office, except npon the ground of testimonials as to per- 
sonal character and qualifications, and on a probationary trial of six months. 

I believe this is the true method of managing all the public departments, and every 
branch of the public service. I believe it would contribute ifumensely to both the 
efficiency and economy of the public service. * * * It would greatly elevate the 
standard of action and attainments and stimulate the ambition of the young men of 
the country, when they know that their selection and advancement in their country's 
service depended upon their individual merits, irrespective of sect or party, and not 
as the reward of zeal as political partisans in elections or otherwise, on their own 
part, or on that of their fathers or relatives. 

The power of a government in a country is inamense for good or ill. It is designed 
by the Supreme Being to be a "minister of God for good" to a vrhole people, without 
partiality, as well ai» without hypocrisy, like the rays of the sun; and the administra- 
tion of infinite wisdom and justice and truth and purity. 

******** 

I know it has been contended that party patronage * * * is an essential ele- 
ment in the existence of a government. * * » The Education Department has ex- 
isted—and it is the highest public department in Upper Canada — forinore than thirty 
years without such an element, with increasing efficiency and increasing strength, in 
the public estimation, duriug the whole of that period. Justice, and virtue, and pat- 
riotism, and intelligence are stronger elements of power and usefulness than those of 
rewarding partisans ; and if the rivalship and competition of public men should con- 
sist in devising and promoting measures for the advancement of the country and in 
exercising the executive power most impartially and intelligently for the best in- 
terests of all classes, then the moral standard of government and of public men would 
be greatly exalted, and the highest civilization of the whole country be advanced. 

In conclusion, I add a few figures to show what a great advance our 
school system made under the administration of Dr. Eyerson. In this 
counection few of the present generation can realize, not only the low. 
status, but the positively inert condition of the Province when he took 
charge of the Department. Men who were fit for no other occupation 
were considered just the men to "keep school." 

In 1844, there were 2,706 public school teachers employed— 2,060 
males and 646 females ; in 1876 there were 6,185—2,780 males and 3,405 
females, being an increase of 3,479 teachers — 720 males and 2,759 fe- 
males. The total expenditure for elementary schools in 1844 was 
$275,000 ; in 1876 it was $3,006,456, an increase of $2,731,456. (Includ- 
32S 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OE EDUCATORS PAPERS. 91 

ing expenditures for high schools, &c., the gross total in 1876 was 
$3,538,952.) The number of elementary school pupils in 1844 was 
96,576 ; in 1876 it was 499,978, an increase of 403,222. 

Thus we see that in everything that was material to the progress of 
the schools the increase was most gratifying. The increase in expendi- 
ture alone, which is the touchstone item, was 800 per cent, in thirty- 
two years, or at the average rate of nearly 20 per cent, per annum. 
And thns all along the line of educational progress Ontario has given 
abundant evidence of her zeal and devotion to the cause of popular 
education and the intellectual enlightenment of her people. 

J. GEORGE HOD GINS. 

Toronto, February, 1885. 

329 



THE APPLICATION OF KINDBEGAETEN PEINOIPLBS TO 
PEIMARY EDUCATION. 

By Prof. W. N. Hailmann, 

President of the Kindergarten Union. 



The one principle on which the kindergarten rests is formulated by 
Froebel as follows: "Education is the conscious development of the 
divine in man and in mankind." This made education broadly and 
essentially religious. It required that in all that was done the feeliug 
among the children to each other, to nature, to God, the growing sense 
of wholeness in regard to these, should pervade the work. From these 
all the principles of the current new education can be derived; the laws 
of organic growth, of harmonious unfolding of the faculties, of self- 
activity, are embodied in this formula. 

The kindergarten is a practical application of these principles in the 
training of children between the ages of three and six. Here the chil- 
dren find ample opportunities for all-sided growth — objects and play- 
things judiciously constructed so that information and skill come to 
them readily and with the glow of success; here they have opportuni- 
ties for sympathy, for helpfulness and gratitude, for loving intercourse 
with nature, for vigorous exercise of the imitative and creative tenden- 
cies, under the guidance of a wise teacher, who knows how to keep be- 
hind the child and keep its face in the right direction, without compul- 
sion, but only by judicious arrangement of surroundings. 

The chief obstacles to the application of these principles lie in the 
inertia of custom among patrons, school officers, and teachers who have 
for years held the one-sided views which make ordinary school educa- 
tion exclusively intellectual (?), mechanical, and egotistical, and who 
look with suspicion on all that lies beyond their accustomed scope. 
However, this opposition is not to ibe much deplored. It creates a 
healthy friction which enables progress to get rid of the vagaries and 
blunders of immoderate enthusiasm and incompetence among reformers. 
In spite of this opposition, or with its help, much has been done already 
in bringing kindergarten principles into the primary school. There is 
everywhere evident a desire to beautify the school- room and render it 
more homelike, a growing tendency to adapt courses of study and 
methods to the needs and even the wishes of the pupils, to regard the 
training of the hand in the introduction of drawing and of a number of 
kindergarten and other occupations, to respect the emotions in the 
time given to music and even painting. All these and many other tend- 
encies clearly show the growth of the new education in the primary 
school. 

There are, however, many directions in which concerted action would 
find it easy to place the school on the path of all-sidedness, harmony, 
and love. There is, first, the course of study, in which the distribu- 
tion of the work can be made wholly on the basis of the child's mental 
330 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 93 

jjower, instead of on the basis of the text book. This has been done 
successfully in the public schools of La Porte, Ind. [Here the speaker 
read extracts in proof of his statement.] In the methods, similar im- 
provements can be made. At La Porte the children make their own 
first and second readers, and they are a great improvement on those 
written and compiled by adults. Arithmetic during the first year is 
taught wholly with things, and the results are most remarkable. 

Again, it is easy to give the child constant opportunities for making 
use of what it learns in social work, in class exercises, school festivals, 
and a variety of ways suggested by kindergarten work. 

[The speaker here illustrated his remarks by many accounts from his 
experience and observation, and closed by referring once more to the 
need of a broadly and essentially religious atmosphere in all that is 
done in the school-rooin.] 

331 



THE APPLICATION OF KINDERGARTEN PRINCIPLES TO 
THE CHILD'S EARLIEST DEVELOPMENT. 

By Mrs. Anna B. Ogden. 



The theory of the kiDdergarten has been, for several years, a leading 
topic at most educational meetings, and one who recollects how little 
was known about it in America fifteen years ago, can but look with 
wonder upon the rapid growth of kindergarten ideas since that time. 

The visitor at the Exposition must observe that there is not an edu- 
cational exhibit from any State in which the kindergarten is not rep- 
resented. When we notice also that the New England States are chiefly 
conspicuous by the fact that they do not exhibit, and that, besides the 
New England kindergartners, several others are conscientiously op- 
posed to the public exhibition of children's work, we realize that the 
friends of the cause have not long to wait. We shall soon see the kin- 
dergarten in its j)lace at the foundation of our system of education. 

As it has been my vocation to work out and apply theories, rather 
than to expound them publicly, I cannot help feeling diffident in un- 
dertaking to follow feebly in the wake of those who have so often and so 
ably explained the beautiful philosophy of the kindergarten. Hence, I 
shall only venture to present a few tableaux from my own experience, 
turning upon them the red light of mother love. 

The most perfect theory is useless, unless it be applied to the life 
about us. And as in physical science all truth is bashed upon experi- 
ment and 'observation, so should we base educational science upon facts 
discovered and principles proven, in lives made better and happier by 
their application. 

For the last fourteen years the kindergarten has been the most ab- 
sorbing interest I have had in life, not only because of its fascinating 
beauty in theory, but because of my need, because it has solved the 
problem of motherhood, which was before so difficult, and because its 
results have so much more than realized my hopes. 

In the kindergarten, as in life, ideals differ, even where general prin- 
ciples coincide ; and sometimes a comparison of ideals throws a clearer 
light upoh the principles involved. 

From the standpoint of motherhood then, I ask you to follow me in 
the application of kindergarten principles to the child's earliest develop- 
ment. That the interest in this subject, though general, is vague and 
shadowy, has been repeatedly proven by the numerous questions to 
wliich I have given patient heed during the last two months, such as, 
" What is a kindergarten f " What is the Exposition kindergarten for?" 
" Is your system different ffom others f" " Is there anything new about 
if?" " Are these motherless children?" ^' Where do you get them?" 
And perhaps the most pointed inquiry of all was asked by a teacher 
who walked in one afternoon, the very embodiment of earnestness, and 
said, " Will yon please tell me what is the point to this method ?" Of 
course the kindergarten is more than a method, and the points are as 
endless as the phases of the child's character. Too often, alas! it has 
332 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 95 

neither point nor method, but in such cases there is very little kinder- 
garten, and a great deal of our national tendency to haste, emulation, 
and display. 

On the other hand, the spirit of the kindergarten, to some extent, 
pervades all of our best educational efforts ; and now and then, at the 
busy work table in a good primary school, work is done more nearly in 
accordance with its principles than is found in the kindergarten de- 
partm'ent of a fashionable school. 

The general principles of kindergartening are so simple, and many of 
them so old. that one of the most common remarks is, " I never went 
to a kindergarten, but my mother was a natural kindergartner." Of 
course she was. Froebel invented the material, it is true, but the prin- 
ciples by which we are guided in its use he discovered in the study ol 
mother and child. Noone can invent God's truth. Are we not in dan- 
ger of overlooking this source of his knowledge in our eager desire to 
apply his theories exactly after his pattern 1 If so, we are mere copy- 
ists, and our kindergarten is but a colored lithograph at best. The real 
kindergartner, like the real Christian, is neither hide-bound nor ambi- 
tious to display new and startling effects ; but drinking deeply from the 
inspiring fountain of Froebel's life and words, goes forth, with eager, 
reverent purpose, to rediscover for her own needs the nature of each 
little child. Her joy is similar to that of the little child she studies, 
as he lives again in epitome the life of the race from which he sprang. 
I need only, for purposes of illustration, refer to the following general 
principles already so familiar : 

You have repeatedly heard, as one of your number more wittily 
than reverently remarked, of " the child with three fathers," nature, 
man, and God. So self-activity, or knowing by doing, is the iirst princi- 
ple of all true education ; then clear impressions must j)repare the way 
for clearness of thinking, willing, and doing ; and thirdly, we must lead 
the infant mind from the concrete towards the abstract. 

Things must precede words ; the child should represent his own ideas 
in a variety of ways, by blocks, sticks, rings, tablets, clay, etc., before 
he attempts to understand the representation of another's thought on 
the printed page. In play, through the charm of rhythmic sound and 
motion, he should form habits of voluntary order, attjcntion, and obedi- 
ence. And, above and beyond all these, seltishness should be elimi- 
nated by the indwelling principle of love, which should pervade alike 
the atmosphere of home, kindergarten, and school. 

These principles are not only the theory of the kindergarten, but of 
life, as expounded by our best and wisest thinkers. Yet here again, as 
in life, perfection of theory does not necessarily include its equally per- 
fect application in practice. Is it because way down in our hearts faith 
is weak ? Or are we too indolent to apply to the actual training of the 
living child the charming system we have worked out again and again 
on paper ? May it not be because teachers are so far in advance of the 
average parent that their efforts are not seconded in the home by pa- 
rental example and influence ? How can this be helped ? We have 
the normal school for teachers, the special training class for kinder- 
gartners, but where are young parents to fit themselves for the greatest 
responsiliility in life ? 

When instruction in kindergartening is a part of every high and nor- 
mal school course, and young women enter the training class, not 
merely with a view to acquiring a livelihood, but ns a ]>iei)a ration for 
life, which, whether one is married or single, uecesyitatcs some contact, 
either for better or worse, with childhood— then shall the natural kin- 

333 



96 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

dergarteu mother be the rule, not the exception, and kiudergartners 
shall be born, not made. When young men cease to look upon children 
with selfish indifference, or as the playthings of an hour, and the young 
father gives even one-tenth of the time absorbed in the pursuit of ma- 
terial wealth, or scientific research, to the study of his own child, then, 
and not till then, may kindergartners and teachers hope to, realize more 
than a faint outline of the ideal kindergarten and school. 

It seems to me I have gathered more of Froebel's thought from watch- 
ing the effect of his Gifts upon baby hearts and hands than from any 
teacher or book. There is no book like the living book. As well may 
one study geology without stones, botany without plants, zoology with- 
out animals, as kindergartening without a baby. It is not enough to 
observe and practice in the model kindergarten, any more than to con- 
fine botanical study to blooming plants. The child should be observed, 
not handled, from a very early period, before the divine thought of 
which he is the expression has been robbed of half its meaning and 
beauty by those who with irreverent haste seek to mold the lovely nat- 
ural leaflet into a conventional form, fit only for the borders of life. 

Like many young mothers, I sacrificed myself and some of childhood's 
divine rights to experiments containing more or less of failure, until I 
was fairly driven into the kindergarten by the ever-restless "What shall 
I do now "? " of my first child. 

Since the kindergarten became a part of our home life, I have watched 
with the most intense interest the early soul development of three chil- 
dren. I hope the egotism of the following memory pictures may be 
pardoned, because one cannot study so closely another's child. 

Froebel discovered, by visiting babies in the homes of German peas- 
ants, that a child at the age of six months gave such 'tokens of intelli- 
gence as to suggest giving it a red woolen ball for its first plaything. 
For this reason little Fred was given no playthings, but simply sur- 
rounded by proper physical conditions for healthy growth, till one day 
he cried when turned away from some gilt picture-frames on which the 
sunshine danced. No doubt the motion of the glancing sunbeams and 
leaf shadows had as much to do with attracting his attention as the 
bright color ; but, at any rate, it seemed to me that he was quite ready 
for his First Gift, though but little over four months old, and I felt 
equally sure that, as an impression of yellow had been partially made 
already, it was best to give him a yellow ball first. He had also a yel- 
low-covered almanac, which it was his great delight to shake, and the 
breaking of a brother's toy furnished him with a yellow wooden cup, in 
which his ball just fitted. "^ This met another universal want of baby- 
liood — to put in and take out. Kindergartners have no doubt noticed 
that Uttle children like to take the blocks out of the boxes again and 
again. He received the rest of the First Gift in the usual order ; but by 
the time he knew yellow, red, blue, and green, he had arrived at the 
pounding period, when babies delight in the exercise of force, and in 
addition to the soft colored balls, he had the wooden ball of the Second 
Gift. 

In the course of a month more the cube was added, and as he showed 
clearly that he enjoyed contrasts in size^ as well as in color, he had in 
addition a pretty large red ball. 

When about a year old, the destructive tendency was nipped in the 
bud by giving him the Third Gift, consisting of eight little .cubes. I 
shall never forget the mixture of surprise and delight with which he 
watched the effect of knocking it over. I was careful nut to disturb 
him till he showed a desire to go to work j then I rebuilt the cube. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 97 

Gradually I taught him how to rebuild it. By and by he would " make 
two pieces," as he called the separation into halves. This, of course, 
took some months, during which time he began to learn to talk, and was 
never tired of saying, < ' Mamma make two pieces," " Mamma make one 
piece," " Freddy make two pieces," " Freddy make one piece." 

He was obedient because his will was not antagonized. The first 
time I refused a request he was about fifteen months old. I had never 
before said "]!!fo" to him, and I was obliged to partially remove the ob- 
ject he desired, to make him understand the meaning of the word. He 
looked ap in a half-puzzled, questioning way, and still intently watch- 
ing my face, reached his hand out toward the object. I said once more, 
"No, Freddy," and moved it a very little farther. He drew a long sigh, 
took his hand away, and quite cheerfully gave his attention to some- 
thing else. 

One day, when he was about two years old, he went to the kinder- 
garten cabinet with a very determined air, and began to open the door. 
I thought he meant to help himself to the material, and said, '-ISTo, 
Freddy, mamma's." To my surprise, instead of obeying me as usual, and 
waiting for me to give him the First and Second Gifts, he hastily flung 
open the door, and, seizing one in each hand in the most excited man- 
ner, said triumphantly, " Dis Freddy's." After that he was allowed to 
help himself to his own Gifts, and he never once meddled with the blocks 
belonging to the kindergarten. 

These experiences led me to watch baby Mary more closely, and when 
she was only two and a half months old I saw her gazing with a new 
look of intelligence at the blue lining of her basket-bed. When she 
next wakened from her morning nap sbe found suspended over her little 
bed, within easy range of vision, a blue ball. (The ball should be sus- 
pended by a fine black silk thread instead of the customary woolen 
one; the child then sees only the ball, and the impression is clearer.) 
When, at the age of four mouths, she began to try to grasp the ball, it 
eluded her, and her cry became impatient. So I put the ball away and 
substituted a piece of blue cashmere until she had acquired more skill 
in grasping. 

I tried to give her the yellow ball next, but she would not have it. I 
then placed three balls before her, blue, yellow, and red. She seized her 
blue ball at once, then looked from one to the other of the two remain- 
ing balls, and grasped the red one with the other hand, still holding fast 
the first. Please note, that a baby who has had too many playthings, 
when given a new one, drops the old. This is because one is not re- 
tained long enough to develop affection and constancy. I discovered 
that when she began to care for two things, she enjoyed &pair of balls, 
similar in size and color, connected by a short string. 

When she was eight months old she would, in play, "jump" the red, 
blue, yellow, or green ball into my hand, suiting her action to my 
words. When she learned to talk her first word was ball, and she 
clearly applied the term to color, form, and motion. Anything blue was 
"ba'," as were an oval postage stamp and a pictured globe in her 
brother's geography; whenever he came in, cap in hand, she shouted 
" ba\ ha\^'> meaning that she wished him to toss his cap up and down, 
like the ball. 

She is now eight years old, and from that day to this her mental de- 
velopment has been a series of delights. Experience with her and her 
classmates has convinced me that it is unwise to continue many of the 
kindergarten occupa.tions into tlie primary school proper. I ibuiid it 
best to make use of them one year, especially group work, in corinec- 
7950 COT, PT. n 7 335 



98 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

tion with lessons in writing and reading, tauglit simultaneously, imd 
plant, animal, and stone lessons, in which the children wrote out their 
own observations. The second year the children were so busy observ- 
ing nature and writing their own books that we could save only half 
an hour a day for regular kindergarten work. They are as infatuated 
with their school work as they used to be with the kindergarten. 

It seems to me important that at least by the eighth year of his life, 
the child should learn to distinguish between work and play and form 
studious habits. This he prefers to do if he receives intelligent guid- 
ance. 

The work done by the class referred to has been entirely voluntary. 
I should have made more use of the advanced kindergarten occupations 
had not the children objected. We still use clay, drawing, building, 
paper-folding, and cutting. It seems to me very important to let tbe 
child outgrow the kindergarten when the proper time arrives. Of 
course, early kindergarten training is presupposed, and kindergarten 
j)rinciples are applied to school work. 

Determined to give the red ball to one child, for the sake of former 
theories, I prepared the proper outside surroundings for little Helen, who 
found her basket bed trimmed with white and red. Eed ribbons looped 
back the window-curtains of the nursery, and round clusters of scarlet 
geraniums greeted her wandering gaze. At the same age as Mary she 
began to observe with some intelligence, and the red ball was suspended 
over her bed during her morning nap, so that it might attract her atten- 
tion when she awakened fresh and happy. She was never allowed to 
become tired of it before it was removed. 

From my own experience and that of other mothers, I feel convinced 
that the baby should have the ball before he is three months old. 

If mothers only knew how fascinating is the play of expression on a 
baby's face, and how rapid is the growth of awakening intellect, nurses 
would be seldom wanted. 

Both of these children spent about an hour a day in the kindergarten 
during infancy, and entered as pupils at the age of two and a half years. 
Mary's first choice of color was blue and Helen's red, when allowed to 
weave and sew. Helen is nearl^'^ four years old, and her whole life cen- 
ters in the kindergarten. Almost every morning, as soon as her eyes 
open, she asks, "Is it kindergarten day?" Five other three-year-old 
children were taken last year for her sake, and our baby class is the 
most perfect one we have. 

If we take these little ones to study, and, while giving them the usual 
occupations, allow them to develop naturally, without forcing this pro- 
cess of development, from the automatic fixation of the attention on an 
attractive object to that growth of will-power and mental activity which 
leads the little child to voluntarily bend all of its powers to the making 
of an attractive object for some dear one, the clearest light is thrown 
upon much that seems mystical in Froebel's theories. 

If these personal reminiscences lead one parent here to careful obser- 
vation instead of arbitrary handling of the little child; if they turn the 
attention of one teacher from a cursory and outside survey of her 
school, to studious, earnest efibi-t to develop the individual nature of 
each pupil "from within outward"; if, of the thousands who through 
pure indiflf'erence and thoughtlessness trample daily on the sweet flower 
of spontaneity, one can be led to at least let children alone, 1 shall not 
regret having gone so far from the well-beaten path of my predecessors. 

Men of science give years of patient study, not only to the natural 
world, but to all the phases of human life, except infancy. The physi- 
336 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 99 

cian thinks it worth while to study mental disease, but pays little at- 
tention to the phenomena of healthy mental development. 

Statistics on insanity give the clew to its probable causes, ill-temper 
and want of self-control predominating over others; but where are the 
statistics and information to guide the young mother in that early de- 
velopment of her infant which shall lead to the formation of those 
habits of industry and self-control which would go far towards the pre- 
vention of insanity and crime*? 

Darwin did take some notes on the mental development of his child. 
But he seems to have been led to it through the study of comparative 
anatomy, after his best years had been spent in observing lower 
animals ; and you may count on the fingers of one hand the men in 
America who dare devote themselves to this subject. 

Babies and the kindergarten have, by universal consent, been turned 
over to women; and, while some of us are doing our best, we shall do 
better when more men take a personal and scientific interest in both. 
Not only is the child imj^roperly handled at home, so that it often enters 
the kindergarten heavily weighted with habits of selfishness, rudeness, 
indolence, and willfulness, but in the kindergarten we are prone to feel 
that some of Froebel's most important theories are not practical. For 
instance, in the city it is thought difficult to bring the child in contact 
with nature. If we sufficiently realized its importance, difficulties 
would only spur us on to greater effort to overcome them. 

The planting of seeds and the care of growing plants is just as im- 
portant as the handling of blocks and sewing of cards. I admit its 
practical difficulty. It is far easier to let a child sew the outline of a 
representative flower (as like and unlike the lovely violet God made as 
one of iSTast's cartoons is like and unlike the face he caricatures) than 
to give hiiu earth, seeds, water, and sufficient oversight to secure the 
growth of the plant as well as the child. But gan there be a question 
as to the comparative benefit to the child*? Can there be a question as 
to the kindergartner's duty! Dare she shirk her duty? 

Again, it is far easier to handle large groups of children in a routine, 
mechanical way, thus securing showy apparent results, than to carefully 
study and foster the growth of each individual in a smaller group. 

But which is the better preparation for the child's future life? Is it 
as important that he shall execute intricate figures under the guidance 
of one who understands how to handle a number, but who does not 
know how to refrain from handling the individuality of the child, so that 
the action of the whole shall be a mere expression of the will of the one, 
as that, like a plant in a well-kept garden, he shall be supplied with the 
outer conditions of sunshine, both physical and moral, pure atmosphere, 
natural and moral, variety of occupation for the busy fingers, and fre- 
quent natural outlets for the inner activity? 

When the ideal kindergarten is even approached, children bubble 
over with joy, and their movements have a spontaneous grace that no 
drilling can produce. 

Here, we toucli upon one of the most intricate problems of education. 
How shall we reach the individual through the masses? We cannot. 
It is absolutely impossible, except, it may be, in spots. But we can 
reach the mass through its individual members. 

As the tiny ant gives its whole strength to the particular grain of 
sand it carries, so if you and I, my fellow-kindergartners, will reach, by 
patient study, as many individual children as we can help without hurt- 
ing; if we can reach their mothers, not only from the outside, in festi. 
vals and exhibits of work done by tiny hands, but from within, by send. 

337 



100 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

ing home to their loving embrace little hands made helpful, little feet 
made willing, little lips made truthful, and little hearts made joyful; if 
we can reach young girls and turn their thoughts from silly pleasures 
to the holj^, reverent study of childhood, shall we not secure better and 
more permanent results than by lowering our ideal to the demands of 
what we choose to call the practical ? 

I know we want the kindergarten in the public school, but more yet 
we want fewer scholars under the care of one overworked primary 
teacher. If we must crowd, let us crowd the big children, not the little 
ones. 

Do we gain anything by introducing a makeshift because we can't 
yet afford the real thing? Is it the true kindergarten theory"? I submit 
these points, not in a spirit of captious criticism, but because all 
children are dear to me, and I so often see them suffer at the hands of 
those who are sincere and earnest, but who look at the kindergarten 
from the outside. Because I have made so many of these mistakes 
myself, and have realized when too late the mischief I had done, I can- 
not help bringing to every kindergarten these test questions: Would I 
dare put my little child here? Is the moral atmosphere pure and nat- 
ural? Would her nature unfold healthfully, lovingly, spontaneously? 
Is there wise care that the occupations do not overstrain the eyes or 
overtax the nerves? Is there no tendency to hurry or confusion? 
American children need especial care in these respects. 

I suppose it- is useless in an age of steam and electricity to think of 
taking adult life at less than railroad speed. We must keep going or 
be trampled under foot. But surely we may give the babies their in- 
fancy. We owe them a fair start in health and happiness before they 
plunge into the turmoil of life. Yet I have seen children who were 
rushed through the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Gifts in little more than one 
year; who were miniature men and women, or rather puppets, at six 
years of age. They looked half worn out already. So much stress was 
laid upon difference of sex that a dear little boy, only four years old, 
was sharply reprimanded for offering, his arm to another little boy in- 
stead of a little girl. He had only been away from his mother a few 
days, and I felt that he would be safer at home than there. 

Having always had a personal interest in my own kindergarten, I 
have constantly applied the same tests to my own work. Many times 
I have discovered mistakes, from the fact that my own child showed 
plainly, by the reaction in the afternoon, that he had been overworked 
or overexcited in the morning. Not one of my own children could en- 
gage in the occupation of pricking without risking the straining of eyes 
and nerves, and I am satisfied that if it is used at all, it must be with 
the greatest care in regard to the effect upon each individual. The use 
of picture sewing cards seems to me attended with danger. The chil- 
dren become mentally indolent, because a pleasing result is secured 
with so little effort. 

I have sometimes been obliged to lock my doors upon visitors, because 
they discussed, not only the system, but the children, within their hear- 
ing. For a similar reason I never dare exhibit a child's work in its 
presence. 

Our Christmas festival is a morning reunion of parents and near 
friends, who receive the presents the children have made for them. 

Perhaps my views are narrow and one-sided; if so, I hope I am open 
to conviction; but it does seem to me entirely foreign to the Froebel 
spirit to disturb in any way the simplicity and spontaneity of early 
338 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 101 

childhood, I do not believe that the best good of the cause is secured 
by the sacrifice of the best part of even one child's nature. 

The true test of our work is what the child is, not what he does. It 
does not matter.how much weaving-, sewing, paper folding and cutting 
he does, it does not matter what beautiful inventions he makes; if he 
becomes vain, full of emulation, greedy for observation and praise, or 
discontented and captious at home, there is a mistake somewhere. The 
kindergartner should see to it that it is not in herself. If, with a high 
ideal before us, we honestly seek the child's highest interests, viz, de- 
velopment of self-control and will-power, not with eye service as men- 
pleasers, but as unto God, we will not go far astray. We cannot too 
carefully examine our work and our motives. 

The kindergartner's vo.cation is second only to that of the parent. 
For the time she stands in the mother's place, and is responsible, not 
only to her, but to her Maker, for the manner in which she accepts and 
fulfills her trust. Does the mother seek to make herself famous as a 
mother? Does she not rather forget self entirely in the joy of mother- 
hood and in the development of her child"? What does she care, either 
for the applause or the criticism of her neighbors, if her child is growing- 
strong, wise, and good, from day to day •'? If not, if she sees that through 
some mistake of hers he is going astray, how tearfully and prayerfully 
she seeks to correct it! How she ignores opposition, and goes steadily 
forward in the path which will secure the best future for her child ! 

Kindergartening is a vocation, not a mere business, or even a profes- 
sion. Only she who is called by a deep love for childhood ; by a divine 
faith in its possibilities; by an humble yet sincere conviction that here 
is the place in life for which she was intended by her Creator ; and by 
that unselfish devotion to the cause and her God which will lead her 
to sink self in the general good — should dare enter upon it. There is no 
such thing as an indifferent kindergartner. We do good consciously, 
or evil unconsciously. 

In the words of another, "'I am, I ought, I can, I will,' are the only 
firm foundation-stones on which we can base our attempt to climb into 
a higher sphere of existence." Not only should we rest firmly upon 
these foundation-stones ourselves, but we should aid little feet to secure 
a similar footing. Undoubtedly the most important time in the child's 
life is when, as he obtains bodily independence and consciousness 
of the world outside of self, he plants himself firmly on the ' ' I am." 
He can hardly step alone from "I am" to "I ought." He needs the 
helping hand of mother love and attractive objects to secure him a tem- 
porary footing on the little stone, "I want to." 

If, instead of thus aiding nature, we refuse to offer the helping hand 
in front and above, and from the towering height of our own self-will 
reach down only to drive and push him with "you must," and "you 
shall,'' the chances are that he will either fall into the mire of eternal 
vacillation, without aim or definite purpose in life, or, with reckless leap, 
skip entirely the stone "I ought," and from the vantage-ground of "I 
can" and "I will," hurl defiance back at our vain attempts to reach 
him. 

If, as kindergartners, we second the mother's efforts to balance the 
child on the "I want to" of unselfish desire to work for others long 
enough to secure his permanent foothold on the "I ought," and if, 
without rivalry or jealousy, we unite in a cordial welcome to each other 
in a combined effort to bring all within hearing to a knowledge of the 
truth — not our own j^et method of applying it, so that it may be said 
of us, "Behold, how these kindergartners love each other!" then may 

339 



102 EDUCATINOAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

we and they hope to climb that summit of earthly perfection so well de- 
scribed by one whose words I quote in closing: 

The highest exercise of the will is shown in those who are endowed with vigorous 
inteileciual powers, and whose strong emotional nature gives force to all their ten- 
dencies to aciioD, but who doterminately fix their attention on the divine ideal, and 
steadily endeavor to shape their character and direct their conduct in accordance 
with it. 

This is not to be effected by dwelling exclusively on any one set of motives, or by 
endeavoring to repress the energy which is in itself healthful. Even the idea of 
duty, operating alo'.ie, tends to reduce the individual to the suhservjence of a slave 
doing his master's bidding, rather than to make him master of himself; but it gives 
the )iiost powerful aid in the acquirement of that power of tixing the thoughts and 
aifections on things on high, which most eftectively detaches them from what is 
earthly and debasing. 

It is by the assimilation, rather than by the subjugation, of the human will to the 
Divine, that man is really lifted towards God; an-^^ in proportion as this assimilation 
has been effected, does it manifest itself in the life and conduct, so that even the 
lowliest actions become holy ininistrations in a temple consecrated by the felt pres- 
ence of the Divinity. Such was the life of the Saviour of mankind; towards that 
standard it is for the Christian disciple to aspire. 
340 



THE MASSACHUSETTS PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM. 
By Hon. J. W. Dickinson; 

Secretary Massachusetts State Board of Education. 



Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen — I have been invited to make a 
brief explanation of the Massachusetts, system of public schools, and of 
the mode of their administration. 

A system is a collection of things or of principles so related to one 
another as to be adapted to the production of some common end. By 
a system of schools is meant a collection of different grades, so related 
as to be the means of education. The Massachusetts system consists 
of four grades, called the primary, intermediate, grammar, and high 
school grades. The different grades may be distinguished from one 
another by the difference in the kinds of knowledge taught in them, and 
in the kinds of mental activity exerted in acquiring that knowledge. 
All the grades below the high school furnish elementary instruction. 
The high school, theoretically, conlines its work to scientific instruction. 
As our system of schools includes those that teach the facts of science 
and those that teach the sciences themselves, it may be seen to be com- 
plete. 

The statutes of the Commonwealth require every town to maintain a 
sufficient number of schools for all the children who may legally attend 
school therein, and the school committee have the sole authority to de- 
termine what is a sufficient number. These schools are to be main- 
tained for at least six months in the year. They are to be taught, by 
teachers of good moral character, and of competent intellectual ability 
to give instruction in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, 
geography, arithmetic, drawing, the history of the United States, and 
good behavioPw In addition to these branches, algebra, vocal music, 
agriculture, sewing, physiology, and hygiene shall be taught by lectures 
or otherwise in all the public schools in which the school committee 
deem it expedient. Schools that teach these subjects are to be main- 
tained in all the towns, and are called common schools. 

There are in the system two grades of secondary, or high schools. 
Every town containing five hundred families or householders is required 
to maintain a high school, to be taught by a master of competent ability 
and good morals, who, in addition to the branches of learning pursued 
in the elementary schools, shall give instruction in general history, book- 
keeping, surveying, geometry, natural philosophy, chemistry, botany, 
the civil jwlity of the Commonwealth and of the United States, and in 
the Latin language. Such high school must be maintained for the ben- 
efit of all the inhabitants of the town ten months at least, exclusive of 
vacations, in each year. This high school is of the second or lowest 
grade. 

If the town contains four thousand inhabitants it must maintain a 
high school of a higher grade, in which shall be taught, in addition to 
the branches of instruction already named, the Greek, and the French 

341 



104 EDUCATIONAL GONVENTIOKS AT NEW OELEAKS EXPOSITION. 

languages, astronomy, geology, rhetoric, logic, intellectual and moral 
science, and j)olitical economy. All pupils passing thoroughly and suc- 
cessfully over the studies taught in the public schools, are fitted to enter 
the superior schools or colleges of the State. 

The public schools of the Commonwealth are organized and controlled 
by public officers called town school committees. These committees are 
chosen by the towns, but they derive their authority from the statutes 
of the State, and are controlled in their action by them. The towns are 
required to elect school committees, but they have a very limited control 
over their conduct. 

The school committees elect the public school teachers and fix their 
salaries. They have the authority to dismiss a teacher whenever they 
see fit, and his salary does not continue beyond the time of his dismissal. 
They determine how many schools shall be maintained in the towns, and 
they distribute the children among the schools established. They decide 
what text books shall be used, what courses of studies shall be taught, 
and what method of teaching shall be practiced. It is their duty to 
keep the school-houses in good order, and to provide the schools with all 
suitable means of teaching. They are to visit the schools frequently, to 
inquire into the manner in which the school work is done by the teachers 
and pupils. They can spend more money for the schools than the towns 
appropriate, if the towns neglect or refuse to raise enough to support 
such schools as the laws require. At the end of the school year, it is 
their duty to make a written report to the towns of their own acts and 
of the condition of the schools, and to make an estimate of the amount 
of money to be raised to meet the expenses of the coming year. It is 
their duty, also, to fill out the blank forms of inquiry sent to them by 
the State Board of Education. From the nature of the duties which the 
statutes have imposed, it will at once appear that no one can properly 
fill the office of school committeeman unless he has been well trained, 
both by study and experience, in school work. The great problem for 
the friends of popular education to solve, is to determine by what ar- 
rangement all the public schools can be placed under the direction of a 
competent supervision. 

Having spoken of the organization and control of the schools, I de- 
sire to call your attention, to the rights and duties of the children. 

Every child in the State between the ages of eight and'fourteen years 
is required to attend some public day school, or some school approved 
by the school committee, at least twenty weeks every year. No child 
under ten years of age shall be employed in any manufacturing or mer- 
cantile establishment in the Commonwealth. No child under twelve 
years of age shall be so employed while the public schools are in session. 
No child under fourteen years of age shall be so employed, except dur- 
ing the vacations of the public schools, unless during the year next 
preceding such employment he has attended for at least twenty weeks 
some j)ublic or private school approved by the school committee. Par- 
ents, superintendents, and overseers of mills, are liable to heavy fines 
if they violate these laws. 

A child wandering about the streets, not attending school nor subject 
to parental control, is a truant. The towns are required to provide suit- 
able places for the confinement, instruction, and discipline of truant 
children. The school committees must appoint two or more truant offi- 
cers in every town, whose duty it is to secure a regular attendance of 
all children of school age upon the public schools. 

Allow me, now, briefly to direct your attention to some of the results 
that have been produced by the administration of our school affairs. 
343 



INTfi&NATlONAL CONORESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 105 

The returns of last year show that there were in the State 336,195 
children between five and fifteen years of age, and that the number 
of pupils of all ages in all the public schools was 242,012. Th6 aver- 
age membership in all the public schools was 277,241, and the per cent, 
of attendance, based upon the average membership, was 89.5. These 
statistics show that the school children of the State are in school. 

The number of persons employed as teachers in the public schools 
during the year was 9,398, 1 for every 36 pupils. Of the 9,398 teachers 
employed, 1,058 w^ere men, 8,340 were women. The average wages of 
male teachers was $108.02, of female teachers $44.18, per month, being 
higher than in any other year of our history. 

The towns are required by law to raise by taxation, for the support of, 
schools, a sum equal at least to $3 for every child between five and fifteen 
years of age. Last year they raised by a voluntary tax $6,502,359.24, a 
sum equal to $19.34 for every child of school age, or to 3f mills on every 
dollar of our taxable property. The statutes require the schools to be 
kept for at least six months in the year. The last returns show that 
they were kept an average of nine months. 

The secondary, or high, schools of the State stand at the head of the 
system. They offer to every child in the Commonwealth the advantages 
of scientific knowledge, and that training of the reflective powers which 
is the foundation of self-control and good citizenship. There are now in 
the State 228 high schools. Sixty-nine towns having less than five hun- 
dred families are voluntarily supporting such schools. This shows that 
secondary instruction is in great favor with the people. The present pop- 
ulation of the State is 1,783,000; of this number 1,619,000, or over 90 per 
cent, of the people, are residing in towns maintaining high schools. 
These institutions are deservedly popular. They complete our system 
of schools by including in it the elementary and scientific schools. They 
stimulate the schools below them by encouraging the pupils to pass 
through their elementary courses of study, that they may enter the upper 
schools for scientific study. They furnish an opportunity for all to ob- 
tain a good English education, and they prepare all who may desire it 
to enter our superior institutions of instruction. They make it possible 
for the children to remain at home while they are pursuing their studies, 
and, what is of vital importance to a free state, they make it possible 
for all the children of the State to grow up together duriiig that period 
of their lives when their habits are forming and their characters are 
becoming established. 

The medium through which the State communicates its will to the 
towns is the Board of Education. This Board was established in 1837. 
It consists of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor of the Common- 
wealth, and eight persons appointed by the Governor with the advice 
and consent of the Council. The powers and duties of the Board are 
defined by the statutes, and its members are appointed to hold office 
for eight years. They are to hold in trust for the Commonwealth any 
grant of land, any donation or bequest of money or other personal 
property, made to it for educational purposes. They prescribe the form 
of registers for the schools, and the blank form of inquiries on which the 
returns are to be made by the school committees. On or before the 
third Wednesday of January they are to lay before the Legislature a 
report containing a printed abstract of returns from the towns, and a 
detailed report of all the doings of the Board, with such observations 
upon the condition and efficiency of the system of popular education, 
and such suggestions concerning the best means of its improvement, 
as the experience and i-eflection of the Board may dictate. They have 

343 



106 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEA^TS EXPOSlTlOif. 

full charge of the six normal schools of the State, in which teachers are 
trained in the philosophy and art of teaching. There are now 2,700 
trained teachers in the public schools. 

To excite and keep alive an intelligent interest in popular education 
among the people, the Board is authorized to conduct teachers' insti- 
tutes in the towns of the State. Last year 35 institutes were held, with 
a total attendance of 2,770 teachers, representing 152 towns. The day 
exercises of the institutes are conducted with especial reference to school 
work, those of the evening have for their object the diffusion of a knowl- 
edge of the public schools among the people. 

The executive officers of the Board are a secretary and three agents. 

It is the duty of the secretary to inierpret the school laws and see 
that they are everywhere observed, to suggest to the Board and to the 
General Court improvements in the present system of public instruction, 
to visit different parts of the Commonwealth' for the purpose of awaken- 
ing and guiding public sentiment in relation to the practical interest of 
education, to collect in his office specimens of the best means of teach- 
ing, to arrange reports and returns of school committees, to distribute 
the State documents relating to the public schools, to hold meetings of 
teachers and school committees, and to send out the annual report of 
the Board, secretary, and agents to the various towns of the State. The 
agents are to assist in accomplishing the same ends. 

The school fund of the State was established in i 834. It now amounts 
to $2,710,241.30, with an annual income of $136,035.55. 

The income is divided into two parts. One part is appropriated to 
defray general educational expenses, the other to aid the small towns in 
supporting their public schools. The establishment of the school fund, 
in connection with the organization of the Board of Education, has been 
the occasion of a great reformation in our school affairs. 

By furnishing material aid the State has established a necessary rela 
tion between its own control and the control of the towns over the man- 
agement of their public schools. The income of the Fund may be with- 
held from those towns that do not comply with the school laws. 

Governor Boutwell said that the establishment of the school fund 
was the most important educational measure ever adopted by the Gov- 
ernment of the Commonwealth, and that, in connection with the organi- 
zation of the Board of Education, it had wrought a salutary change and 
reformation in the character and influence of our public schools. " With 
the Fund," he went on to say, "it is possible to obtain accura.te and 
complete returns from every town in the State; without it, each town 
is kept ignorant of what its neighbors are doing. With the Fund, we 
have a system; without it, all is disjointed and disconnected." 

At the time of the establishment of the Board of Education in 1837 
the schools were in a low and inefficient condition. A general indiffer- 
ence existed toward popular education. There was no department of 
the State Government organized to look after the interests of the pub- 
lic schools. One of the first acts of the Board after its organization was 
the e.stablishment of normal schools for the professional training of 
teachers. These schools have proved the sources from which have 
emanated all our reforms in methods of teaching. They have intro- 
duced the study of the philosophy of education and of those general 
principles upon which all true teaching must be founded. The Board 
have also sent out into every town and school district of the Common- 
wealth its agents, who have visited the schools, consulted with the 
teachers and school committees, and have awakened the school spirit 
in the minds of the people. The Board meets once every mouth for the 

344 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — ^PAPERS. 107 

discussion of all topics pertaining to the general welfare of the public 
schools, and on or before the third Wednesday of January of every year 
it presents to the legislature its annual report, upon which is based all 
our school legislation. 

Our public educational institutions are conducted in accordance with 
the theory that it is their province to furnish an opportunity to all the 
children of the State to acquire so much knowledge and so much dis- 
cipline of the faculties as are necessary to prepare all to enter with a 
good chance for success upon any of the practical affairs of either pri- 
vate or social life. Our public schools do not propose to train their 
members directly for the practice of any trade or any profession. They 
propose to do much more than this — to give to the children an oppor- 
tunity of obtaining that knowledge and that cultivation of their mental 
powers which will in due time bring them to the various occupations of 
life ready to pursue these things in the most intelligent and productive 
manner. 

John Stuart Mill says: "What professional men should carry away 
with them from the public schools is not professional knowledge, but 
that which should direct the use of their professional knowledge, and 
bring the light of general culture to illuminate the technicalities of any 
special pursuit. Men are men before they are lawyers, or merchants, 
or manufacturers, and if the schools make them sensible men they will 
make themselves sensible laborers." 

The public schools should aim to cultivate that general intelligence 
and that philosophic spirit which will bring the youths of the country 
to their particular pursuits in life with strong minds and good hearts. 
By doing this, with all that is implied in it, they will accomplish enough, 
for they will furnish an education which will prove the source of endless 
progress in all the affairs of human life. A liberal education has always 
been considered necessary to a respectable position in the professions, but 
unnecessary to success in the manual occupations of life. Young people 
intending to go into business, as it is called, frequently leave school be- 
fore their courses of study are completed, believing that the abstractions 
of science and the refinements of literature have no appropriate place 
among the acquisitions of business men. The experiences of business 
men are leading them to choose the graduates of our high schools and 
colleges for important work, on account of the business capacity which 
a generous culture is adapted to produce. Secondary instruction, they 
find, is as necessary to guide the hands to successful physical, as it is 
to guide the faculties to successful mental, labor. The artisan as well 
as the artist, the business man as well as the professional, the private 
citizen as well as the law maker, must be lifted above the mechanical 
operations of their work by a knowledge of causes and by skill in the 
application of principles. If one passes successfully through all the 
grades of our public schools, he will be fitted to make, under the guid- 
ance of his own acquired knowledge and trained powers, all other acqui- 
sitions necessary to enable him to occupy, with credit to himself, his 
place in life. 

The schools are severely criticised. Almost every month there may 
be found in the jiublic journals labored articles, written to show that 
the public schools are destroying the health of the young children who 
attend them, that they are crowding into the learner's mind an indigesti- 
ble mass of useless knowledge, and that they stimulate the intellectual 
faculties to an unnatural activity, while the moral nature is left to grow 
wild in all its inherited tendencies to evil. These criticisms are not un- 
frequently passed by those who derive their facts by the activity of their 

345 



108 -EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

imaginations, rather than by a careful and extended observation of those 
things upon which they pass their judgments. The work of the schools, 
as conducted by our skillful and conscientious educators, has no tendency 
to destroy the physical health, or to demoralize the intellectual or moral 
nature. Such results, if produced at all, are caused by influences out- 
side the school-room and beyond the influences of the schools. 

The amount of illiteracy in the State is large, but it is found among 
those who have been sent to us from other lands, and among those upon 
whom our public schools have had no chance to produce their legitimate 
results. Less than two-fifths of one per cent, of our own native children 
belong to the illiterate class. 

We do not need a revolution in our educational affairs; we need re- 
forms and progress; and we may be encouraged in the great work by 
remembering that our public schools have given to our free State an 
intelligent and virtuous people. 

346 



THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF JAPAN. 
By Ichizo Hattori, 

Japanese Commissioner at the Exposition. 



The Japanese Empire is divided* ir to forty -four divisions, or Icens, and 
three/i<, and has a population, according to the last census, of 37,041,368. 
AH the educational affairs of the country are under the control of a 
minister of education, who is a cabinet officer. Under him are a vice- 
commissioner and several secretaries. Each of these liens has a super- 
intendent. Each lien or fu is divided into a large number of school 
districts. At first six hundred inhabitants composed a school district, 
but this plan would not answer, and now small districts are arranged 
according to the needs and location of the population. Owing to the 
fact that families in Japan occupy the same place for many centuries, 
the school district is a fixed one. The plan of selecting a school com- 
mittee is somewhat peculiar. The people elect many more committee- 
men than are required, and from these the Governor selects such as he 
deems best for the office. The school age is from eight to fourteen 
years, and education for at least three sessions a year of sixteen weeks 
each is compulsory. Parents and guardians are responsible for the 
attendance of their children. Private tuition is permitted, but pupils 
thus instructed are examined with, the children of the public schools, 
and if they fail to pass after three trials they are forced to attend the 
I)ub]ic schools. 

The standard programme of elementary studies comprises three 
courses — a lower course of three years, an intermediate course of three 
years, and a. higher course of two years. The lower course comprises 
morals, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history, but the 
last two may be omitted. The intermediate course comprises, in addi- 
tion, geography, history, drawing, natural history, and physics, with 
sewing for girls. After completing this course a i3upil is prepared to 
enter the middle or normal schools. There are in Japan 78 normal 
schools, 29,254 grammar, intermediate, and high schools, with an at- 
tendance of 3,017,088 pupils. There are many boys and girls who desire 
a little higher schooling without going to the normal school, and for 
these there is provided a higher course, in which, in addition, chemis- 
try, physiology, geometry, political economy for boys, and domestic 
economy for girls are introduced. The Government has also allowed 
the introduction of English in the course of studies. 

Teachers may be of either sex, and should be over eighteen years of 
age. All teachers must possess a certificate from the Governoi*, from a 
public or normal school, or a teacher's license. Normal certificates hold 
for seven years, and teachers' certificates for five years. At the end of 
this time all teachers are re examined to ascertain whether they are 
keeping up with the progress of the age. While the Government is ex- 
act in examining the quality of teachers, on the other hand it is trying 

347 



110 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

to make the teachers' positions more attractive. All teachers are exempt 
from military conscription. Titles, qiiasi-oMces, and ranks are given 
to teachers, so that the profession may not be treated as a low or un- 
important one. According to the statistical report of 1882, there are 
29,081 elementary schools, with 300,400 pupils. These schools are in- 
spected from time to time, and no school, public or i)rivate, is allowed 
to shut its doors against private inspection. These inspections are pro- 
ductive of much good. There are 173 middle schools, with 13,088 pu- 
pils. There has been a sudden increase in the attendance on the schools 
within the last two years on account of the revision of the military con- 
script laws. According to the new law, a student in the middle schools 
after a one year's course is exempt from conscription for six years, if he 
remains in the school. If he goes to the university or high professional 
school, after a two year's course, and being a graduate of the middle 
schools, he is relieved from military service altogether. If he does not 
pursue studies higher than those of the military schools, then he has to 
serve only one year in the army, and his service and treatment are dif- 
ferent from those of the other soldiers. 

There has been a tendency to establish too many middle schools with- 
out sufficient funds to support them, a course which tends to lower the 
standard of national instruction. The Government, therefore, would 
rather have fewer middle schools, and have those well organized, than 
have many poorly organized. 

It is desired to have in middle schools well-maintained physical and 
chemical laboratories and gymnasia. At least three of the instructors 
in each school are to possess university or middle normal-school degrees, 
otherwise the Government does not allow the institution to be called a 
middle school. 

The Japanese Government is encouraging education in every way in 
its power, and the people are eager to send their children to the schools. 
There is a bright educational future for Japan, and when another inter- 
national exposition is held, I think Japan will be able to show better 
results from its educational system. 

348 



THE EEOENT EEFORMS IK PUBLIC INSTEUCTIOIs^, AND 
ESPECIALLY IN PEIMAEY INSTEUCTION, IN FEANCE. 

By Mons. B. Buisson, 

Commissioner of France to the Exposition. 



I regret very much that, owing to unavoidable circumstances, France, 
although it has readily answered the call of America to co-operate in the 
educational display so happily connected with the extensive World's In- 
dustrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans, has not been 
able also to send delegates to this pedagogic convention. It is not, I 
have authority to tell you, that your committee's flattering and euticing 
invitation has not been well appreciated in France ; nor is it that French 
educators fail to realize the pleasure and profit which they would have 
been sure to derive from a visit to your wonderful land, a land which 
deserves being called the New World, not so much, in fact, because it 
has the advantage over ours, of being younger, but especially because 
it is, properly speaking, the land of new and progressive ideas, the land 
of new and continual experiment and unlimited improvement. But first. 
Frenchmen, as a rule, are not so ready travelers as the citizens of Aujer- 
ica, or even as their neighbors of England and Germany. Besides, you 
will understand that in Europe, at this time of the year, all the most promi- 
nent teachers and educators are engaged in professional duties which 
it is almost impossible for them to interrupt for an absence of several 
weeks, if not mouths. It was different last summer when, in connec- 
tion with the health exhibition held at South Kensington, an interna- 
tional congress of educators was called in London. There the French 
Education Department was represented by several delegates, not only 
on account of the facility of the journey, but also because the busy aca- 
demical and scholastic year was then closed, and our educators, teach- 
ers, and ofl&cials had entered upon their regular vacation. 

But I repeat that the French educators, who will surely follow and 
watch with interest your deliberations, are thoroughly at one wiih 
you, and most sincerely sympathize with the objects of these meetings, 
so eloquently explained by several of the most gifted and renowned of 
your educators — ^Ibr instance, in the exhaustive paper of General Eaton ; 
in the generous and beautiful address of Dr. White, of Cincinnati ; in 
the so-called conservative, but really most liberal, discourse of the em- 
inent president of Tulane University; in the winning speeches of Dr. 
Mayo, where British humor and pathos are so happily blended ; and in 
other speeches of other great men, whom it has been a great privilege for 
me to meet and see here after having heard so much of them beyond the 
sea. I scarcely need say, gentlemen, that after all we are fighting yonder 
the same battle you are fighting here. We have the same asi)iratious 
which make your solidarity and bond of union, the same ambition of 
bringing about the true emancipation of mankind by education, and by 
an education more and more comprehensive and suggestive, whilst at 

34y 



112 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the same time more and more simplified, free from incambrances, acces- 
sible to all sound minds capable of will and perseverance ; an education 
which, instead of widening the traditional separations between castes, 
creeds, and countries, will on the contrary bring men and nations closer 
to one another, accustom them to vie with each other in the pursuit of 
trade and industry instead of making war, and gradually efface the bar- 
rier of classes, enabling all intelligent and energetic members of society 
to have their place au soleil, as we say, to better their condition, share 
proportionally in the enjoyments of science, literature, and art, and find 
their highest pleasure and reward in co-operating to promote the welfare 
of their country and of mankind at large. 

I am very happy, gentlemen, to be able to say that all our recent re- 
forms in public instruction in France, of which I am going to give you 
a short sketch, have been achieved in this spirit, in this true democratic 
and republican spirit. Pardon me if I use thus these two words in con- 
nection. I know here they seem to you contradictory terms, whilst for 
us they are almost synonymous, and the principal difference we see be- 
tween them is that one is of Latin, the other of Greek derivation. 

When I say that our reforms have been made in a republican or dem- 
ocratic spirit, I mean to say that they are of recent date, a few years 
only having elapsed since we succeeded in defeating the intrigues of the 
coalesced enemies of popular government. Although since 1870 we 
have had the name of Eepublic, it is only since 1877, and especially since 
the election of our actual President, M. Gr6vy, that our Parliament, 
carrying out the wishes of the country, has been able to give up discus- 
sions on the Constitution itself, as sterile as they were stormy, and ap- 
proach those most needed reforms which were to be the foundation of 
all others — those of public instruction. The history of these recent times 
is not yet well known outside our country ; but I have a firm belief that 
the impartial historian of the future will consider it a very remarkable 
fact, and a very creditable one to our republican legislators, that they 
at once understood that priority and precedence was to be given, over 
all questions, to that of education, and especially that they conceived 
and carried out so daring and radical reforms in the domain of national 
education. 

It is an undeniable fact that a very great step has been accomplished. 
To say this is not boasting; rather is it humility, being a candid avowal 
that we had long been backward and far away from that goal toward 
which free nations, and yours among the foremost, had been gradually 
progTessing. Happily for the honor of our country, if we had not suc- 
ceeded in organizing sooner that popular education without which there 
is no true democracy, it was not that statesmen and thinkers had been 
lacking in France to devise plans and schemes of what it ought to be. 

You recollect the beautiful quotation which an eloquent judge of this 
city read to us in his admirable address on the opening day of this Con- 
gress, and which showed that America had prophets who, forty years 
ago, had already dreamed of and minutely described the ideal school- 
house of the future, the ideal school system, and most of the fine results 
recently achieved in several parts of your land. •, In the same way the 
gospel of good education had found in France early apostles. I do not 
speak of the purely speculative and philosophic minds, such as Mon- 
taigne or Eousseau; but open the petitions, or, as they are called, the 
cahiers du tier s-etat of 1789 (a date, by the way, the centennial of which 
we hope to celebrate by a universal exposition, and probably also by a 
monster educational congress, at which your attendance will be urgently 
requested), read the reports presented to the Legislative Assembly by 

350 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 113 

Condorcet, or those of Eomme, Eabaut St. Etienne, Arbogast, Bar6re, 
and especially that of Lakaual, to the Convention. You will see 
that we also had our prophets, our early seers, of the ideal type of 
what ought to be a national system of education in a. republican 
country. 

I beg especially to dwell on the name of Lakanal,^ well known in this 
citj', where he came in his old age during the monarchic Eestoration and 
organized a university. Hiis scheme, presented to the Convention in 
1794, demanded at least one school, containing two sei^arate classes for 
boys and girls, for each 1,000 inhabitants, a board of school inspectors 
in each district, and a central committee of public instruction under the 
immediate control of the popular branch of the legislature. To the 
elementary teaching, the three E's, I should say, if it were not an anach- 
ronism to apply to that, time a phrase coined subsequently, he added 
the elements of the sciences, geography, and the history of free nations. 

Notice that this scheme of Lakanal was considered as too opportunist 
(if I may venture upon another anachronism); that is to say, not radi- 
cal, not comprehensive enough, and was rejected by the Convention, 
which, however, passed later on a bill very little different from it. 

You see, at all events, that our first republic and republicans, in 
spite of their faults and drawbacks, had a sound instinct of the princi- 
ples upon which national education was to be established. They un- 
derstood that teaching all children was not to be considered as a far 
remote ideal, left to the zeal of religious corporations or to private en- 
terprise, but was the paramount function of the State. 

In the same way great foresight had been shown by the legislators 
of our first republic, or, as they are usually called, our cowcentionnels, 
concerning the question of the part to be taken by the Central Govern- 
ment in secondary, technical, and higher education. Most of our great- 
est, and still now most flourishing artistic, literary, and scientific insti- 
tutions, which, in reactionary periods, have remained the centers of high 
culture and independent research, the refuge of generous and liberal 
minds, were the offspring of the Eevolution. They were devised and 
created as^ national institutions by the Convention. That is the case 
with the Ecole Polytechniqiie (primitively called Eeole Centrale des Tra- 
vaux Publics), the Eoole des Langues Orientates, the Bureau des Longi- 
tudes, the Biblioflieque JSfationale, the Archives (Eecord Of&ce), the Musee 
du Louvre^ the Conservatoire de Musique, the Conservatoire des Arts et 
Metiers, and last, but not least, the Institut National, comprising the 
five academies of belles-lettres, arts, sciences, medicine, and moral and 
political sciences. 

I shall not follow up this history of education. Let it suffice to say 
that whilst most of the institutions of intermediate and higher instruc- 
tion survived the fall of the republican government, and managed to 
thrive (though with many vicissitudes) through reactionary periods, 
imperial and monarchical, popular education, for which the help of the 
.national exchequer was most wanted, was almost entirely abandoned to 
religious corporations and reduced to very little till the time of Louis 
Philippe, when a kind of constitutional government, an imitation of that 
of England, was adopted. To this awakening of public spirit corre- 
sponded, as you know, a remarkable reform in primary instruction, and 
M. Guizot, then in charge of the Education Department, immortalized 
his name by presenting a bill, enacted in June, 1833, which organized 
a comparatively very efficient system for the recruiting and training of 

^ See Lakanal, par Paul Tiegeudre, avec preface de Paul Bert. Paris. 

7950 COT, PT. H 8 351 



114 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

scliool-masters, widened the programme of primary instruction, and 
added to the elementary course some sort of a complementary one, a 
course of higher primary instruction. 

Before we reach the quite recent and organic reforms of the Third 
Eepublic, there are still two important dates to mention in the history 
of French public instruction, viz, 1848, when Carnot, during a too short 
tenure of office, tried to make elementary education compulsory and to 
improve the position of the teachers, and 1867, when M. Duruy, a well- 
intentioned reformer, greatly improved elementary instruction and again 
ameliorated the position of the public teacher, whilst greatly developing 
the secondary education of boys and girls, and especially giving a great 
stimulus to higher culture and independent research by the foundation 
of the Ecole des Eautes Etudes. 

But the extended programme of popular education which had been 
sketched out by the National Convention and resumed by the too short- 
lived Eepublic of 1848, was only to be realized in its entirety by our 
Third, and I hope our definitive, Eepublic. The money — for reform 
means always increase of expenditure— the money which in time of 
prosperity neither the liberals of the constitutional monarchy, nor the 
Corps Legislatif of the Second Empire had been able to find for popular 
education, the republican Parliament has not feared to demand of the 
State, department, and municipality, seven years after a terrible for- 
eign and civil war, when the burden of the war indemnity was still 
heavily pressing on the nation. 

At last the wishes of enlightened public opinion, so long frustrated, 
have been satisfied. In not more than three years eleven important bills 
concerning education have been passed by our Houses of Parliament. 
First (and it was in fact the most difficult as well as the first thing to 
do), a considerable fund for building schools has been constituted by a 
law with which will remain connected the name of M. Waddington, our 
present ambassador in England. It was calculated that in order to put 
education on a good footing it was necessary to build 17,320 schools, 
enlarge 5,458, repair 7,381, and buy school furniture for 19,857 schools. 

To carry out this vast scheme without draining too much the national 
exchequer, a sum of one hundred and twenty millions of francs was 
allotted to the Ministry of Public Instruction to be spent in five years, 
half in donations to municipalities, half in loans and advances repayable 
within a period of 31 years. In 1881 an additional sum of one hundred 
millions was again placed at the disposal of the Education Department 
for the same purpose. 

Many critics have clamored that this was too much, that the State 
was making extravagant sacrifices for the instruction of the people; but 
facts will show that, except in very few cases, advances have only been 
made to municipalities which had already exhausted all their own re- 
sources for improving their school buildings, and would have been un- 
able to do more had they not been assisted by the Government. As to 
the school buildings erected in later years, they have also been pro- 
nounced too costly and too luxurious by some of the adversaries of the 
Eepublic. But I am sure that if you consider the models of these new 
schools exhibited in the French gallery at the Exposition by the minis- 
terial committee on school buildings [Gomite des Bdtiments Scolaires), 
which examines the plans and estimates presented by all municipalities 
applying for subventions or advances of money, you will own that those 
school-houses are no palaces, and could not compete, for instance, as far 
as their exterior appearance is concerned, with your elegant McDonogh 
353 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 115 

buildings of this city, but are simply what a common school ought to 
be, combining the strict requirements of hygiene with those of economy. 

At the time when the School Building Fund was constituted, tlie 
annual budget of public instruction was raised by several millions ; and 
year after year it has been increased largely, so that from twenty mill- 
ions before the recent reforms, it has now grown to almost one hundred 
millions of francs. 

These figures, which will not seem enormous to some of your States 
that disburse so lavishly for educational purposes, are nevertheless very 
eloquent if you consider them in comparison with the budget of public 
instruction in France under former governments. The progression is 
surely very remarkable and clearly shows who is the friend of the school- 
master and of the school-boy. 

Here it is : 4,250 francs under Najioleon I ; 50,000 francs under the 
Bourbon Eestoration ;• 3,000,000 francs under the constitutional mon- 
archy of Louis Philippe; 12,000,000 francs under the Second Empire; 
98,000,000 francs Under the Third Republic. 

Those of you, gentlemen, who have already visited our gallery at the 
Exposition, know what use has been made of those new resources granted 
by the liberality of Parliament to the Education Department. They 
have seen specimens of the scientific and geographical material which 
the Ministry of Public Instruction has been lately sending gratuitously 
to many elementary and to all normal schools. Indeed, the first thing to 
do in order to obtain a better primary instruction, was to provide school- 
masters, and normal school students esi3ecially, with all the improved 
didactic appliances and collections which could be procured. The same 
has been done in regard to gymnastic apparatus, surveying and mete- 
orological instruments, and much money has thus been most profitably 
expended for the equipment of our 86 normal schools for male teachers 
and 66 for female teachers. 

Not less useful was the expenditure for strengthening the staff of 
school inspectors for the creation of an Educational Museum {Mu.see 
Fedagogique), having many characteristics in common with your world- 
renowned Bureau of Education at Washington. 

I cannot omit to mention also the creation of new normal schools of 
a higher order which deserve description, those at St. Cloud, Fontenay- 
aux Eoses, and Sceaux. 

The first two are called Ecoles Normales Superieures W Enseignement Pri- 
niaire. They are nurseries for the training of special teachers destined 
to become professors in training-colleges for male and female teachers. 
At St. Cloud the course of instruction consists of the subjects taught 
in the ordinary normal schools, but taught of course with a broader and 
more philosophic view. This college, open to boarders and day schol- 
ars, is entirely free, and its students are recruited by competitive ex- 
amination. Candidates must be at least twenty, and not more than 
twenty-five years old, and have already obtained the teacher's certifi- 
cate of higher degree for primary instruction, or the degree of B. A. or 
B. S. C. The entrance examination includes an essay on a question of 
pedagogy and a viva voce examination on school practice. There are 
two divisions : one for those who wish to become professors of the liter- 
ary, and one for those who wish to become professors of the scientific, 
branches. The course of study lasts two years, at the end of which the 
students are required to come forward to the examination for the spe- 
cial certificate of aptitude to teach in normal schools. 

The college at Fontenay-aux-Eoses is for women, what that of St. 
Cloud is for men. An en^inent inspector-general of schools has beeu 

353 



116 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

appointed as a sort of visitor to have the direction of the studies, but 
there is also a lady principal. Entrance is by competitive examination 
in the same way as at St. Cloud. Certificated teachers only can com- 
pete for admission. Very able teachers have already come from that 
school, and occupy now positions as professors and lady principals in 
training- colleges for school-mistresses. 

In connection with this college, another one called J^cole Fape Car- 
pentier has been created at Sceaux, in remembrance of the late Mme. 
Pape Carpentier, a justly renowned kindergarten teacher and authoress. 
Thfe object of this college is to train lady professors for the normal courses 
or training-schools in which primary school-mistresses are formed. 

We have not yet had time to become acquainted with all the fruits 
which these new institutions can bear, but our educators rightly expect 
most happy results from them, and the promises are already most en- 
couraging. 

A special college (which, for economy's sake, is now to be annexed to 
that of St. Cloud) has also been created in Paris to enable schoolmas- 
ters to acquire some theoretical and practical knowledge of manual 
work. Those interested in the matter may find at the Exposition exten- 
sive specimens of work in the different branches (including wood, iron, 
and stone work, photography, modeling, stereotomy, chemical manipu- 
lations, stuffing of animals, etc.) pursued by the students of that col- 
lege, among whom were several certificated teachers who had come to 
learn the main principles of handicraft in order to be able afterward to 
teach them, or s^e them well taught by skilled workmen in their school 
workshops. 

In order to comi3lete the list of the principal reforms accomplished 
lately by our Parliament with regard to primary education, I have still 
to mention three great bills which became laws in 1881 and 1883. The 
first one concerns the certificates or titles of capacity to teach. It with- 
draws privileges formerly granted to nuns and members of ecclesiastic 
corporations to teach without certificate. It is not in this country that 
I shall have to waste words in pleading the obvious justice of this law, 
which nevertheless was hotly denounced by the clerical party as an at- 
tempt against their rights. But I hope you will rather notice the equity 
and tolerance of our legislators, who have allowed three years to non- 
certificated teachers aftected by this new order of things to obtain the 
required certificate. 

A second bill has made primary education entirely free everywhere in 
Ju'rance. It includes all public infant schools, primary (including ele- 
mentary and higher primary) schools, schools of apprentices, and normal 
schools. In this case again the example of some States of America has 
been often invoked by our reformers, and has helped us to convert to 
our views many liberals who, like those of England, would not, or could 
not, see at first that gratuity and compulsion are two correlative terms. 

By the third bill attendance in primary schools between the ages of 
6 and 13 years was made compulsory, and local boards were instituted 
having power to take legal proceedings against parents who do not 
send their children to school or make manifest that they have them prop- 
erly taught at home. I know that in several States of America, and 
especially in the South, you have not adopted this system; but however 
sad it may be to use the word compulsion when that of persuasion ought 
to suffice, most of you, I believe, will agree that the arm of law alone is 
strong enough to overcome the apathy, indifference, or selfishness of 
many parents who will persevere in misusing their liberty if they have 
the choice of sending or not sending their children to school, 
354 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 1 1 7 

In the case oi France at least, as well as in the case of several other 
European countries, experience has shown that the word compulsion 
was more appalling than the thing itself. Attendance at school has 
now grown very satisfactory, and the new law has met with nothing 
like the obstinate opposition of parents whicli prophets of evil had 
loudly predicted. 

Our Parliament was anxious to crown its work on primary education 
by a law increasing the salaries of elementary school-teachers of all 
grades. An important step in this direction had already been accom- 
plished in 1875 by a law which divides the school-masters in four cate 
gories, with a minimum salary of 900, 1,000, 1,100, and 1,200 francs re- 
spectively, whilst granting a yearly addition of 100 francs toall teachers 
in possession of the higher certificate {brevet superieur), and also a sum 
of 100 francs yearly to all teachers who have obtained the silver medal 
for proficiency which the Education Department grants annually to de- 
serving candidates. But it is to be deeply regretted that our Legisla 
ture and our Government have been unable, up to now, to find the means 
necessary for further increasing, in accordance with the wish of public 
opinion, the salaries of our primary school teachers, whose patience has 
been exemplary. Their position, however, though not so satisfactory as 
it might and must be, is better in France than in some other countries, 
in England for instance, where they have not the advantage of a pen 
sion. Our friend, the Commissioner of Education for Japan, humor- 
ously said the other evening that he did not know how it was in America, 
but that in Japan there were still people inclined to look down upon the 
teachers. There are still in France people of that same disposition ; but I 
am pleased to say that every day they are becoming fewer, and every day 
the status of the school- master imj^roves; he is becoming more and more 
respected by the wealthy tradesman, though he has not the chance of 
suddenly selling his wares at an exorbitant price and making a fortune. 
As a. natural effect of free institutions, teachers have begun to feel more 
solidarity; they hold institutes and conferences; they have been assem- 
bled several times in congres? by the Education Department and they 
elect six representatives to the conseil superieur, which has the supreme 
direction of all the branches of public instruction. Thus it can be said 
that our teachers pursue their career with a good spirit; they like their 
profession; they seldom think of changing it for a clerkship or business 
appointment; they have in the majority of cases embraced with enthu- 
siasm the reform programmes, in regard to which it remains for me to 
say a few words; and though those programmes have considerably 
added to their burden, they like the change and understand that it has 
rightly introduced into our national system of primary instruction many 
of the most fruitful achievements of European and American pedagogy. 

The change, as you know, can be summed up as the victory of realism 
over nominalism. It consists in teaching less by text- books and more 
by the aspects of things themselves, and through the communicative- 
ness of the teacher it can be called the triumph of the intuitive method; 
that is to say, it relies upon the inborn good sense of the child, or the 
force of evidence. The object which the teacher is recommended to 
keep constantly before his eyes is the sound and simultaneous physical, 
intellectual, and moral growth of the child. This doctrine is no nov- 
elty, since it has been widely preached by Rousseau, Froebel, Pestalozzi, 
and many others. The novelty consists in having tried to generalize 
this method for a whole country. 

As good beginnings are often decisive in the formation of the minds of 
childreif, many public kindergarten, or maternal schools, are open to 

355 



118 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

children who have not yet reached the school age, and they are trained 
in them according to this intuitive or Froebellian method. 

Primary education has not done all its function if, in developing the 
mind, it does not also tend to invigorate the body, to strengthen the 
constitution of the child, to surround him with all favorable hygienic 
conditions, at the same time increasing his agility, dexterity, and phys- 
ical activity — qualities which, valuable at all times, are more particu- 
larly necessary to the children of primary schools, destined for the most 
part to professions of manual labor. 

The principal object in intellectual instruction is not that the child 
should learn much, but should know well and in a lasting manner what 
he does learn ; his knowledge must necessarily be limited, but not super- 
ficial. Therefore the teacher must from the beginning make use of 
sensible objects, proceed by ocular demonstration with the pupils rather 
than by affirmation, cause them to see and touch sensible things, and 
only little by little lead them from concrete realities to abstract ideas, 
to reasoning and generalization. The Education Department has made 
great sacrifices in order to help the school-masters in that direction. As 
they had, if not a harder, at least a more delicate task to perform than 
their predecessors, and a rather novel one, it was only just to provide 
them with improved tools ; and therefore, as you will see at the Expo- 
sition, many good maps, globes, magic lanterns and slides, cheap sets of 
physical and chemical instruments, specimens of raw material or manu- 
factured products for object lessons of every kind, have been distributed 
to schools. At the same time the teachers were recommended (and you 
will find proof that they have followed the advice) to try to make for 
themselves, with the co-operation of their pupils, their own school mu- 
seum, herbarium, collection of insects, even their own maps, in flat or 
relief, and drawing models. 

Linear and free-hand drawing occupy a more important place in the 
ordinary curriculum, which also contains manual work, not with the 
view of preparing children from a tender age for any especial manual 
profession, but in order to develop the dexterity of their fingers, and to 
familiarize them early with the handling of the principal tools used by 
workers in wood and iron. This practice, already well organized in the 
schools of Paris, as you will see, is also spreading rapidly and with good 
results in many of our x^rovincial towns and villages. We expect it 
will exert a good influence, because it inspires children of all classes 
with a taste and a due respect for manual work, and besides, in a hygi- 
enic point of view, the hours spent in the school workshop are eminently 
healthy for town children. 

The entire X)rogramme of elementary instruction, which is rather too 
extensive than too narrow, -includes, besides gymnastics, drill, notions 
of hygiene, and manual work, the following subjects: 1, reading; 2, 
writing; 3, native language; 4, history; 5, geography; 6, civic instruc- 
tion, common law, principles of political economy; 7, arithmetic, mathe- 
matics; 8, geometry; 9, drawing and design; 10, elements of physical 
and natural sciences; 11, agriculture and horticulture; 12, singing. You 
will see by the exhibit of a special commission on school decoration, 
that we do not despair of disseminating, even in the elementary schools, 
some appreciation of the beautiful, some taste and zeal for good art. 

The introduction of regular moral and civic instruction in the common 
school has been denounced as an attempt to make the schools godless. 
If you have time to examine, first, the recommendations issued by the 
Department to teachers on the method of teaching that new subject, 
and then to look at a few of the manuals written by several of our most 
356 



iNTEkNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. Il9 

eminent thinkers to serve as guides to school-masters, you will agree, 
I am sure, that this new task intrusted to the public teacher, who rep- 
resents the civil and lay society and the family, and stands neutral 
between creeds and confessions, has, on the contrary, a very noble, 
elevated, and in some sense a religious character, and carmob fail to 
exercise in due time a healthy influence on the hearts of children taught 
to understand that besides theological opinions, which vary greatly, 
there is a common ground, an indisputable worship accepted every- 
where by all the leaders of mankind, the worship of honesty. 

Among the points on which 1 should like also to touch, if I had not 
already abused your patience, is the great development lately given to 
higher primary instruction. It is already a long time since several 
States of the IJuion have added the free high school to the elementary, 
primary, and grammar grades. We had also for many years pretty 
good resources in some great towns for the continuation of primary 
studies, but it is only in recent years that free complementary courses 
of one and two years and higher primary schools ])roper, including a 
good development of essential subjects theoretically taught gs well as 
practical initiation in some of the principal i^rofessions, have been or- 
. ganized on a large scale all over the country. All schools of appren- 
tices for manual work have also been adopted by the State and declared 
part of the free national system of primary instruction. I hope you will 
see in our galleries, in the Paris exhibit, and also in those of the towns 
of Eouen and Havre, very good specimens of what we understand on 
the one hand by a higher i^rimary and professional school, on the other 
by an apprentice school. To facilitate the access to those schools of 
children belonging to famihes of limited means, numei^ous national 
scholarships (courses of 500 francs) are every year open tor competi- 
tion — this money being intended, not for tuition, which is free, but for 
the maintenance of the child, either as a boarder in the school or in his 
family. 

This important step is one of the most truly democratic innovations 
which we have had to record for a long time in France, and much may 
be hoped from its unifying effect upon the different sections of society. 

The results I have been sketching out have been contributed to, I am 
happy to say, by the zealous efforts of private individuals who have 
taken the initiative, and of educational societies, which have been busy 
in enlightening public opinion and in supporting Parliament and the 
Government towards the accomplishment of the above mentioned re- 
forms. Among those societies which have deserved the gratitude of all 
friends of popular education, several of the foremost — for instance, the 
Ligue de V Enseignement, the ^ociece pour V Enseignemen,t EUmeniaire, the 
Union de la Jeioiesse, the Societe des Ecoles Enfantines, the iSocietS pour 
VEiiseignement Profcssionnel des Femmes — have sent to our gallery inter- 
esting exhibits. There is also an extensive display of text-books and 
works on education and art, sent by the Paris publishers' club {Cercle de 
la Librairie), and in which as many as thirty-four of our leading educa- 
tional publishers are represented. 

[After briefly alluding to the liberal and democratic spirit which was 
also noticeable in the recent reforms relative to secondary and higher 
education in Fiance, M. Biiisson concluded by expressing his thanks to 
the Bureau of Education in the name of the French Minister of Public 
Instructioi], for the wide and courteous hospitality which it had given 
to the French educational exhibit in its gallery at the Exposition.] 

357 



OtTR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
By Miss A. Tolman Smith, 

United States Bureau of Education. 



The visit to this country of the British royal commissioners on tech- 
nical inatructioD is a recent event. One of their number, Mr. William 
Mather, specially charged to inquire into technical education in the 
United States, in his official report has expressed himself as follows 
with reference to our rural schools : 

The district schools in the rural parts of the counties are conducted on the basis 
of the city schools, excepting that the recognized school period is twenty weeks in 
the year instead of forty. These schools have attracted some special attention in 
America on account of the general intelligence and aptitude for the industrial arts 
displayed by the scholars on entering upon employment in the cities. In the New 
England States especially (Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode 
Island, and Connecticut), the absolute necessity for children over ten years of age to 
assist on the farm in the summer months has rendered it imperative to blend school 
and farm work in such a way that' the parents may have assistance while the chil- 
dren's teaching is not sacriiiced. The stony and somewhat sterile lands of New Eng- 
land require intense activity, industry, and skill on the part of the farmer to make a 
1 iving. As hired labor is very dear, he depends on his own household for help. Every 
kind of work has to be done at home. Blacksmith's, wheelwright's, machinist's, 
carpenter's, and hydraulic work become as familiar to the farmer, in a rough and 
ready way, as plowing, tilling, sowing, and reaping. All handicrafts, in a greater 
or less degree, are acquired. The farmer's boy is thus provided with an industrial train- 
iug of the best kind in and around his home. His wits are sharpened, his perceptions 
developed. There is a large field for the immediate application of knowledge acquired 
at school on the one hand; on the other, the school exercises and lessons are more 
readily understood by a boy or girl having in daily life to deal directly with natural 
forces and laws. These county or district schools, associated as they are with agri- 
cultural and mechanical occupations, j)roduce better results, as a whole, among the 
artisan classes than the city schools, the attendance at which is for the entire school 
year of forty weeks. My attention has been drawn to this fact by many employers 
and educationists, and it has been confirmed by my own observations. It suggests 
the importance of introducing into the elementary public schools of cities some in- 
dustrial training. "Our brightest boys come from the countrj''" is a phrase which 
has become very familiar to me in America. 

The results that impressed Mr. Mather so favorably must not, it is 
true, be attributed wholly to the schools. They are due rather to a com- 
bination of circumstances scarcely to be found outside of the States that 
he names. Among these circumstances must be counted, in addition to 
the schools, limited area, dense population, facility of intercourse, and 
the abundance of agencies for stimulating the mind, as libraries, news- 
papers, local societies, &c. ; nor will it do to overlook the conditions of 
the population with respect to age, sex, antecedents, and race, conditions 
that were very fully treated of in a circular of information published by 
the Bureau of Education (No. 3, 1884). 

Against the conception of the intellectual and industrial aptness of 

the country lads of certain parts of the United States so flatteringly set 

forth by Mr. Mather, I am tempted to place the picture of a family circle 

in the midst of which 1 summered two years ago, a picture that may 

358 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 121 

easily be reproduced in other districts. It was in a farming country, 
and in the house of a small landed proprietor, who inherited little more 
than his estate and his ancestral pride. Upon the whole adult portion 
of the family had settled helpless despair. The older sons sauntered into 
the house at supper time, ate their evening meal in sullen silence, and 
betook themselves to the chimney corner and their pipes. The daugh- 
ters busied themselves with household work during the day, and at even- 
ing yawned for a while in the best room, out of consideration, as it ap- 
peared, for their boarder, their usual custom having been to go to bed 
as soon as the chores were done up. They could all read a little, but 
too little to make the exercise pleasant or profitable. The only events 
that served to break up the dreary monotony of their lives were horse- 
fair and training days. 

The region round about had been destitute of schools when these sons 
and daughters were children, which must be regarded as one of the 
causes of their depressed lives. But even here I had opportunity of 
proving how the common school may revive and reinvigorate the decay- 
ing energies of human nature. The youngest son of the household be- 
longed to the period that had given to this district the free school, with 
all the sentiments that are back of and in the free school. Against the 
protest of parents and the indignation of brothers and sisters he had 
taken his place on its roll, mastered its lessons, passed the examination 
for admission to a public high school in a distant town, and at the time 
of my sojourn with the family was attending the same, paying the sanall 
fee charged to a non-resident of the town from the proceeds of a little 
patch of land that his father had made over to him. The mother of this 
family was one of those silent, stony women in whom the capacity for 
hope or fear seems to have been obliterated ; but I did, once or twice, 
catch her standing at the window watching that boy as he mounted his 
horse and started on his seven-mile ride to school, with tears of loving 
pride welling up in her eyes. The moral of that scene is indelibly fixed 
in my mind: Where the school is, there is hope. 

Whether, then, we regard general results, or particular instances, the 
mere recognition of the free school as an essential condition of progress 
is seen to be so great an advantage tha;t we must hesitate to expose the 
failures and shortcomings of the poorest of these institutions, for fear 
of helping to set things back toward the "chaos and old night" of the 
ante-school era. It must, however, be remembered that the school lives 
by improvement, so that from the moment it is established, it becomes 
necessary to consider how it may be bettered. 

If we examine minutely into the condition of the common schools 
in the various States of the Union, we shall be struck with the evidence 
of common causes of weakness or mischievous tendencies. Presumably, 
however, the schools of certain States are better than those of others. 
If relatively more money is expended in the one case than in the other, 
if the schools have been longer established, if they stand higher in 
public esteem, if they have better housing, better teachers, longer ses- 
sions, and are more fully supplied with the material appliances of edu- 
cation, then undoubtedly they produce better results. Yet in the annual 
reports of all school officers there is a similarity of complaints and criti- 
cisms that would be misleading if we did not remember that the ideal 
advances with the advancing institution. 

So far from being on a dead level, our country schools exhibit vary- 
ing degrees of excellence. Methods have been adopted, plans worked 
out, results achieved in some districts, the knowledge of which is exactly 
what is required to give direction to the efforts in other districts. 

359 



122 EDtJClTlONlL CONVEiJT10N& At NEW OELEAifS EXPOSITION. 

While, then, as a rule, it may be best for the educators of a particular 
district to concern themselves with what remains to be accomplished, 
rather than what has been accomplished, when assembled together for 
conference and mutual encouragement, their attention may well be di- 
rected to the conditions of excellence that have already been secured 
in one or another section, 

INSPECTION. 

Inspection, which has come last in the order of development, I place 
first in this consideration, since I am persuaded that in a system formed 
in accordance with conclusions derived from the most satisfactory expe- 
rience, it would be a fundamental condition. 

By inspection I mean the service that consists in a constant attention 
to the work of instruction going on in the schools, and to the condition 
of school buildings, appliances, etc., with the definite object of correct- 
ing errors, removing hinderances, and maintaining steady progress. The 
incumbents of the office should be qualified by scholarship, experience, 
and those natural dispositions that command the respect of adults and 
the confidence of children. They should be well paid for the service 
and should have sufficient authority to carry out the measures they 
deem expedient. 

The school laws of a number of the States provide for such an over 
sight of the country schools, and it has been put into operation and 
may be judged by its practical effects in a number of counties, town- 
ships, or groups of towns uniting voluntarily for this purpose. Exam- 
ples are not wanting of the failure of this agency, where it has been 
established, to effect any material improvement in the schools, but in 
such cases it is almost invariably found that the salary is so small as to 
preclude the possibility of effective service. 

Let us now take a glance at some of the encouraging facts and opin- 
ions that meet us in the Eeports ot this Department. 

In New Jersey county superintendents have secured uniform text- 
books iu 198 of the 361 districts of the State. For those who have had 
any i)ersonal experience of the text-book problem, comment is unneces- 
sary. Hon. J. W. Dickinson, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board, 
writes: "It is now known that in all countries the schools are good in 
proportion as their superintendence is good, and poor as their superin- 
tendence is inefficient. * * * How can our rural communities be 
supplied with this essential element without adding too much weight to 
the school burden already resting heavily ui)on them"? This is*the vital 
question thatisnow pressing itself upon these communities for an answer." 
In two instances, as I see from Eeports before me, two adjoining towns 
of Massachusetts have elected one superintendent to serve iu both, ad- 
justing between themselves his salary and services. The plan has 
worked admirably. 

In Illinois, according to the latest Keport, there are twenty-six city 
or village superintendents who spend their entire time in supervision ; 
Ibrty-three who spend two-thirds of their time; sixty-nine who spend 
one-third of their time, and one hundred and five who spend one hour 
a day. 

In California, although the average pay of county superintendents is 

above $1,000, individual salaries vary greatly, some of them being 

ridiculously small. The State superintendent, who has had abundant 

opportunity of satisfying himself as to the merits of the service, urges 

360 



INTERNAtiONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 123 

the matter upon the attention of the people in his late Eeport as 
follows: 

In every county the superintendeut of the schools should receive a decent and com- 
fortable support, so that he may he contented and able to givfe his whole time to his 
iluties. The people can impose a local tax on themselves for additional school facili- 
ties, and surely none can be so valuable as a good superintendent. But I prefer to 
invite the attention of the Legislature to this important matter, and leave the details 
of accomplishing this great reform to their vrisdom. 

Hon. Le Eoy D. Brown, Commissioner of Common Schools, Ohio, 
writes: 

In a few townships in Ohio, boards of education have been wise enough to employ 
superintendents. Where this has been done the schools have been graded, uniform 
rules and regulations for the government of the schools in each township have been 
adopted, complaints concerning text-books and inefficient teachers have disappeared, 
and in every respect the schools have improved. In the larger townships in which 
supervision has been adopted, the superintendents have either devoted their entire 
time to supervision or have been made the teachers of township high schools. In the 
smaller townships the superintendents have taught the central school of the town- 
ship, and have, by teachers' meetings and occasional tours of inspection when their 
own schools were not in session, seen thai the rules of the Board were enforced. At 
the close of the school year the township clerks have received the reports of the super- 
intendents, who had consolidated the reports of the several teachers under their direc- 
tion, and in cases of this kind the reports have been uniformly correct. 

The mode of operation is shown in detail in the following extract from 
the Keport of one of the township superintendents : 

The entire time of the superintendent was spent in the discharge of the various 
duties assigned him. The oversight of the school-room work occupied a larger por- 
tion of time than any other. Visits to the different schools were made as often and 
as regularly as time and circumstances would permit, the average being about two 
visits every three weeks to each. As to the manner of the oversight of the work in 
these schools, I think it does not differ materially from supervision elsewhere, except 
as it was modified by the different condition of things. The aid that was thus offered 
to the different teachers was, for the most part, kindly received; the exceptions, it is 
needless to say, were not found among the earnest and progressive. 

Within the year three examinations were held. The questions were prepared by 
the superintendent and given to the teachers, each school having the same lists and 
being required to do the work at the same time. The papers were examined by the 
teachers, and then handed to the superintendent for inspection. The results of the 
examinations, as well as the papers, were then shown to all the schools, thus, by a 
comparison of work, bringing them into friendly competition and cultivating a spirit 
of emulation. 

The teachers of the township met regularly every three weeks throughout the year 
for the purpose of discussing the principles and methods of education and to consider 
the practical Avorking of our plans. At the same time the course of reading prescribed 
by the Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle was carried on in such a manner as to give 
variety to the other exercises without interfering with them. The number of such 
meetings held within the year was eleven, with an average attendance of eight — an 
attendance too small for the number of teachers, from thirteen to fifteen being em- 
ployed in the township; yet the difficulties of distance and bad weather serve, to 
some extent, as excuses. Besides the regular teachers' meetings, three educational 
meetings were held, with a manifold object in view — first, to luring the schools to- 
gether, cultivate a spirit of harmony, and induce a feeling of relationship ; second, 
to exhibit the methods of different teachers before all, as shown in actual class work ; 
third, to secure the attendance of the patrons of the schools, and thus enlist their 
sympathies and co-operation in the school work. Further objects need not here be 
recounted. 

I could add greatly to this testimony of fact and experience from re- 
ports before me of the results of similar work in certain counties of 
Maine, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ala- 
bama, Michigan, Minnesota, Indiaua, and Wisconsin; but I have already 
extended this topic beyond the limits of time and patience. I pass to 
a second consideration: 

361 



124 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLfiAHS EXPOSITION. 
THE GRADING OF COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Union of districts, abolition of small schools, grading, are conditions 
that come naturally in the line of adequate local supervision. They 
come indeed sometimes without it, in which case they generally become 
the cause of it, so closely are the parts of an ideal system related. To 
realize how far the country at large is from any such ideal, it is only 
necessary to count the number of schools enrolling two, five, six, nine, 
ten pupils, with sessions of ninety days, sixty-five days, forty days, in 
a year, and affording teachers a miserable pittance, $98, $67, a year, 
and part of that taken up in "boarding round." 

But I promised at the outset to confine myself to the optimistic view 
of our schools, so I turn to a pleasing picture of what may be accom- 
plished by combination. 

The Connecticut Board of Education reports that: 

In the towns where the district system has been given up, there has been gener- 
ally a very decided improvement io the schools. Some towns have made an objection 
to this change on the ground that, although it might work well for the central dis- 
tricts, it would be an injury to the othei s. But they have found that this has not 
taken place. The school at the center has indeed been improved, and scholars have 
attended it who, under the other system, would have been excluded. In some cases 
as many as one-quarter of the whole number in attendance has been from outside, 
and so the whole town has had the beuetit of the improvement. But the other schools, 
instead (;f being harmed, have been helped, for they have been relieved from the older 
scholars who once absorbed the greatest part of the teacher's time a,nd attention, and 
so the teacher could the better care for the younger pupils. 

By a little computation it may be seen that the money expended for 
all the schools of Connecticut, when divided by the number of children 
in attendance, is equal to the per capita cost of educating the children 
of Kew Haven, or about $22. The cost of educating the children in the 
one hundred and fifty-eigbt districts that had each less than eight pupils 
in attendance the past year, was $30 per capita. In some districts the 
price ran even so high as $50 to $95 j)er scholar, and instruction very 
poor at that. This is a problem that may be worked out with equally 
striking results in every State of the Union. It is particularly recom- 
mended to those anxious economists who fancy that the city-graded 
schools represent the extravagant side of our common-school system. 

It will be observed that the grading of schools in these towns of Con- 
necticut was brought about by the overthrow of the district system; 
fortunately, however, it is a desideratum that, like roast pig, does not 
absolutely require revolutions or conflagrations. The principle of the 
system is in a graded course of study tor country schools. When this 
has been once adopted the. rest may reasonably be expected to follow. 
None know so well as superintendents how much enthusiasm has been 
expended upon this simple expedient, and how much opposition it has 
encountered. Why it should be opposed is as inexplicable as that 
Hindoo laborers should ever have preferred to carry wheelbarrows on 
their shoulders. Happily human XJerseverance is stronger even than 
human obstinacy. Wheelbarrows are at last trundled along the banks 
of the Ganges, and it is just as certain that in time system will be a 
feature of our country schools. 

The essential thing seems to be to get the parents interested in the 
matter; from them to the legislature is only a step. In California the 
step has been taken and the law now requires county boards of educa- 
tion to prepare and publish outline courses of study for the county 
schools, and the teachers to use the same. In other States the measure 
seems only to have been introduced in individual districts, here and 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS— PAPERS. 125 

there, but the number of these steadily increases. Moreover, reports 
reach us of districts in which the measure has been in operation long 
enough to enable one or more classes to complete the prescribed course, 
pass an examination in the same, and receive the stipulated diploma or 
certificate. From twenty difterent reports of this kind I select the fol- 
lowirg exaiyples. 

Hon. A. A. Bailey, County Superintendent, Contra Costa County, 
California, writes as follows : 

Under the Caminetti Act the Board of Education has prepared and sent to each 
school sets of examination questions for the highest four grades in all the studies 
required by the law. These questions were used simultaneously in October and in 
May, the papers of the pupils marked by the teachers, and returned to this of6ce for 
final review. Promotions were made at the close of the May examination, and a cat- 
alogue published, showing the grade of every pupil in the county. While this has 
entailed a vast amount of extra work, it has done more to properly classify the schools 
than anything heretofore attempted. 

Diplomas of graduation Avere granted to twenty-three applicants who passed the 
examination held for that purpose. 

Superintendent Bruce, of Camden County, New Jersey, says : 

During the four years from 1877 to 1881 eighteen districts had graduates. In most 
every district there is a great desire to have pupils complete the course and obtain a 
diploma. It gives a standing to the school and to the teacher. I can say that more 
and better work — double the work — is done in the allotted school year than was done 
in 1872, and for a much lower rate of compensation. 

Hon. D. L. Kiehle, State Superintendent of Public Instruction for 
Minnesota, makes the following statement in his report for 1883-'84: 

Eighteen months ago there were few persons in the country who believed that a 
coui'se of study couldbe used to advantage in country schools ; but one was prepared 
and placed in the hands of teachers and school officers ; local teachers' meetings were 
held to explain and urge its use ; an educational department was conducted in one 
of the country papers for the same purpose, and the results have been so satisfactory 
that teachers, at least, now almost unanimously favor the plan. Owing to short 
terms, poor teachers, or other obstacles, the use of the course in some schools is, as 
yet, scarcely more than nominal ; but it is apparent that nothing has anywhere been 
lost by attempting to introduce it, and that even its partial introduction has been 
beneficial, while in about fifty per cent, of the schools — those where it has been most 
faithfully tried — its use has saved time, driven out listlessness and stagnation, secured 
better teaching, especially in the primary grades, and increased the regularity of 
attendance. Its effect upon attendance is shown in the fact that the average daily 
attendance, as compared with the total enrollment, was five per cent, higher for the 
summer term of 1884 than for the corresponding term two years- before. That this 
will be still further increased, at least five p^er cent, within a year, seems altogether 
likely. In endeavoring to introduce and enforce the use of a course of study several 
things have been done that are, perhaps, worthy of mention. 

Each year a manual and guide for teachers and pupils has been issued, containing 
a course of study, with directions and suggestions as to its use. Five hundred copies 
were printed the first time, 1,.500 a few months later, aud now an edition of 2,500 is 
in press. These are distributed to all school officers and teachers, and to pupils of 
the grammar grade. Circulars have been issued from time to time. Last spring 
4,000 were distributed to teachers, school-officers, and parents, upon the use of a, course 
of study m country schools. The hektograph has been freely used in preparing cir- 
cular letters to teachers. The cost of printing manuals and circulars, amounting in 
the aggregate to more than $300, has been paid by the insertion in them of advertise- 
ments. 

Monthly written examinations have been recommended, and examinations are re- 
quired at least as often as once in each term of two months, twice in each term of 
three months, and three times in each term of four or five months. 

Effort, in many cases successful, has been made to have other school work — such 
as specimens of penmanship, maps, written exercises prepared in connection with 
language, reading, historj-, and geography recitations — preserved and put oq exhibi- 
tion in each school-room. Hereafter, quantities of this work will be exhibited at our 
teachers' institutes and our fairs ; and it is believed that, if proper care is exercised in 
preventing waste of time on that which is not useful aud the giving of undue atten- 
tion to hobbies, the plan cannot fail to be very beneficial to our schools. Our plan 

' 363 



126 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

of examinations contemplates the occasional use of questions furnished hy the county- 
superintendent, and the holding by him of an annual written examination in each 
township for pupils of the grammar grade. The papers of all those taking part in 
the township examinations will be marked by the superintendent, and a certilicate 
presented to each pupil, showing his grade and his rank in the classof the township. 

One of the most important outcomes of the measure is the establishing- 
of intimate relations between the elementary country schools and public 
schools of higher grade. It is proposed, in some cases, to accept the final 
examination in the course for the country schools as the equivalent of the 
examination for admission to the high schools; in others, to make it a 
prerequisite for admission to the State normal schools ; and in others 
to accept it as an equivalent for the examination for a teachers' third 
grade certificate, provided the holder passes the additional examination 
required in the theory and methods of teaching. 

IMPROVED SCHOOL-HOirSES. 

To one who is looking upon the bright side of our school history, 
nothing is more noticeable than the improvement in school-houses, and 
the increased interest in this matter within three or four years. If we 
keep on, the village school will soon be the most picturesque object in 
every landscape. But the questions that are constantly received at the 
Bureau of Education with reference to school-houses have to do, not with 
their picturesque elements, but with their substantial properties — form, 
dimension, cost, etc. The following description of a school-house re- 
cently built in Connecticut, meets exactly the conditions set forth in a 
large proportion of these queries, and will therefore, I judge, be of 
general interest. 

The outside dimensions are 20 by 30 ; 11-feet posts. It is designed to seat twenty- 
four scholars. There will be floor room enough for six to eight more, but the room 
is not intended for that. 

There are two blackboards or black walls, one on each end, 12 feet long, 'S feet wide. 
The contract for building in good and complete style was $600, cellar and all. The 
lot costs $50, seats $50, outbuildings $50, and other minor expenses about $50, making 
total cost about $800. It is certainly a cheap and pretty country school-house, quite 
a contrast to the old-fashioned red school-house. 

It is built of the best material and is in every way first class. The school-room is 
19^ by 19|, plastered two coats, wainscoted up 3 feet. The boys' and girls' entries 
are separate, each 9 by 7 feet, and ceiled with spruce. The closet between these is 
to store maps, or for a library. The outbuildings are fifty feet in rear of the school- 
house. ^ 

THE TEACHINa FORCE. 

And now, in conclusion, I find myself irresistibly drawn to a topic 
upon which only an optimist of the Mark Tapley school could dwell 
with cheerful satisfaction, viz, the qualifications of teachers. Under 
this head I had gathered what seemed an imposing array of evidences 
of progress. Thus, the State laws making normal-school diplomas, or 
certificates obtained by examination, prerequisites for service in the 
schools ; the increasing number of teachers who obtain long-term and 
life certificates ; the increasing number of teachers who have had nor- 
mal training; above all, the close scrutiny of the facts relating to the 
subject and the unflinching presentation of the same by supervising 
ofdcers — all of these I had noted, when I bethought myself of the aver- 
age wages of teachers as set forth in the Annual Eeport of the United 

1 From Report of Hon, Charles D. Hine, Secretary of Connecticut Board of Educ£t' 
tion, 1884. 



i64 






IKTEKNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 127 

States Commissioner of Education. I examined the summary, and 
turning then to the statement of particulars in the Appendix, figured 
up how much these averages would be decreased if all city salaries were 
omitted. With these significant figures before me, I was forced to ad- 
mit that the evidences of progress alluded to count for naught, only so 
far as they show a movement toward the ideal suggested in the words 
of Dr. Philip Lindsley in an address before the University of JSTashville 
in 1826: " Until school-beeping be made an honorable and a lucrative 
profession, suitable teachers will never be forthcoming in this free 
country." 
For this ideal may we work, remembering still, 

It is better to strive for the good than, to rail at the ill. 

365 



THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 

By Chakles S. YouNa, 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Nevada. 



The modern free-school system is about three and one-half centuries 
old. When it was adopted for his nation by the King of Saxony, the 
well-known educational systems of the ancient world, China, India, 
Greece, Eome, and the Empires of Mohammed and Charlemagne, had 
lost prestige and power. Each system successively had supplied the 
demands of the period in which it flourished; each had merits especially 
valuable to the people adopting it; but the glory of each had dimmed 
and the civilization Of the sixteenth century demanded a new school 
system. Necessity knows no law, and as in nations, so in the different 
sections of the same nation, the educational facilities vary in kind and 
efficiency. The schools of the South are not the schools of the Middle 
States; the schools of New England are not the schools of the Pacific 
coast. As differ the people, their occupations, and the natural scenery 
surrounding each, so differ the avenues to an education. As it repre- 
sents the many cities and States of one Union, so this body of educa- 
tors represents not one system, but many systems in one. 

There is within the Department of the Interior a Bureau of Educa- 
tion whose Commissioner, assisted by twenty clerks, supplies 55,000,000 
of people with circulars of information; but in the nation practically 
there is no educational center. The West Point Military Academy and 
the Annapolis Naval Academy are national schools, but we have no 
normal schools as the head of a system — no Oxford, or Berlin, or Leip- 
sic, or Munich. Since the administration of Washington the Govern- 
ment has appropriated for educational purposes $47,000,000 and over 
i)6,000,000 acres of land. There is enlisted and already in the field a 
band of 300,000 teachers making the crusade against that ignorance 
which is represented by an army of 6,000,000 of our people; yet from 
its political eminence the Government at Washington looks on simply 
as an interested spectator. Springing directly from the people, local 
in its system of taxation, local in its government, the school is inevita- 
ble as are its patrons. 

That we may have clearly before us the educational outlook on the 
Pacific coast, its topography fmd its people first must be considered. 
Separated from the "Great East" by a wall higher than that which sur- 
rounded China or ancient Babylon; separated by an impenetrable bar- 
rier of porphyry and granite stretching from the British possessions on 
the north to our sister republic on the south, it is not strange that 
there exists socially and educationally^ this Western Empire. In the 
purity of its mountain streams, in the fertility of its valleys, nature has 
anticipated this civilization. In the same month of the same year that 
was signed the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, on the American River 
was discovered the precious jnet^l that made real the dreams of the 
366 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



129 



Spanish voyager, and attracted to this Eldorado the peoples of South 
America, Europe,'aud China. As was the great historic scene at Appo- 
mattox to the education of the "Sunny South," so was the treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo to the development of the "Golden West." 

On these Argonautic expeditions westward there were represented 
all peoples, from the veriest Chinese serf to the most intellectual Cau- 
casian sovereign. The following table will show the native and foreign 
population of some of the Pacific Coast States compared with that of 
the United States and with Ohio and Virginia: 



State or Territory. 



Native. 



Foreign. 



Native. 



Foreign. 



United States 

Ohio 

Virginia 

Oregon 

Washington Territory 

California 

Arizona . 

Nevada 



43, 475, 840 

2,803,119 

1, 497, 8G1 

144, 265 

59, 313 

571,820 

24, 391 

36, 613 



6, 679, 943 
394, 943 
14,696 
30, 503 
15, 803 
292, 874 
16,049 
25, 653 



Per cent. 
86i 
88 
99 
82i 
76 
66 
60 
59 



Per cent. 
13i 
12 
1 
ITi 
24 
34 
40 
41 



While the foreign population in Ohio is 12 per cent, and in Virginia 
1 per cent., in California it is 34 per cent., in Arizona, 40 per cent., and 
in Nevada 41 per cent. Here and there, as at Santa Clara and Los 
Angeles, may be found the old Spanish schools under the dominion of 
the Church, but Spanish children form no considerable element in the 
public schools. The Indians are on the Government reservations, while 
the Chinese are content to receive a Chinese education and to li\'e in 
their peculiar manner apart from the American civilization. There are 
12,000 Chinese children, of school age in the one city of San Fran- 
cisco, but not until very recently has it been decided that any Chinese 
child, even though born in California, could be enrolled as a public 
school pupil. The Spaniard, the Indian, and the Chinese do not form, 
as some think, the chief element in our school population ; on the con- 
trary, they have scarcely a representation in the schools. But in attend- 
ance there are representatives of families the most energetic and pro- 
gressive of each one of the Celtic, Anglo Saxon, and Teutonic peoples. 
Since the first school, which was commenced thirty years ago by 
Thomas Douglas, a graduate of Yale College, in the "nut-brown" school- 
house of San Francisco, the problem of making for the Coast a school 
system that should meet the varied wants of this new civilizatiou has 
been given for solution to such educators as John Swett, A. J. Moulder, 
and James Denman. As to the correctness of the solution the educa- 
tional results are ample proof. 

Less dense in population is the West, and in consequence the expense 
per capita of educating the children here is much greater than in the 
East. To the square mile in New Jersey there are 151.7 persons, in 
New York 106.7, in Ohio 78.5 ; in California there are to the square mile an 
average of 5.5 persons, in Oregon 1.8, in Nevada .6, in Arizona .4. Nye- 
one of the 14 counties of Nevada, contains 20,436 square miles, an- 
area greater than that of Vermont, Massachusetts, and Ehode Island. 
Nye County has but 69 school children, while those three New England 
States have over 500,000 school children. Alpine County, California, 
is nearly as large as is the State of Rhode Island; yet in the former 
there are but four schools, with an average attendance per school of 
7950 COT, PT. II 9 367 



130 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

12J pupils. The cost of educating this number is as much as if there 
we're an attendance of 50 pupils. As many hours of the teacher's time 
are employed, as large a salary is paid the teacher, and the other ex- 
penses are the same as in a larger school. From the State school fund 
each one of these four districts receives annually not less than $400, or 
$32 per child in attendance. To every district of 10 census children 
the State contributes from the State school fund $400 ; to every district 
of 20 or more census children, $500. Such State aid is in addition to the 
amount received from local taxation. Thus the State assumes the re- 
sponsibility of educating the children ; thus it is provided that every 
district, without local taxation, annually may have six months of school 
under the tuition of the very best paid teachers. Generous, indeed, is 
California towards her impecunious school districts. In this feature she 
leads all of the other States. So earnest are the people that even away 
out on the frontier the child of the gold-hunting pioneer may enrich 
his mind from golden opportunities for an education. 

There is no other section of the United States whose population is so 
changing as is that of the Pacific coast. The spirit of the Argonauts of 
'49 is everywhere manifest. In the mining sections especially ihe fluc- 
tuations are such that provision must be made for the organization of 
districts to supply the immediate educational wants of immigrants, and 
for withholding the school moneys upon their departure, which departure 
often is as unceremonious as is the arrival. These anomalous exigen- 
cies have been provided for wisely and generously. Were the school 
funds unavailable, always available in the cause of education would be 
the golden shekels of the intelligent miner. Subscriptions of hundreds 
of dollars for educational purposes in a small mining town have been 
secured in a single day. The temple where dwells the God of our 
Fathers may be slow in building, but not so the temple where dwells the 
Goddess of Learning. In every inhabited camp, canyon, and mountain 
dale there is a school, and not infrequently a school so situated has for 
the presiding genius a graduate of the Oswego Normal School, of 
Wellesley, or of Heidelberg. 

In some of the States there are school libraries. In California ten per 
cent, of the State school fund annually apportioned to each district, un- 
less ten per cent, exceed $50, in which event the sum of $50, is expended 
in the i)urchase of books for a library. In Arizona ten per cent, of the 
Territorial school fund apportioned to each district constitutes a library 
fund, which is apportioned by the county superintendent as the other 
school moneys are apportioned. In the cities and larger towns there 
are other free libraries, to which the children and the people generally 
have access. Not as in the older States, where library books have been 
collecting for more than a century, is the rising generation favored ; but 
in this civilization, cosmopolitan in character, for this people, who have 
traveled more than the same number of people living anywhere on the 
globe, the increase in the amount of good literature within the 37 years 
since the discovery of the gold fields is even more surprising than the 
increase in the population. 

The number of teachers in California is 4,082, in Oregon 1,412, in Ne- 
vada 230. The average monthly salary paid male teachers in Nevada 
is $100, in California $81^, in Montana $80, in Oregon $46f. The aver- 
age monthly salary paid female teachers in Nevada is $08.67, in Cali- 
fornia $65.37, in Montana $62, in Oregon $35.45. Of the 4,082 teachers 
of California, 472 have been educated in the State Normal School at 
San Josej 150 of the 600 teachers of San Francisco in the city training 
school under the supervision of John Swett. Fully 1,000, or 25 per cent. 
368 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 131 

of the teachers of California, have received normal training; and it is 
estimated that an equally large percentage of the teachers of Oregon 
and Nevada have also had special preparation for teaching. Last year 
in Montana there was but one county that did not hold an institute. 
The teachers of California receive pay for each day of their attendance 
on the institute, and last year nearly every teacher (in all 3,385) was a 
member of some county teachers' institute. In that State there are 
published two journals of education, the Pacific School Journal and the 
California Teacher. The large salaries paid in the schools of the Coast 
command the verj^ best talent in the profession. To such an extent do 
Eastern teachers deluge the offices of State and county superintendents 
with applications for positions that it has been found necessary to keep 
on hand some such printed circular as follows: "Your favor of the 

received. Know of no vacancies at present in the State. Will 

place your application on file, but can offer no encouragement." The 
sanre spirit shown by the people in the other occupations is shown in 
that of teaching— energetic and progressive, eager to accomplish the 
greatest possible good in the least possible time. 

The children of the Coast mature younger than they do in Puritan 
New England. Possibly the former are less studious than are the lat- 
ter, but certainly the former are more precocious. They know less of 
Dante, Macaulay, and Longfellow, but more about business, virtue, and 
vice. The moral test is applied to the child before he passes the Sun- 
day-school age or leaves the parental roof. If virtue continue through 
adolescence, in maturity it becomes impregnable. There may seem to 
be fewer moral children in such places, but the ethologist will find his 
ideal character maturing in the mining sections of the West. In the 
open air of temi3tation, and not in the orthodox hot-house, character 
grows and strengthens. As a historic fact, it is known that the Spartan 
principle of training the child to virtue with its eyes open on vice de- 
velops true manhood and true womanhood. From the intelligent parent 
the child learns to shun vice because of its consequences, and never 
should it have cause to embrace vice by reason of its novelty. Though 
contrary to the prevalent belief, yet it is true that the children of the 
West are more easily disciplined than are the children of the East. In 
the visits to schools in every part of this broad Union, north, south, 
«ast, and west, nowhere else have I seen such perfect discipline among 
pupils as that among those in the mining sections of California and 
JSTevada. That mind which imagines "hoodlumism" in the schools of 
the Coast to be rampant requires an imagination as extravagant as 
that which believes all the " blood- and-thunder" stories that have been 
written about " Buffalo Bill " or " Kit Carson." 

Each one of the Coast States has a State school superintendent and a 
county superintendent of schools. In comparison with the salary of 
the other county officers, however, the county superintendent is poorly 
paid. In fact, between the salary of the professional politician and the 
l)rofessional teacher, as elsewhere in the United States, a comparison 
can scarcely be instituted. In California as high as $15,000 annually is 
paid to one county sheritf ; in Nevada, $5,000 annually to one county 
sheriff. In California the average annual salary of the county superin- 
tendent of schools is $1,000, in Oregon $370, in Nevada $330 ; in Mon- 
tana the maximum salary is $1,000, the same being graded in propor- 
tion to the number of census children down to a mere pittance. Except 
in some of the counties of California, county school supervision on the 
Coast is a failure — a failure not because of defect in the principle, but 
because of adverse legislation respecting the salaries and the super- 

360 



132 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

visory powers of the superintendent. The average superintendent is 
educated, but not an educator; he is a lawyer, a docLor, or a clergy- 
man, but not a teacher ; he may be well versed in Ms profession, but he 
knows nothing about teaching. In the meager salary paid the whole 
explanation of this deplorable fact is to be found. A principal of a city 
school receives from $1,500 to $3,000 per annum, and such talent may 
have for a superior officer a superintendent receiving a salary of from 
$300 to $600 per annum. California's system of supervision, however, 
except in this feature of salaries, has much to commend it. In the 
county board of examination, whose duty, among other things, is 1o 
grant certificates to teachers, there are five members, two of whom, 
■besides the superintendent, must be professional teachers. No super- 
intendent receiving a salary of $1,500 or more is permitted to teach in 
any public school, but must devote his time to supervision. In San 
Francisco, over the 600 teachers employed there are 48 supervisors, 
one supervisor on an average for every 12 J teachers. In the county^)! 
San Francisco the supervision is most excellent ; in a few of the other 
populous counties of that State it is doing for the schools just what in 
a few years we hoj)e it will be doing for the schools in everj^ county of 
each State in our section. The city schools throughout the entire 
West are well supervised, and progressive in their methods of teaching. 
The many good features which they possess, however, resemble too 
closely those of hundreds of other schools throughout the United States 
to require extended description. 

In Alaska there is a population of about 2,000 whites, 10,000 Creoles, 
and 20,000 Indians. On the Fur Seal Islands are found schools, num- 
bering in all about eighteen, with an attendance of 1,000 children. 
There are industrial schools for the Indians and Creoles, but not so 
much as one school for the white children. A few weeks ago, in con- 
versation with Governor J. H. Kinkead, of that Territory, it was learned 
that the Government had made an appropriation of $25,000 for educa- 
tional purposes, and that there will soon be in that sparsely settled 
Territory the beginning of a school system. That the arrangements 
may be perfected, as well as that in other respects a more efficient gov- 
ernment may be secured, the governor is now in Washington in con 
ference with the Administration. The few mission schools now there 
under the emmissaries of the Church will soon be succeeded by the i)ub 
lie free school. 

In nearly every Western State there is now a munificent State school 
fund— in California $2,000,000, in Nevada $1,000,000. Olten ill directed 
in educational matters have been the people, but dearer to the human 
heart is the jDublic school than ever was the Temple of Diana or the 
Holy Sepulcher at Mecca. On the Coast are landscapes of beauty and 
cascades of grandeur; trees 80 feet in circumference and more than 30i> 
feet high ; geysers sending forth immense volumes of steam two or three 
hundred feet in the air ; a Yosemite whose surrounding granite walls 
rise vertically from the valley more than 4,000 feet ; through igneous 
rocks runs the Sutro Tunnel, more than four miles in length; in the 
heart of the metroi)olis stands the six-storied Palace Hotel, the admira- 
tion of all architects; following the vein of the precious metals through 
the quartz and porphyry of the Comstock, large mining shafts are sunk 
to the depth of 3,3uo feet ; but, in the estimation of the people, infinitely 
greater than all else in nature and art is our free-school system, for 
the free school is the temple where dwells the oracle that foretells to all 
who consult her the future grandeur of that M^estern social and educa- 
tional empire. 

370 



STICK OE FO STICK. 
By Edwin Chad wick, A. B., 

Chairman of the EdncaHon CommiU'>e of the Society of Arts, Lotidon. 



I perceive from educational returns, and from discussions at educa- 
tional meetings, and from continued cases before magistrates of charges 
against teachers of assaults upon school children, that the question to 
be put of " stick or no stick " is in continued agitation as a question of 
school discipline in England on which I should be glad to submit some 
experience for the consideration of our related educationists in the 
States, as involving a question of primary importance in education. 

Some years ago I met the late Lord Fitzhardinge in society, when I 
complimented him on being an advanced educationist. " What do yon 
ineanF he said, "I have nothing to do with schools." "No," I an- 
swered. '' but you have, I hear, set an example in your education of 
horses that may serve for the education of the human. You have for- 
bidden the use of the stick." " That is so," he replied ; " if I see a 
groom beat either horse or dog I dismiss him. I must say, however, 
that in some twentieth case we meet with a depraved brute who is only 
to be subdued by physical force on a conflict; but in allowing the use 
of the stick nineteen out of twenty horses are spoiled." 

We had in Poor-Law administration a convocation of head school- 
teachers, at which the question of "stick or no stick" was considered, 
when a conclusion was arrived at in accordance with Lord Fitzhard- 
inge's doctrine. It was pleaded for the use of the stick that some 
twentieth case was one of extreme depravity, which could only be sub- 
dued by strong force ; but for the rest the stick should be taken from 
the hands of the pupil- teachers, and only reserved in the cupboard for 
very special occasions. 

A friend, Mr. James Blackburn, of Bysshe Court, a squire, who keeps 
a stud of horses and devotes himself very much to their training, dis- 
plays an advance upon Lord Fitzhardinge's practice in the education of 
horses. He declares that the twentieth case spoken of by his lordship 
is in itself the result of bad early training. Mr. Blackburn looks care- 
fully to the education of the colts in the infantile stage. He forbids his 
grooms not only to beat them, but to swear at them, or to speak to 
them in other than kind and gentle language. They are taught to at- 
tend and, to act upon gentle speech. It is pleasant to see them come 
up to him, and follow him in the field, and put their heads over his shoul- 
der. The carriage whip is only used for guidance or to remove a fly. 
Others, I am told, follow a like course with entire success as to horses. 

In the best of our district half-time schools they have advanced with 
like success to entire disuse of the stick as in the education of horses. 
Mr. Hillyer, of the Central District Half-time School at Harwell, who 
during the last twenty years has had twenty thousand children of the 
lowest type pass through his hands, says that he has not used the stick 

371 



134 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

twenty times during that time. Other teachers in our half-time schools, 
although they receive very hardened subjects at advanced ages, strive 
with equal success to dispense with the use of the stick. 

There is one point on which I think it highly important that the edu- 
cation of children should be brought up to the good education of colts, 
namely, in the use of the most kindly and gentle language to them. 
On visiting a common school you will hear the teacher ''rend the com- 
mon air with angry and horrid speech" to them, which is in itself bad 
education. This in itself makes it worth while to engage ladies as 
teachers for this the most impressionable and formative period of life. 
Experienced inspectors have marked the great difference which it makes, 
and have expressed strong opinions of its importance. For the relief 
of such teachers Mrs. Fielden, of Todmorden, has invented a sort of 
Castanet, which is very successful for the direction of the chief move- 
ments of the school. 

I should mention that in the high schools for horses conducted under 
the rule of kindness, it is found by our squires that teachers of superior 
quality — kindly, patient, gentle speaking, and judicious men — are nec- 
essary ; and that the requisite qualities are only obtainable at higher 
salaries than are given to the teachers of the human in the rural dis- 
tricts. The grooms have more than double the salaries of pupil- 
teachers of the schools, and to the head teacher in the school of a stud 
of some forty horses, such a salary as three hundred pounds per annum 
is given, nearly double the salary regarded as adequate for the head 
teacher of a rural school, and more than three times the average pay of 
a curate. 

By some of my correspondents it is pleaded that some element of 
fear should be preserved. To this it is answered that for the fear of the 
infliction of pain by the stick, the fear of the privation of a pleasure 
may be effectually substituted in some of our best district half-time 
schools. In one half-time school, where the exercises on a ship's mast 
were pursued with great energy and delight by the boys on their liber- 
ation from the book lessons, the master would only let good boys 
that had pleased him go on the main yard arm to loose and furl sails, 
and it was his special favorite only that he allowed to be "mast-headed." 
In other schools, if any boy is inattentive he is sent out into the yard, 
where he iinds his own company weigh heavy upon him, and the pri- 
vation is more severe than a flogging, so that the offense is not repeated. 
In one school on Saturday afternoon there is a special gymnastic exer- 
cise, with song and music and dance, in which the girls take great de- 
light, to which those whose attendance during the week has been remiss 
are not admitted, and the privation is found to be very effective in 
maintaining regularity of attention to the book lessons, such as are con- 
tinued to be given. 

It must be admitted that the disuse of the stick, or of the cane, or the 
'"tawse," is a deviation from very old and yet accredited practice. 
Dame Paston* writes to inquire for a tutor by whom her son may be 
well "belashed," and when she has got a tutor she writes to him of her 
son : " If he hath not done well nor will not amend truly, belash him 
till he will mend." As to her daughter, it appears she was beaten once 
in the week and sometimes twice a day, and had her head broken in 
two or three places. Lady Jane Grey told Ascham that she was 
"sharply treated, cruelly thrashed and punished — in other waies I will 

*Pastoa Letters, temp, Edward IV. 
372 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 135 

not name," and thought herself in hell when she was with her school- 
master. 

The stick was the accredited instrument of rule of the head of the 
household of our ancestors, or the husband. There is a homily (I be- 
lieve of Bishop Latimer) that I have seen, where the husband is exhorted 
to exercise his rule with moderation toward his wife, and not use a stick 
" thicker than his thumb." l^Tow, a " wife-beater" is condemned through- 
out the realm, no matter whatsoever may have been the provocation. My 
belief is that the time is coming when the habitual " child-beater," 
whether teacher or parent, will be no less reprobated. 

In a memoir by the Hon. Amelia Murray, maid-of-honor to Her Maj- 
esty, she says, speaking of His Majesty George III, " that he adhered 
unflinchingly to what he considered the path of duty," and that he 
placed his sons "under tutors who engaged that the rod of Scripture 
could mean only bodily punishment. The Princess Sophia told me that 
she had seen her two eldest brothers (that is to say, His Majesty George 
TV and His Majesty William IV), when they were boys of thirtee-.i and 
fourteen, held by the arms to be flogged like dogs with a long whip." 
" Was it wonderful," says Miss Murray, " that the results proved any- 
thing but satisfactory?" Asking a young Etonian recently whether 
the use of the birch still continued, " Yes," he said, " it still flourishes ; 
we had a duke horsed the other day, but we don't mind it." Then of 
what good is it? 

There is, however, a very large distinction of bodily condition to be 
observed between boys of the Eton class, who are unmoved by the in- 
fliction of a punishment which "they do not mind," and who get their 
lessons how and very much when they please, and children of the class 
now brought into the Board schools — children of the lowest physical 
type, frequently ill-fed, and bodily as well as mentally depressed, and 
incapable of bearing long hours of detention. With them a stripe 
which the others do not heed is a festering wound and a long and seri- 
ous injury, which mothers frequently show to magistrates and which 
excites their compassion. 

Nevertheless, it is to be admitted that much may be obtained by the 
rule of terror. My colleague in Poor-Law administration, Sir Francis 
Kead, recounted to me the results of the rule of terror on wild horses in 
the pampas, and how much was effected by it ; nevertheless, it requires 
constant, incessant, and severe energy and great force, and attains 
only inferior results with men as well as with animals, the subject hav- 
ing to be constantly guarded against as a treacherous enemy, instead of 
being, as under the rule of kindness, regarded as an agreeable and 
trusted companion. 

Where a school has been changed from a long-time to a well-organized 
half-time school, with appliances for physical training, the non-attend- 
ances have been reduced to one-tenth the previous number. They are 
reduced largely through the decrease of absences from sickness, occa- 
sioned by detention during long hours amid filthy-skinned and filthy- 
clothed children, and also by lessons little adapted to their mental 
receptivity, by the amelioration of all of which, irritation and the provo- 
cation of the pupil-teachers and the head-teachers to the use of the stick 
is in the half-time schools abated, and school headaches diminished in 
the case of teachers as well as that of pupils. 

Complete success may be assured by commencing in the most forma- 
tive period of life — the infantile stage. The kindergarten, or the kitchen 
garden system, as introduced in the United States, I consider to be one 

373 



136 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

of the greatest educational improvements of our time, which we must 
strive to get introduced in England. Another advance will be in pro- 
viding that no lessons shall be introduced into any school that have not 
been tried on children of the classes to be taught, and have sustained 
attention by their own interest, as demonstrated by one of our foremost 
educational improvers, Mr. Horace G-rant, whose memoir I herewith 
submit. 

On the whole, it will be found after sufficient experience that the stick, 
and the " tawse," and the rule of terror will have to be abandoned for 
the more efficient rule of kindness in the treatment of children in every 
stage of school life. 

374 



MOEALS a:nd manners at school. 

By D. L. Mansfield, 

Superintendent of Schools, Dummersf on, Vt. 



The school laws of Vermont require, in addition to the common studies, 
instruction also in good behavior. Eecognizing that requirement of the 
law, the textbook committees of the several towns in the county, when 
met together in council in 1878, adopted Gow's "Good Morals and Gen- 
tle Manners" as a suitable text-book on the subject of good behavior. 
Joseph Steen, a venerable bookseller in Brattleboro', Vt., concluded that 
so good a book on a subject so necessary to be taught in the schools at 
the present day would have a good demand, and sent for a suitable 
number of books for introduction. After the books remained on the 
counter several weeks, exposed for sale and examination, he was forced 
to return the same to the publishers because there was no sale for such 
books. Mr. Steen, in a few words of comment, said to the writer that 
" most parents nowadays do not think their children need to be taught 
manners at school. Children are all very good." Ask teachers and 
school officers of experience, who keep their eyes and ears open to the 
evidence of good morals and manners in the schools or elsewhere, 
whether it be true or not that most boys and girls show a disposition 
to become truly polite. What say the families or persons of refinement 
who live in close proximity to the district schoolhouse % Does the air 
ever resound in your ears with the evidence of unclean language and 
profane 'utterances emanating from juvenile lips? In my school-boy 
days I used to hear about the roughness and incivility of village and 
city boys ; but, so far as I am informed, the village and the city juveniles 
are much more refined and civil than the common rustic school-boys are. 
And the average Irish day-laborer will answer you civilly when ques- 
tioned, while the ordinary American "chap" thinks you beneath his 
notice. Most school- boys are rough in their treatment of each other. 
Woe to the stranger boy who goes in among them^ unless he is able to 
fight his way. 

I cite a case from personal knowledge : A peaceable school lad of my 
acquaintance, whose circumstances caused him to be sent to a school 
where about thirty Indian bo^ys and girls were being educated on an 
Indian reservation in the Far West, said he received much worse ill- 
treatment from the boys here in a district school during one term than 
he ever experienced before. In fact, white boys are worse than savages 
in the treatment of their schoolmates. 

Not long ago a bright little boy, five years old, was asked whether he 
attended the district school which was kept near his home. He said 
that he did not, but he knew what the children learned at school. "They 
learned to sivearedP Sure enough, when he went to school for the first 
time the following summer, he was not long in acquiring a supply of pro- 
fane words. In a few days after beginning school the father heard his boy 

375 



138 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

swear for the first time. He was exceedingly pained, for he did not use 
profane language himself, and to hear a child of his swear thus early in 
life was mortifying to his pride. The bad habit of his boy must be broken 
up. . Eeproofs and threatenings of punishment were unavailing. After 
the child was reproved he was careful not to swear in his father's presence. 
Still he continued the habit of swearing when he thought his father was 
not near enough to hear what was said. He was determined that his 
child must not swear at all. Various punishments were resorted to, 
such as shutting him up, putting him in a barrel down cellar, whipping, 
&c., but all in vain. At last a happy expedient occurred to him. He 
remembered that his boy always disliked very much to have him touch 
his face with a lather brush, which he had sometimes playfully done 
when shaving himself. The child's dislike to it put him almost in a 
state of frenzy whenever his face was lathered with a brush. There- 
fore, when the father heard the boy utter his next oath, he not only 
lathered the boy's face, but thoroughly swabbed out his mouth with the 
brush. The remedy was effectual, and no more swearing has been done 
by the boy to the father's knowledge. Moral : If every parent would be 
thus persistent in breaking up the very bad habit of children's swearing, 
morals in children at school would be less impure, and the school a 
better place of instruction. 
376 



BELlGIOtJS AND MORAL TRAINING IN THE SCHOOLS OF 

ONTARIO. 

By J. B. Wells, M. A., 

Editor of the Canada School Journal. 



The question of moral, training in the schools is pre-eminently the 
most important educational question of the day. It transcends every 
other by reason of its closer bearing, not only upon the higliest inter- 
ests of the individual pupils themselves, but upon those of the whole 
community or State. An uncomfortable suspicion seems to be taking 
hold upon the public mind that the schools are not doing all they ought 
to do in elevating the national character. The opinion is often ex- 
pressed, with no doubt partial truths that when unaccompanied by 
sufficiently powerful moral influences, increase of intelligence and 
mental acumen means simply increased capacity for evil. An impres- 
sion is, in certain quarters at least, gaining ground that free schools 
and universal education are failing to prove a panacea for moral evil to 
the extent that was hoped for by their enthusiastic promoters a genera- 
tion or two back. Ignorance, it is being shown by facts too clear to be 
denied, at least that kind of ignorance which can be driven out by the 
study of the " three R's," is not the mother of all vice and crime, and 
some more potent agent than the truant officer must be called in to 
stay the course of youthful depravity, if the next generation is to be 
raised to a much higher plane in regard to sobriety, honesty, truth, 
and purity, than any of its predecessors. 

In this, however, as in other matters, there is a tendency in the public 
mind to generalize too hastily. The fallacies of assigning a wrong cause, 
and failing to make account of changed conditions, are very easy to 
commit. In comparing the achievements of the schools with the ideal 
standards of attainments that may have been set up for them, we are 
very liable to forget to give due weight to all the adverse influences at 
work. Many of these influences are new and unforeseen. The influx of 
population from all quarters of the globe into these western lands com- 
plicates every problem — political, social, or moral. In order to do jus- 
tice to the schools as an agency for the improvement of national char- 
acter, it is necessary to compare the state of youthful morals actually 
existing under the present school systems with that which there is 
every reason to believe must have existed to-day but for the restraining 
and elevating influences exerted by those schools. Tried by such a 
standard, it will be found that free schools, if they have not accom- 
plished miracles, are at least every day accomplishing wonders for the 
moral as well as intellectual elevation of the masses. 

In endeavoring to form some estimate of what is being done in the 
way of moral and religious training by the public schools of Ontario, it 
will be convenient to speak of that training under the two heads of 
direct, and indirect, or incidental. 

377 



140 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

By direct moral and religious training' I mean that part of the work 
of the schools which aims directly and consciously to improve the moral 
character of the young. And here the important part performed by 
the Sunday-schools cannot be passed over. It would be difficult to 
overestimate the value of the woi^k done by the modern Sunday-school. 
In order to get some adequate conception of this, it is necessary to tike 
into account not only the positive impressions produced by the teach- 
ing and other direct agencies employed, but the moral effects of the 
habits formed, the associations created, the gentle but powerful re- 
straints exercised, the temptations and dangers escaped. Notwith- 
standing all its hallowed influences and golden opportunities, it is sadly 
true that to the idle and vicious the day of rest is the day of tempta- 
tion. One has but to imagine how the time would be employed by 
thousands of the children who now gather in the Sabbath-schools and 
spend hours of the day in reading the interesting liooks and papers re- 
ceived there, were there no such institution. In this important respect 
of furnishing occupation, forming good habits, and preventing the forma- 
tion of bad ones, the Sabbath- school is the indispensable supplement of 
the day school. 

It may, no doubt, be safely assumed that from one-half to two-thirds 
of all the public school population of the Provinces are members of some 
Sabbath-school or Bible-class/ These they attend more or less regu- 
larly from Sunday to Sunday. Here the great truths of the Christian 
religion are pressed upon mind and heart and conscience. All the 
beneficent agencies which the Christian culture and activity of the 
day have been able to devise are enlisted in this good work. Earnest 
and, in many cases, able and skillful teachers explain, illustrate, and 
enforce the doctrines and the duties of religion, natural and revealed. 
The Bible is studied by the young as never before. The influences of 
art, music, and poetry are pressed into the service of illustration. The 
most attractive moral and religious books are freely circulated. His- 
tory, biography, narrative, and fiction are laid under contribution for 
the instruction of the Sunday-school f)upils. The resources of the ablest 
artists and editors and of the most prolific presses are taxed to supply 
illuminated texts and mottoes, instructive pictures, and bright, capti- 
vating periodicals. In a word, every agency which Christian i)hilan- 
thropy has been able to devise has been brought into requisition to 
interest and impress the suscejitible minds of the children, and to en- 
list them on the side of morality and virtue. Of course, Ontario has 
no monopoly of this good work. In all this she is only doing what is 
being as well or better done elsewhere. Nevertheless, the .fact remains 
that in her Sabbath-schools she possesses one of the most powerful 
agencies which Christian civilization has devised for rescuing the young 
from the paths of evil, training them in the way in which they should 
go, awakening them to a sense of their duties and responsibilities, and 
familiarizing their impressible minds with the great truths taught in 
the Bible in reference to the life that now is and that which is to come. 

Another, but perhaps less effective, means of bringing religious truth 
to bear in the formation of the characters of the children in the public 
schools, is the use of Scripture readings and devotional exercises in the 
school itself. The propriety of this was recognized and careful provis- 
ion made for it when the school system of the Provinces was first organ- 
ized on its present basis forty years ago. Tlie Kev. Egerton Ryerson, 
D. D., the father of the Ontario free-school system and for many years 
the energetic Superintendent of Education, regarded this as a matter 
of prime importance. He made it, in fact, so far a matter of conscience 

378 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — FAFEKS. 141 

that wbeu iu 1850 the Government of the day, in its desire to banish 
all sectarian influences and preferences from the schools, ])roposed an 
enactment forbidding the teaching' of any religious dogaia«^ iti terms 
which seemed to Dr. Jiyerson adapted to prevent the use of the Bible 
in the schools, he prouiptly declared that he would not administer 
such a law, and tendered his resignation. The result of his arguments 
and protests was the removal of the objectionable clause and the res- 
toration of the original provision. In no case was the Bible reading, 
or any form of religious observance, made compulsory. The matter 
M'as sim])ly left at the discretion of the local authorities; that is, it was 
a matter to be arranged between the trustees and the teachers. As 
no trustees would care to insist upon devotional exercises being con- 
ducted by any master who objected to undertaking such duties, the 
iinal decision would practically iu each case rest with the teacher. 

It is evident, however, that in those school districts — happily, 1 be- 
lieve, by far the larger part of the whole number — in which parents and 
trustees attach special importance to the moral and religious element 
in education, the teacher's views and qualifications in this respect would 
be taken into account in making an engagement. The result is that, 
as a matter of fact, it has been, I believe^ ascertained that about five- 
sixths of all the public schools in the Province are regularly opened or 
closed with the reading of the Bible, and, in many cases, other devo- 
tional exercises. The fact that this worship is voluntary on the i)art of 
the teacher affords the best assurance that it will, ordinarily, be rever- 
ent and impressive. 

Another provision of the Ontario school law, as it has existed for 
many years, should also be noted in this connection. With a view to 
enlisting the voluntary co-operation of the clergymen of the different 
denominations in the work of religious instruction, op])ortunity is given 
at stated weekly intervals for such clergymen to visit the schools and 
address or instruct the children of the adherents of their own churches, 
and any others who may choose to attend. This arrangement for re- 
ligious instruction has not, however, borne much fruit. The ministers 
have, as a rule, failed to avail themselves of the opportunity to the 
extent that would be, at first thought, anticipated. The reason, how- 
ever, is not far to seek. There is no need to infer any lack of zeal or 
inclination on the i)art of the clergymen themselves. A sufficient ex- 
l)ianation of the comparative failure of the scheme is afforded in the 
fact that the time set apart for these exercises was after the close of the 
regular school work. Any one who remembers the eagerness with 
which the average child, wearied with the work and restraint of the 
school routine, looks forward to the hour of release, will readily under- 
stand the difficulty under which the clergyman would labor in inviting 
the ])upils to remain for an extra half hour of religious instruction. The 
children are naturally impatient and in a mood very unfavorable to 
serious and profitable attention. Unless the clergyman were possessed 
of excei)tional tact and ability, he would fail to arouse ajiy interest, and 
would not care to repeat the exi^eriment very often. 

Since the accession to office of the present Minister of Education, Hon. 
(i. W. Eoss, certain changes have been made in the act and reguhi tionv4 
respecting both these provisions for religious education i;i the schools, 
ft has been very strongly urged by a number of clergymen and others 
that the use of the Bible in our public schools should be no longer 
optional with trustees or teachers, but should be made obligatory inall 
cases. Regarding the Sacred Scriptures as the only sure foundation o) 
national morals, advocates of this view contend "^earnestly that they 

379 



142 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

should be enthroned in every school-room and have a recognized place 
in the daily routine. 

It is not my purpose to discuss here the soundness of this proposi- 
tion, or to set over against it the arguments of those who believe it 
both more in accord with the spirit of the Kew Testament and of relig- 
ious liberty, and better adapted to accomplish the moral ends aimed at, 
that the voluntary principle should be maintained. In deference to the 
wishes and convictions of those who believe that in a Christian State 
the BibJe should have a place in every school, it has been decided that 
a collection of extracts from the Old and jSTew Testaments should be 
placed in the hands of all teachers for daily readings in the schools. 
These selections are intended to include such passages as are most 
suitable for moral and devotional uses, and at the same time free from 
occasions of sectarian controversy. The scheme of lessons prepared is 
understood to have the approval of leading clergymen of all the Prot- 
estant denominations. In view of the diversities of opinion among the 
members of the various churches, it is prescribed that the Scripture les- 
son for the day shall be read by the teacher without note or comment. 

As now amended, the regulations provide that the clergymen of any 
school district may select any ^jne of their number, or delegate each in 
turn, to represent the whole in giving religious instruction in the 
schools. In the event of this being done, arrangements are to be made 
for having the exercise take place within the regular school hours, and 
as a part of the routine of the day. In order, however, to guard against 
any infringement upon freedom of conscience, it is provided that any 
pupil shall, at the request of his parents or guardians, be excused from 
attendance during such instruction, and also during the daily reading 
of the Scriptures. Whether these changes will prove more effective 
in jiromoting Christian morality and enlisting the co-operation of the 
Christian ministry, remains to be seen. 

It is, of course, regarded as one of the duties of every teacher to 
instru<".t his pupils in right conduct, and to strive to cultivate and 
strengthen the moral as well as the intellectual faculties. In the ab- 
sence of any prescribed text-book or routine, the extent to which this 
is done must depend entirely upon the character and aptitude of the 
individual teacher. While the beneficial results of any formal and 
stated lectures, or other exercises with a view to moral training, would 
be, to say the least, doubtful, there can be no doubt that the teacher 
who is really impressed with the importance of the matter, and pos- 
sessed of average ability and tact, will find a thousand occasions for in- 
cidental instruction which may be turned to excellent account. There 
is good reason to believe that very many of the teachers in the Prov- 
ince are earnest Christian men and women, on the watch for opportu- 
nities to make salutary impressions upon the minds and hearts of their 
pupils. Ko doubt a good work is every day being accomplished in this 
way which cannot be set down in any school returns or embodied in any 
statistics. Those teachers have their reward in the approbation of con- 
science, and often in seeing the improved behavior of their pupils. Of 
this I may say a word again. 

In addition, however, to this incidental moral instruction, which must 
always be the, chief reliance, it is questionable whether some simple 
text-book of practical morality should not have a place in the school 
curriculum. The science of morals may certainly be reduced to simple 
principles, as easy of comprehension by the child as those of any other 
science, and such a study might be made the means of not only incul- 
cating the supreme importance of the right and wrong as qualities of 
380 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 143 

every action, but also of inducing the habit of moral reflection, which 
certainly needs cultivation quite as much as the power of thinking, in 
any other form of exercise. At present, so far as I am aware, no such 
manual or exercise has any place on the regular school curriculum. It 
is true, Dr. Eyerson recognized the need of such instruction, and shortly 
before retiring from the superin tendency himself prepared a manual for 
the purpose. He was unsuccessful, however, in shunning the abound 
ing snags of sect and dogma, which make the stream of Christian mor- 
als of so difflcult navigation. His little work was subjected to a cross 
fire of criticism from different quarters, which quickly destroyed all hope 
of its usefulness. It may be that some future hand-book of practical 
Christian ethics may have better success. 

Under the head of indirect agencies for the moral training of the 
young I would place first the discipline of the school room in its whole 
effect on the formation" of bodily and mental habits. These habits or 
their results will, in very many cases, remain through life. They really 
form one of the most effective agencies in the shaping of character. The 
influence of the school in this respect is of greater or less importance, 
according as it merely coincides with and supplements the home train 
ing, or, as is too often the case, supplies the iack of such training. 

It has been well observed that the essence of moral training consists 
in its eftect upon the will. To be compelled to keep the hands and face 
clean and the clothing neat, to be present at a stated place punctually 
at a fixed hour, to attend to this, that, and the other duty at the pre- 
scribed moment, to preserve silence, and otherwise respect the rights of 
others, to sacrifice inclination to the mandates of school law, and to 
yield prompt, unhesitating obedience to constituted authority — these, 
and similar requirements of every well-governed school, are not only 
conditions essential to enable the work of the school room to be carried 
on, they are also most important factors in the production of character. 
They teach practically that subordination of impulse to will, that prompt 
subjection of inclination to duty, which are indispensable to success and 
usefulness in every sphere of active life. 

As, however, all this is also common to all well-regulated schools 
everywhere, I need only say here that there seems good reason to hope 
that in enforcing reasonable, healthful discipline, and in striking the 
golden mean between excessive severity and injurious laxity, the aver- 
age Ontario teacher will compare favorably with those of any other 
countr3\ Still I have no doubt there is much room here, as elsewhere, 
for imi)rovement, by the introduction of wiser methods, and the higher 
development of those intellectual and moral qualities in the teacher 
which are the best, if not the only proper forces for upholding law and 
authority in the school. 

Another indirect influence of very great value as a part of the moral 
training imparted in the schools, is the outgrowth of the tastes there 
formed or fostered. After making all reasonable qualifications, it is 
still unquestionably true that a fondness for science, or art, or mathe- 
matics, or literature, in a word, for any form of mental activity, is one 
of the best counteractives to vicious propensities. The law of impene- 
trability holds in moral as well as in physical spheres. Every moral 
reformer must have found that there is very little use in warning against 
evil tendencies with negatives. Defensive tactics here are of little 
avail. There must be aggressive action. The expulsive power of new 
occupations, enjoyments, and affections must be used to dispossess the 
enemy and secure the stronghold. Whenever the work of the school- 
room has so far awakened the dormant energies of the mind that some 

381 



144 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

sense of pleasure is experienced in any form of iDtellectiiul activity, it 
lias been so far successful, not only as an educational, but as a moral 
agency. A standard has been raised against the common eneuiy. Let, 
for instance, a taste for reading be developed, and an avenue is at once 
opened up to a new and higher plane of enjoyment than any which lies 
in the low level of sense. Much of the literature of the day is trashy 
enough, and too much of that which finds its way into the hands of the 
young is not only negatively, but positively injurious; yet it can hardly 
be doubted that it isbetter tliat a young man or woman should be fond 
of reading the silliest and most sentimental of stories than unable to 
read at all with an\ sense of enjoyment. In the one case there is a. 
comparatively innocent, though certainly poor source of occupation al- 
ways available for idle hours, and the reader has some resource within 
himself; while in the other, voluntary or enforced idleness becomes the 
mother of temptation to low indulgence, if not to])Ositive vice or crime. 

It is from this point of view to be deplored that the average school has 
hitherto done so little to form and stimulate the taste for good literature, 
and that so many even bright pupils leave the schools and too often the 
colleges with a satisfactory, perhaps a high standing in classes, who 
yet know nothing of the pleasure of inwardly digesting a thoughtful 
book. There are, happily, siyns of a general and salutary awakening 
in regard to the place of English literature in our schools and the 
proper methods of teaching and studying it. The boy or girl who has 
once tasted the delights of a good book, or of a little vigorous, inde- 
pendent thinking, can never fall quite so low as might have been other- 
wise possible. 

Another incidental, but most jirolific source of influence, either for 
good or for evil, in connection with our public school system, is that of 
the associations into which the children are of necessity brought. 
Whether the effect ot this is on the whole salutary or otherwise must 
depend on the prevailing tone of the children themselves. This varies 
greatly in different localities. It is probable that, after all, the iuflu- 
ence of schoolmates and of the general atmosphere of the school room 
and the playground has more to do with the molding of the child's char- 
acter than the direct teachings of the class room, it is unnecessary to 
add that the prevailing tone of the school iu this particular is imparted 
at the homes of the children. As one mangy sheep infects a whole flock, 
so Avill often one unruly or vicious child contaminate a whole school and 
lower its general character. 

It is doubtful if the prevailing customs and regulations in Ontario 
clothe the teacher with so much discretionary power as he should have 
in order to enable him to purge the school i>romptly of the incorrigible 
and depraved. Yet we have, I believe, much to be thankful for ujion 
this score. In spite of many painful exceptions, it is doubtful if any 
country in the world is blessed with a larger proportion of virtuous and 
happy homes, and as the child almost invariably r<^flects the character 
of the ])arents and the home influences, so the moral tone of the children 
iu our public schools is at least Ui) to the average of that of any other 
land. Probably, owing to the greater homogeneity of our populatiou, 
and, I might add, to the large sjuiukling in it of those who still retain 
and transmit, iu a hapi)ily modilied form, the methods and traditions of 
Scottish and New England puritanism, it is probable that the average 
moral level of the public school children is somewhat higher than that 
in most parts of the United States. 

The last of the indirect agencies iu the moral training of the schools 
to which I shall refer, is that which is the outcome of the teacher's per- 
382 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 145 

soual character., aside from auy direct and conscious effort lie may make 
in that direction. This is, beyond all question, a matter of the very 
first importance. No teacher is worthy the name or the profession who 
does not unconsciously make himself, to a greater or less degree, the 
pupil's model, his standard of right and wrong, his ideal man or woman. 
This fact devolves upon every teacher a new and solemn weight of re- 
sponsibility 5 but it is an unavoidable result of the relations between 
him and his pupils. He is their authority on all doubtful and difficult 
matters. His decisions on all points, whether involving questions of 
fact and truth, or of right and wrong, are final. 

Hence it is that public opinion sets up so high and rigid a standard 
of character, or at least of conduct, for the teacher. A thousand little 
peccadillos that would be readily tolerated in one of another profession, 
would be regarded as unpardonable in him. The lawyer, or doctor, or 
man of br ~'ness, may take his glass even to occasional excess, and his 
associate.^ »vid scarcely think the worse of him. But let the report be 
whisperi . . abroad that the school-master has been seen coming out of a 
saloon, or has taken a drop too much at an evening party, and the whole 
community is shocked. The fate of such a man is sealed, and he might 
as well hand in his resignation at once. Nothing is more common than 
smoking on the public streets, but I may venture to say that there are 
few districts in Ontario in which it would be safe for a public school 
teacher to be seen on the street with a cigar in his mouth. 

This exceptional severity in the standard of deportment set up and 
insisted on for teachers, however inconsistent or illogical in itself, serves 
to show how fully parents and guardians appreciate the peculiarly 
intimate relation between teacher and pupil. In this respect public 
opinion is undoubtedly wise and right. The eyes of the school children 
are ever upon their teacher, and the extent of his moral influence over 
them, his power of unconsciously molding their habits of thought and 
feeling, and even of speech, is measuredby the judgments they pass upon 
his consistency. And the child's perception is very keen, and his con- 
clusion very often near the mark. The man or the woman who can stand 
the scrutiny and sustain a lofty reputation for knowledge and truth and 
goodness amongst the school children, has acquired a power for good 
over them which, judiciously used, is almost unlimited. 

I am happy to be able to assert, without fear of contradiction, that 
the character of the great majority of our provincial teachers stands 
high. There are amongst them, as before observed, many earnest 
Christian men and women, whose influence is a perpetual blessing. And 
there are in their ranks very few indeed whose reputations are not at 
least respectable. In fact it could scarcely be otherwise. The teacher 
is constantly under that jealous surveillance of parents to which I have 
just now referred. Not only so, but all the avenues to the profession 
are from the outset guarded so strictly that it would be very difficult 
for the positively unworthy to find entrance. The attendance at schools, 
the various certificates of character required, the non-professional and 
professional examinations, the attendance at normal schools, the vigi- 
lance of trustees — all together constitute such an ordeal as can rarely be 
passed by a really vicious or unworthy man. 

Such, then, are some of the considerations which lead to the belief 
that the moral training imparted in the public schools of Ontario is, on 
the whole, good and wholesome. While there are undoubtedly many 
defects to be remedied, while there is much room for improvement in 
methods of teaching, and especially much need in many instances of 
7950 COT, PT. II -10 383 



146 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

better scholarship and more maturity of character in teachers, yet the 
schools are, beyond all controversy, doing an excellent, a noble work 
for the country and for posterity. In seeking to establish this fact I 
have thought I could better accomplish the object of this paper than 
by attempting comparisons with other provinces or countries. Such 
comparisons are always more or less unreliable as well as invidious. 
Eather let us continue to work in generous rivalry, without halting in 
our progress to measure our success by artificial standards, or to seek 
credit for a degree of excellence which is still far in the future. 
384 



EEASONS WHY NATURAL HISTOEY, INCLUDING BOTANY, 
SHOULD BE TAUGHT IN EVERY COMMON SCHOOL. 

By Prof. William Hudson, 

Trinity University, Tehuaeana, Texas. 



1. The great majority of young people have great inquisitiveness, 
which prompts them to see things, especially the things which are rare 
and curious. Every intelligent observer knows that every object in 
God's great Book of Nature, from the simple amceba radiosa, the tailless 
batrachians, the protozoans around a leaf of duck-weed, the compli- 
cated digestive apparatus of the gnats or mosquitos [culex pipiens), the 
circulatory and respiratory apparatus of a crawfish, to the four com- 
partments of the stomach of the artiodactyls which chew the cud, are 
'so curious as to excite our wonder. Afterwards, when the youth's 
natural inquisitiveness becomes so highly excited that his mind is thor- 
oughly inspired by the spirit of inquiry, and a holothurian, or sea- 
cucumber, is presented for his examination, his inquisitiveness becomes 
so intensely excited that it becomes expanded a hundred-fold, and his 
perception, reason, and judgment are drawn out in due proportion. 
From this point he begins to acquire knowledge by himself, and the 
material for instruction afforded him teaches him the way to scientific 
knowledge. 

2. It is well known that a child begins very early to look at plants, 
as well as animals, in a promiscuous manner. He superficially notices 
their forms and colors, but does not know anything of their characteristic 
likenesses and distinguishing differences, because he has not been 
taught anything about their prominent forms and habits. The faculties 
of his mind being aroused to action and caused to expand by the close 
study of the common scholastic branches well taught in a free school, 
he is likely to experience a hungering and thirsting after general knowl- 
edge, especially after a knowledge of the objects around him which he 
sees in the gardens, fields, pastures, meadows, woods, ponds, streams, 
and, in some places, the sea-coast, which he sometimes visits. Now he 
needs the aid and encouragement of a kind and intelligent teacher who 
has wisely learned to govern himself. 

3. As a very common illustration, suppose that this youth, twelve 
years of age, in one of his rambles with an associate, finds two plants 
so singular in their appearance as to attract his thoughtful attention, 
as well as that of his associate. One of the plants has a fleshy spike, 
around which the berries grow inclosed in a sheath, somewhat like a 
calla lily which he has in his garden ; and the other is a plant of the 
mushroom family, which his companion informs him is, when properly 
cooked, " good to eat." Some varieties of mushrooms are esculent, but 
not this one. It has a beautiful crimson cap dotted with wbite, and is 
very poisonous, being the fly mushroom {agaricus muscarius). Also the 

385 



148 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

other plant which he has is poisonous. It is the Indian turnip, a plant 
of the arum family. 

This boy and his associate, in returning homeward, meet two ot the 
teachers of the free school which they attend, and they respectfully 
ask these teachers to acquaint them with the names and qualities of 
the two plants. One of these teachers informs the boys that " one of 
the plants is a kind of ' toad-stool,' and is poisonous." 

If the common and superior sense of these teachers had induced them 
to become more creditably intelligent, they would have been enabled 
to inform the boys that the other i)laut was an Indian turnip, or dragon's 
root, whose botanic name is arum triphyllum, or ariscema triphyllum, and 
that it was sometimes used as a remedy by the medical faculty in flat- 
ulence, colic, and bronchitis, and locally in ringworm and sore mouth. 

4. Many of the teachers of free schools, as well as a few teachers who 
are familiar with Latin and Greek, when they behold in I^ature beauti- 
ful wild-flowers, shrubs, and plants, as well as insects and wild animals, 
are not able to distinguish one from the other by their correct names. 
They are so ignorant of the subject that they are unable to rightly in- 
form the farmers' boys, whom they are paid to wisely instruct, what 
insects are injurious to vegetation and what ones are not. This is a 
lamentable lack of the right kind of scholarship, which would not occur 
if elementary zoology, entomology, or natural history and botany were 
correctly taught in the public schools. 

5. There is great probability that the vast majority of children and 
young persons throughout the whole of the United States are apt to 
learn, and are strongly desirous to intelligently see and know; and if 
favored with the opportunity and instructed by a person generally in- 
telligent, they will soon be in possession of a great acquisition of useful 
knowledge in natural science. 

6. By rightly training children to make a just comparison of the 
prominent forms and habits of animals and plants, by which naturalists 
group them into classes, orders, families, species, etc., they will acquire 
habits of careful observation which will be of inestimable value to them 
when engaged in the active concerns of life. They will thereby acquire 
patient, thoughtful, careful, and precise habits. These valuable habits 
are certain to be the hax)py result of intelligently noticing the hundreds 
of interesting things presented to their observation, and they will be 
duly cautious against arriving at rash or hasty conclusions. 

7. Such good habits will strongly incline many children so trained to 
self-acquisition in this kind of knowledge, and they will naturally beget 
an almost insatiable desire for higher knowledge, especially for a thor- 
ough knowledge of the Latin language, which maj' be declared to be 
the living language of naturalists and of all the truly scientific men of 
the world. They will be incited to study this language, because they 
frequently see the Latin names of the insects, animals, and plants in 
the books on botany and natural history which they study. 

8. The study of natural history and botany in the common schools 
will have a tendency to promjjt students in the higher schools to become 
more practically thorough in said branches of scholastic learning; will 
incite both classes of students to dislike petty vices of all kinds, their 
time being spent so well and continuously as to have neither time nor 
taste for any kind of petty, spiteful mischief or licentious indulgences. 

9. The acquired habits of such well-trained children and young per- 
sons in intelligently observing Nature will give them such a self-acqui- 
sition in knowledge as will greatly aid their progress in other subjects 
and teach them the real value of time. Also, in the course of time, it 

386 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 149 

may entirely change tlie (effects of the hereditary mental nature of some 
children, who are born into the world with a hatred to learning and nat- 
ural science. Such are they who attend school or college for the sake 
of the name, and not for the benefits accruing therefrom. Likewise the 
habit of trying to read Nature aright, and going far and near to examine 
her wonderful works, will have the tendency to encourage the healthy 
exercise of a moderate degree of walking, and to convince many of the 
ridiculousness of excitedly walking and running a mile to catch an un- 
willing mule or horse for the sake of riding a quarter of a mile, as I have 
known many boys in Texas to do. 

Finally, such good habits as these now discussed will have the invalu- 
able tendency of inciting children and young persons to cultivate an 
humble and teachable disposition, knowing, as they certainly will know, 
that infinite wisdom is displayed in everything which is found in God's 
great Book of Nature, whether large or indescribably small. 

To crown the whole of the preceding reasons, it must not be over- 
looked that he who has acquired correct habits of intelligent observa- 
tion is better qualified to give correct, or more nearly exact, testimony 
on any subject which he has noticed, than he who has not acquired such 
valuable habits. 

387 



UNIFOEM PEOMOTION EXAMINATIONS IN THE PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS OF ONTAEIO. 

By Donald J. MoKinnon, 

Public School Inspector, County of Peel, Ontario, Canada. 



In writing this paper, it is my aim to set forth concisely, for the 
information of the Congress, the system of public-school promotion ex- 
aminations which obtains in this Province, and to indicate some of the 
advantages derived' therefrom. Where there are differences of opinion 
on matters of detail, I shall endeavor impartially to cite the arguments 
adduced on either side, rather than to give my individual views. 

1. Mow far are these examinations '■^ uniform''^ ? 

The "programme," or "course of study," issued under the authority 
of the Education Dei^artmeut, is the same for all the six thousand public 
schools of Ontario, and forms a common basis for promotion examina- 
tions ; but the practical interpretation and working out of this course 
is left in the hands of the local authorities — the teacher, trustees, and 
inspector. Moreover, the local authorities possess, within certain well- 
defined and narrow limits, discretionary powers with respect to the 
text-books used in their schools ; so that we have not in use throughout 
the Province an absolutely uniform series of text-books, that all but 
essential j)rerequisite to the holding of uniform examinations of any 
kind. Such being the case, it is only to be expected that the standard 
for promotion from one " class," or " grade," to another should some- 
what vary with the varying circumstances of the several counties or 
inspectoral districts 5 and it has hence been found impracticable to 
secure uniformity of examinations for promotion over a larger area than 
is afforded by one, or at most two or three neighboring inspectorates. 

2. The authority under which they have 'been instituted. 

The laws of the Province require the teacher to classify his school in 
accordance with the programme, and to furnish the inspector with "any 
information which it may be in his power to give respecting the opera- 
tions of his school, or in any wise affecting its interests or character." 
The inspector is required " to make examination and inquiry, in such 
manner as he shall think proper, into all matters affecting the condition 
and operations of the school;" and among other subjects of examina- 
tion specifically enumerated in the regulations, are "organization and 
l^romotions." The institution and conduct of these examinations come, 
therefore, within the scope of the inspector's discretionary powers. 

3. When ivas the system inaugurated in the Province? 

Promotion examinations are the outgrowth of " comi^etitive examina- 
tions," which were at one time somewhat popular in certain parts of the 
Province. The transition from the one to the other has been gradual, 
and in some districts, as 1 shall subsequently show, the competitive 
element has not yet been entirely eliminated; but uniform examinations, 
388 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS 151 

for promotion purposes only, were instituted in some counties at least 
eight years ago, and the system now obtains in the majority of the 
rural inspectorates, as well as in all the cities and larger towns. 

4. How often are theae examinations held, and what is the time occupied ? 
They are held twice in the year, usually in the rural districts in 

March and October, and in the cities and towns in June and December. 
The time occupied is two days. 

5. Classes examined. 

The senior first class, the average age of pupils in which is about 8 
years ; the second class, average age, 9J years ; the third class, 11^ 
years ; and the fourth class, 14 years. These figures apply to the rural 
districts ; in the cities and towns, where the schools are graded and 
the attendance of pupils is more regular, the work of the first four 
classes is usually completed at the age of 13 years. The provincial 
examination for admission to the high schools is, in most counties, 
utilized as the examination for promotion from the fourth class to the 
fifth. 

6. Subjects of examination. 

Eeading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic in all classes; geography 
and literature additional in the second class; and, in the third and 
fourth classes, the same, with grammar, composition, history, and draw- 
ing (maps and easy designs) still further additional. 

7. The preparation of the examination papers. 
This work is done in one of the following ways: 

{a) By the inspector directly. This mode may be very satisfactory 
for a time, but few men can prepare papers on the same subjects year 
after year and avoid the error of monotonous self-repetition in ideas, if 
not in words. 

[h) By three or four experienced teachers chosen by the inspector, 
each of whom prepares an independent series of papers from which 
the inspector compiles one eclectic series. The same teachers never 
prepare the papers for two successive examinations, so that fresh- 
ness and variety are insured ; while what may be termed the editorial 
work of the inspector is a guarantee against too sudden changes in the 
staodard. 

(c) By a committee of the county teachers' association, the work of 
selection and revision being generally performed by the inspector and 
the head master of the county model school. This method is much the 
same in its practical working as that last mentioned, but has the ad- 
vantage of relieving the inspector of a large share of responsibility, 
which is transferred to the broader shoulders of the association. It 
is, perhaps, another recommendation of this plan that it best accords 
with the genius of our representative institutions. 

8. The presiding examiner. 

This is either the teacher of the school, a neighboring teacher with 
whom he voluntarily exchanges, or one appointed by the inspector or 
by the committee of the association. 

9. The proceedings at the examination. 

The presiding examiner, having received by mail a sealed package 
containing a question paper in each subject for each candidate, opens 
this package for the first time on the morning of the first day of the 
examination, in the presence of the candidates and of the trustees of 



152 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

the school. The question papers are from time to time distributed in 
accordance with the time-table accompanying- them, and every candidate 
is required to hand in his answer paper in each subject punctually at the 
expiration of the time allotted. The presiding examiner also awards 
marks for reading, and for the work done during the past three months 
in writing and drawing. 

10. Beading and valuation of the answer papers. 

When the teacher presides in his own school, he also generally reads 
the answer papers of his pupils, and, either independently or in consul- 
tation with one or more neighboring teachers, determines upon their fit- 
ness or unfitness for promotion. Where, however, teachers exchange 
schools, as noted in the preceding paragraph, the answer papers are 
generally sent to the inspector, by whom they are laid before a commit- 
tee of the most experienced teachers, selected either by himself or by 
the county association. The advocates of the latter method ur^e that 
the younger teachers lack the experience and maturity of judgment 
requisite for the work ; that a teacher may be tempted to undue leniency 
towards his pupils generally, or even to partiality and favoritism in 
particular cases; that even though he may discharge the duty with the 
utmost efficiency and fairness, imputations may be cast by interested 
parties upon the justice of his decisions; that perfect uniformity in 
classification throughout the county can be secured only through the 
agency of a general examining board; that the inspector can in this 
way more correctly inform himself as to the relative standing of the 
schools under his supervision; and that, if a tabulated statement of re- 
sults be published, the work and worth of the diligent and skillful 
teacher will be shown forth, and indolence and incompetency will be 
exposed. 

On the other side it is contended that the laws of the Province require 
the teacher to classify his own school, and that the functions of the 
inspector are merely supervisory; that the man who is qualified to teach 
is surely coraijetent to examine; that when confidence is reposed in a 
teacher he awakens to a sense of his responsibility, and takes jjride in 
the faithful discharge of duty; that the dignity of the profession is thus 
enhanced; that perfect uniformity in classification is unattainable and 
unessential; that the main object of these examinations should be to 
test the pupils, not their teachers ; that the best informed and most 
thoughtful pupil is not always endowed with the pen of the ready 
writer, and may therefore at a written examination fall far behind his 
quicker, though perhaps more superficial, school-mate ; that the previ- 
ous term's record, the age, physical strength, talents, and temperament 
of the individual pupil should all be considered in determining upon 
the expediency of his promotion, and that the teacher alone can fairly 
estimate the value of these factors in each particular case ; that much 
of the best teacher's best work fails to show itself in " percentages"; 
that the introduction of the competitive element into these examina- 
tions tends to stimulate "cram," to dwarf true education, and to implant 
and cultivate in the minds of those who should be as brethren an un- 
healthy spirit of rivalry and jealousy; and, finally, that the whole sys- 
tem of examination by a central board is unnecessarily complicated, 
cumbrous, and costly. 

11. The advantages of these examinations. 

{a) To the pupil. — His knowledge that he must not only go over the 
ground . prescribed in the programme, but understand every lesson — 
master it so that he may, weeks afterward, pass an examination upon 
390 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 153 

it — is au incentive to thoroughness, self-reliance, and regular attend- 
ance. His knowledge that other pupils of the same grade throughout 
the county are to write upon the same papers at the same time, stimu- 
lates his ambition to prove that what others can do he can do also. If 
a change of teacher occurs, he has no fear of a general upheaval and 
re-arrangement in which he may lose his standing. If he moves to an- 
other school section, he finds himself in the same class and studying 
from the same text-books as before. 

(b) To the teacher. — If inexperienced, he is usually afilicted with a 
superabundance of either diffidence or self confidence ; in the one case 
the assistance alforded by these examinations is welcome ; in the other, 
it is necessary. If he is beset by unreasonable parents clamoring for 
the advancement of their children, irrespective of fitness, he caji often 
point to the results of these examinations as conclusive. If his teach- 
ing has become one-sided, if he has fallen from his former vigor, if his 
teaching has lost its freshness and originality an^ has begun to run in 
mechanical grooves, nothing is better fitted to aid him in discovering 
his' own weaknesses and backslidings than such a periodical opportunity 
of measuring his corn in another's bushel as these half-yearly examina- 
tions afford. 

(c) To the inspector. — The organization of the schools under his charge 
is much more uniform, and he can therefore more readily form his judg- 
ment as to their relative standing and x)rogress. He has less frequent 
occasion to interfere with the teacher's classification — always an un- 
pleasant duty. His time being less taken up with matters of organiza- 
tion, he is left more free to inquire into the teacher's methods, and to 
advise with him on other matters affecting the interests of his school. 
By a judicious supervision of the preparation of question papers he can, 
to a considerable extent, give direction to the teaching in his county or 
inspectorate. 

12. Public appreciation of these examinations. 

I cannot speak definitely with respect to other counties than my own, 
but I believe that the system, wherever introduced, has given very gen- 
eral if not universal satisfaction. In the county of Peel we have held 
sixteen half-yearly examinations, conducted on the more simple of the 
two plans outlined (in 10) above — that of endeavoring to assist the 
teacher in his work of classification, instead of attempting to relieve 
him of it ; and I am safe in saying that not one of my 74 sclaool boards, 
not one of my 96 teachers, would for a moment think of returning to the 
old, irregular, go-as-you-please system. 

::9i 



THE INFLUENCE AND THE EFFECTS OF A SYSTEM OF UNI- 
FOEM AND SIMULTANEOUS EXAMINATIONS ON SCHOOLS 
AND TEACHERS. 

By William Caelyle, 

Inspector of Public Schools in the County of Oxford, Ontario, Canada. 



A reference to the cdhdition of education in Ontario previous to the 
introduction of these examinations is necessary in order to indicate 
their influence upon the schools. 

Previous to 1871 teachers' certificates were obtained from two sources, 
the provincial normal school and the local county boards. Only those 
issued by the normal school were provincial and valid during life. Cer- 
tificates from the local boards were limited for use to the county in 
which they were issued, to one township, or even to one school section, 
and were renewable annually or oftener on re-examination. The pro- 
vincial certificates were few in number, but the influence exerted by 
the normal school through means of its graduates was great, the trained 
teachers being "the salt of the earth," educationally speaking. The 
public schools were, as a rule, taught by teachers holding county board 
certificates. The county boards were constituted of the township 
superintendents, who were appointed as superintendents by the town- 
ship councils from motives that prevailed with these councils; being a 
minister of any recognized religious persuasion, a lawyer, or a doctor, 
was unquestionable evidence of the fitness of any gentleman for the 
position of local school superintendent; municipalities influenced by the 
presence of electors possessing culture and appreciation of the intellect- 
ual needs of the i)eople, favored and secured the appointment of gen- 
tlemen worthy of the position. To the local boards of examiners selected 
on the haphazard principle was intrusted the licensing of teachers. 
The superintendents, according to their intelligence and the demands 
of their districts, adopted standards of qualifications, prepared ques- 
tions, and valued answers. Unqualified examiners applied defective 
and injudicious tests. The standards adopted for certificates varied in 
every county. The boards were uniform in one feature — candidates were 
sent out to teach with the injunction to return soon for re-examination, 
lest while teaching others they should lose the literary attainments 
they themselves had acquired. At rare intervals a school reached such 
a state of efficiency as to be able to prepare pupils to meet the require- 
ments of the local board for certificates. But the profession was not 
recruited from the schools; it was filled with refugees from all trades 
and professions. Broken-down tradesmen, unsuccessful i^rofessional 
men, every-wise unsuccessful college graduates, old soldiers, and cranks 
received teachers' certificates, and ministered to the moral and the in- 
tellectual wants of the youth of the country. 

In 1871 a new order of things was introduced. County and city in- 
spectors were appointed to take the place of the local school su})erin- 
392 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 155 

tendents. The qualifications of these new officers were prescribed by 
Act of Parliament. They were required to hold provincial certificates of 
the highest grade, and to be experienced teachers. New county boards 
of examiners, with the inspectors as ex-officio chairmen, were constituted. 
The members of these boards also were required to possess qualifica- 
tions that would insure efficient service on their part; but not even to 
these boards thus constituted was intrusted the determining for their 
respective municipalities the standard for teachers' certificates. The 
Education Department assumed charge of this important branch of edu- 
cational work by instituting the uniform examinations as outlined in the 
former part of this paper. 

1. As an immediate effect, the status of teachers throughout the 
Province was uniformly raised. All candidates for teachers' certificates 
were subjected to a uniform provincial test. The new standard was 
high, but not higher than the interests of the country demanded. It 
was also both respectable and authoritative. It proceeded from the De- 
partment, sustained by the authority of the Government, instead of 
from a local board of examiners of unknown qualifications. 

As might have been anticipated, few localities, if any, were prepared 
for the change. Possessors of old county board certificates of the high- 
est grade, who had the temerity or were under the necessity of appear- 
ing before the new boards, failed to take the lowest grade of new cer- 
tificates. The slaughter was immense. The country was suddenly 
awakened to a due sense of the character of its teachers as a class of 
public servants. The profession was sifted. The incapable were shelved, 
or sent to their studies and kept at them until they could pass the new 
ordeal. This decimated the ranks of the profession, but created a de- 
mand for the services of the successful minority. Salaries went up, and 
multitudes entered school to prepare for teaching. 

2. The status of the school was elevated. The public schools soon 
responded to the influence of an imjDroved class of teachers. The more 
efficient began to prepare students for the new examination, and suc- 
ceeded. This feature of school work attached importance to the schools 
and their masters. Eate payers realized that good schools were a neces- 
sity, if for no other purpose than to supply qualified teachers. 

High schools organized for the purpose of furnishing facilities for the 
study of the ancient classics, higher mathematics, and higher English, 
had failed in the fulfillment of their mission more signally than public 
schools had in theirs. Those in successful operation had met the de- 
mand that rested upon them to prepare young men for college and for 
entering the learned professions. But such students were not numer- 
ous, and the schools worthy of their patronage were also few. 

Of many of them it could be said that they accomplished only public 
school work, and that less efficiently than the ijublic schools did. They 
were more generously aided with public funds than public schools, and 
were the resort only of children of the " respectable " class of families in 
their immediate neighborhood, who sought nothing and received noth- 
ing further from them than a smattering of English. 

In 1873 the "entrance examination" was introduced to effect one 
purpose. It effected two. It was designed to prevent pupils- gaining 
admission to the high schools before they had acquired a specific knowl- 
edge of English. This it accomplished for all high schools in the Prov- 
ince, at one stroke, and placed them in a position to devote their ener- 
gies to the work they were originally designed to do. But this exam- 
ination served another important purpose. The entrance examination 
to the high school became. an objective point for public schools to aim 

393 



156 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

at. The course of study prescribed for public schools extends much 
further thau preparation for the high school ; but no clearly defined 
test had ever been applied to ascertain whether they had fulfilled the 
measure of their expected usefulness. The standard for entrance ATOuld 
be a limit to reach every half year; and if not the highest limit they 
could attain to, it would be a regular, a constant, and a practical limit, 
and a convenient point in a pupil's career at which, if" desirable, to leave 
the public for the high school. 

The entrance examination brought high and public schools situated 
in the same locality face to face on the question of the attitude they 
should maintain to one another. It taught high schools their complete 
dependence on the public schools for pui^ils, and hence for their exist- 
ence. It taught public schools that they could be of valuable service 
in doing thoroughly their prescribed work up to the limit of entrance, 
and then leaving their pupils to the tuition of the high schools. Both 
classes of schools saw the unreasonableness of rivalry and antagonism, 
and each settled down to its own special work. 

The influence of the entrance examination on public schools is not 
limited, however, to those situated in the same locality with high 
schools. The best village and rural schools become ambitious to try 
the examination with the town and city schools, upon which the respon- 
sibility of supplying pupils for high schools more immediately devolved. 
They not only succeeded in the competition, but frequently outstripped 
their urban rivals. The reputation of passing entrance pupils has be- 
come an enviable one. It now reaches and animates the remotest and 
the weakest rural schools. The county high schools draw pupils alike 
from city, town, village, and. rural schools. Any rate payer, irrespective 
of the locality of his residence, feels justified in expecting his public 
school to prepare his boys and girls for the high school, whether they 
are designed to enter it or not. 

The non -professional examination has influenced high schools in afar 
greater measure than the entrance has the public schools. It has also 
had its efl:*ect on the public schools. Vigorous rural schools, remote 
from high schools, are not content with passing their pupils merely at 
the entrance examination ; they aim still higher. The intermediate 
III class, and even grade A of II class, are successfully reached by 
farmers' sons and daughters, without having to leave home and attend 
some other institution than their own public school. 

The high schools prepare students for all classes, from the interme- 
diate and III class to grade A of I class. As an illustration of the in- 
creased efficiency of these schools, the normal schools give instruction 
now only in the subjects embraced in the course for professional train- 
ing. For a long period aftei" its establishment the Toronto Normal 
School was compelled to undertake both the literary course and the 
training of students, a necessity laid upon it through the inefficiency 
of public and high schools. 

The departmental examination papers have become " a cloud by day 
and a pillar of fire by night" to high school masters. The subjects 
these papers cover became the subjects of special attention in the 
schools. The papers are studied as to matter and style, that a course 
of instruction and a style of teachijig may be pursued that will the 
more directly prepare for examination. As detailed reports of the ex- 
aminations from the different high schools are laid before the Depart- 
ment, and as the answer papers are forwarded there for valuation, or 
at least revision, revealing the master's scholarship through the work 
of his students, and also his style'of teaching, every master feels the 
.394 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 157 

Eye of the Departmeut is upon Min ; and the authors of the examination 
papers being his inspectors, or gentlemen whose papers are approved 
by his inspectors, as well as the valuators of the answers, the success 
or failure of his students is an expression of approval or disapproval 
of his work more potential for or against his interests than all other 
influences combined. 

3. By means of these examinations the Education Department has 
a(;quired complete supremacy in the control and direction of the schools. 
It assumes all the responsibility for the selecting of mental diet to be 
placed before the youth of the Province. Whatever subject it examines 
the pupils in, that subject will be taught by the masters and studied by 
the pupils. It makes itself responsible to a great extent for the style 
of teaching that prevails in the schools, its preference in this respect 
being indicated by the style of the questions it issues and the valuation 
placed upon the work of the students. It enters every school with the 
master, assigning /or him work to the pupils, and testing with him or 
m spite of him their preparation of it. It establishes a relationship 
between itself and every public and high school pupil, which, if wisely 
exercised, may animate him to effort and lift him to greatness. 

395 



SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE SYSTEM OF EXPEEIMENTAL 
SCIEl^CE IlfSTRTJOTIOIvr INTRODUCED BY THE LIVER- 
POOL SCHOOL BOARD IN CONNECTION WITH ITS PUBLIC 
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

By Edward M. Hance, LL. B., L, C. P., 

Cleric to the School Board for Liverpool, England. 



Very early in its history the Liverpool School Board was greatly im- 
pressed with the importance of introducing into the curriculum of its 
schools some subject, the treatment of which should be specially calcu- 
lated to promote the training and development of the observing and 
reasoning faculties of the children. 

In theory a school board is, to a great extent, independent in the 
choice of the subjects to be taught in its schools ; but in practice the 
question of £. s. d. has a very material influence in limiting its selection 
to the subjects in respect of which the Education Department is pre- 
pared to make a grant, and which are enumerated in that Department's 
annual code. 

Of the subjects so enumerated the Board, after consultation with 
some of the leading men of science in the kingdom, came to the con- 
clusion that those which presented the most favorable opportunities for 
treatment in the desired manner were elementary natural i^hilosophy 
(under the name of mechanics) for boys, and domestic economy for girls. 

Each of these subjects, as defined in the Education Department's code, 
is divided into three stages, to be taken by the children in three suc- 
cessive years. 

That of Mechanics embraces the following matters : 

First stage — Characteristic properties of solids, liquids, and gases ; 
effects of heat on bodies ; construction and use of such simple instru- 
ments as the thermometer and barometer, pumps (including the air 
pump), the spirit level, etc.; measurement of space, time, and velocity. 

Second stage — Force and energy ; the laws of motion ; gravitation ; 
the transformation and conservation of energy. 

Third stage — Parallelogram of forces ; the mechanical powers: lever, 
wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw; the hydraulic 
press. 

Th'At of Domestic Economy includes simple lessons on the source, nature, 
and use of the principal materials of food and clothing ; the cooking of 
food ; washing ; the dwelling (cleaning, warming, ventilation, water 
supply, etc.) ; and general laws of health. 

In connection with these subjects, the one point upon which the 
Board's advisers laid the greatest stress was, that the method of in- 
struction should be by actual demonstration, and not merely by the use 
of text-books. 

With this view the Board, early in 1877, engaged the services of a 
gentleman of considerable scientific attainment, Mr. William Hewitt, 

396 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 159 

B. Sc. (London), to organize and introduce the system of instruction, 
the cummeucemeut of which was made shortly afterwards. 

In 1879, when the work had been in operation for a little over two 
years, 1 had the honor of reading a paper on the subject at the annual 
meeting of the Conference of School Board Clerks, held that year at 
Birmingham. This paper (which is published in the School Board 
Chronicle of '^ov. 1, 1879) attracted considerable attention at the time, 
and had the direct result that the important School Board of Bir- 
mingham shortly afterward decided to introduce a similar system of 
science instruction in connection with their own schools — an example 
which I have reason to believe will, after an interval of five or six years, 
be followed by several other of the more important school boards of 
the kingdom. The system in Birmingham — which, though in its m-ain 
principles identical with, differs in some of its minor but still important 
details from that in Liverpool — has been very fully described in a paper 
read by Dr. Crosskey, F. G. S., a member of that Board, before the Social 
Science Congress, 1884, and published in Nature, Oct. 23, 1884, and 
also in a paper by Mr. W. J. Harrison, F. G. S., the science demonstrator 
under that Board, read before the educational conference held at the 
London Health Exhibition, 1884, and published in Nature, Dec. 25, 1884. 

In Liverpool during the last six years the work has been very largely 
developed, and has been extended in several new directions; so that the 
description of it contained in my previous paper is now very far from 
complete, and I have therefore thought that it may be of interest if I 
give a short description of the system as it now stands. This I propose 
to do under two main headings — first, as it affects the scholars, and 
secondly, as it is applied to assistant and pupil teachers. 

I. THE SYSTEM AS APPLIED TO SCHOLARS. 

In the public elementary schools of England the instruction in the 
three elementary subjects, reading, writing, and arithmel^ic, is, after the 
stage of infancy, divided into seven stages or standards. These are 
considered by the Education Department to correspond respectively 
with the ages seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, and thirteen ; but, 
as a matter of fact, it is found that the average age at which they are 
respectively reached by the scholars is, as nearly as i)ossible in the case 
of each standard, a year later. This division of the elementary subjects, 
as a rule, governs the classification of the scholars for all purposes. 

Under provisions recently introduced into the Education Depart- 
ment's code, it is not until a child has entered upon the work of Standard 
V that he or she is permitted to take up for examination the study of 
such subjects as mechanics or domestic economy. But the Board, con- 
tinuing the arrangement which was in force before the recent altera- 
tions in the code, commences the instruction with Standard IV. By 
this means a series of lessons extending over two years, and corre- 
sponding with Standards IV and V, is devoted to the first stage of each 
subject. The second stage is taTsen by the children in Standard VI, and 
the third by those in Standard Yil. Each child, therefore, who com- 
pletes the curriculum in the elementary subjects passes through a pro- 
gressive four years' course of instruction in elementary science. 

The method of instruction is, as far as possible, carried out upon the 
lines on which so much stress was laid by the Board's advisers — that is 
to say, by oral lessons fully illustrated by experiments. Mr. Hewitt, or 
one of his specially appointed assistants, gives the experimental demon- 

397 



160 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

stratious to the cliildreu at the school, in the presence, in each case, ol 
the teacher of the class. The latter, in the interval preceding the next 
demonstration, recapitulates and explains the lesson, illustrating it also 
in some cases with experiments, for which purpose each school is sup- 
plied with a small stock of simple apparatus. A text-book, specially- 
written to accompany the demonstrations, is used by the teacher as an 
assistance in revising the lessons and in obtaining greater accuracy 
and precision of language in the statement of the subject, but it is 
altogether subordinate to the experimental demonstrations. These are 
given fortnightly in all but the third stage, in which latter a somewhat 
greater interval elapses between the successive visits of the demon- 
strators.. The schools are so grouped that the same lesson can be given 
in several of them on the same day — thus reducing to a minimum the 
time and labor required in preparing the apparatus for the demonstra- 
tions. 

A central laboratory has been formed, in which a valuable stock of ap- 
paratus has been collected, and where that needed for the illustration 
of each lesson is prepared. This is then transported to the various 
schools on a hand-cart by a youth employed for the purpose. By this 
system each school secures, not only the services of specially qualified 
teachers, but also the use, at the minimum cost and trouble, of a larger 
and much more expensive stock of apparatus than could possibly be 
provided in connection with any single school. 

The benefits of this system are not strictly confined to the Board's 
own schools, but are placed on advantageous terms at the disposal of 
the managers of voluntary schools; though, I regret to say, not more 
than five or six S(^hools have availed themselves of the opportunity. 
Including the children from these schools, the approximate number 
under instruction last year was — boys, 3,400 ; girls, 2,200; or a total of 
5,600. Of these more than one-half were children in Standard IV, and 
therefore not eligible for examination by Her Majesty's inspector, and of 
the remainder a considerable number were ineligible for other reasons ; 
so that the total number actually examined from the Board's own schools 
last year was 1,727, viz: 663 boys and 542 girls in Standard V, and 325 
boys and 197 girls in Standard lY. Of the former, 78.3 per cent, of the 
boys and 68.4 per cent, of the girls, and of the latter, 88.9 per cent of 
the boys and 89.3 per cent, of the girls, satisfactorily passed the exami- 
nation — making a total of 78.4 per cent, of the entire number presented. 
Of these the children in Standard V were examined in the first, and 
those in Standard VI in the third stage of their respective subjects— the 
latter having, before the recent change in the Department's regulations, 
taken the first stage when in Standard IV. 

In estimating the value of these results, it must be borne in mind 
that the examination by Her Majesty's inspector is made entirely by 
means of questions to be answered in writing — a method which, in con- 
nection with subjects of this nature, presents exceptional difficulty to 
the children, especially to those in the earlier stages. 

On this point Her Majesty's inspector for this district, in his last 
Triennial Eeport, made in the year 1882, at a time when Standard IV was 
still included in the examination, makes the following remarks, which, 
though having special reference to the children in that standard, are 
still more or less applicable to the younger children in the next, viz: 

A great impulse has been given to scientific teaching by the School Board for Liv- 
erpool, who have engaged the services of a science demonstrator and two assist- 
ants. Every boys' school under the Board offers mechanics for examination, and every 
girls' school domestic economy. The classes to be examined in these subjects regu- 

398 



INTERNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS, 



161 



larly receive lessons from the science demonstrators, who have the command of a 
large traveling apparatus to enable them to illustrate their lessons. This plan has 
made the instruction really valuable, and the Board have done wisely in recogniz- 
ing the fact that young students learn more readily by the eye than by the ear. 
It is the duty of the teachers of the different schools to recapitulate and enforce the 
lessons their classes have received. Last year my colleague and I examined 1,590 
boys in mechanics, and of these about sixty per centum passed. This does not appear 
at first sight a very magnificent result, but an individual examination in this subject 
presents considerable difficulties to the young boys in Standard ^V. The boys in this 
standard can fairly grasp the necessary principles when lucidly explained to them, 
but they are not generally capable of arranging the ideas they have gained, and of 
applying them in a written examination. The instruction they receive does them 
good, and on passing to the higher standards they fully experience the benefit of it ; 
but to make them submit to an individual examination is to expect too much, and 
the almost certain failure of a large proportion is discouraging to them and to their 
teachers. 

In this opinion as to the value of the instruction, even when its results 
could not adequately be decided by the written examination, the 
Board so strongly coijcurred, that when Standard lY was excluded from 
examination they decided to continue the instruction of that standard, 
notwithstanding the withdrawal of the grant and the consequent in- 
crease of expenditure. 

That the instruction in the elementary subjects of reading, writing, 
and arithmetic is not detrimentally affected by the attention devoted to 
elementary science and other subjects not strictly elementary, but, on 
the other hand, is, as might have fairly been expected, considerably 
benefited thereby, is I think conclusively shown by the following sta- 
tistics, which give the percentage of passes in the three elementary sub- 
jects obtained by the children in this Board's schools before and after 
the introduction of the higher subjects of instruction, viz : 



Per cent. 

1873-74 74.4 

1874-'7.5 74.5 

1875-'76 74.4 

1876-'77J 79.1 

1877-'78 2 85.6 

1878-'79 87.1 



Per cent 

1879-'80 88.4 

1880-'81 89.7 

1881-'82 .■ 88.5 

1882-'83 89.1 

1883-'84 92.0 



On the bearing of the science subjects upon the ordinary instruc- 
tion of the school, the Board made the following remarks in their last 
Triennial Keport, viz : 

The Board believe that much of the success of their schools in respect of the ele- 
mentary subjects is due to the increasing intelligence arising from the systematic 
instruction of the elder scholars in specific subjects [i e., mechanics and domestic 
economy]. This is shown, not only by the steady advance which, since the intro- 
duction of that instruction, has year by year been made in the proportion of children 
passing in the elementary subjects, but also by the fact that, while in reading the 
proportion of passes in the Board schools is only about 1 ijer cent, above the average 
of the country, in arithmetic — the subject which makes the greatest demands upon 
the intelligence of the scholars — it is nearly 12 per cent, higher. To this superiority 
in arithmetic is, probably, mainly due the fact that in the Board schools the propor- 
tion of children who pass in all three of the elementary subjects is more than 11 per 
cent, higher than the average of the country. 

The effect of the science instruction, elementary though it is, upon 
the general intelligence of the scholars, can scarcely be better illus- 
trated than by the complaints which, soon after its introduction, were 
made by several mothers, that the instruction "made their girls too 
curious" ; while the popularity of the lessons among the boys is strongly 
shown by the fact that, in many instances, boys who were i^revented 

^The year in which class subjects (history, geography, etc.) were introduced. 
^The year in which science instruction was introduced. 

7950 COT 11 399 



162 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

from attending school for the whole of the session during which one of 
these lessons was to take place, have asked for special permission to 
attend that lesson. At the close of each demonstration the chil- 
dren crowd round the table, eagerly desiring permission to examine the 
apparatus, and evince, by their questions, the lively interest they leel 
in the subject. Sir John Lubbock, who was present at one of these 
demonstrations (given, by the way, to children in the fourth standard), 
made the following remarks on the subject in a speech in the House of 
Commons, April 3, 1882: 

I shall never forget the lesson I heard in one of the Liverpool schools. I wished 
my right honorable friend could have heard that lesson, and seen the eager attention 
of the children, their vivid interest, and bright faces. It would have pleaded for his 
amendment with irresistible eloquence. 

The theoretical instruction of the girls in the subject of domestic 
economy has for the last few years been supplemented by a systematic 
course of training in practical cookery. In seven or eight of the schools, 
so situated as to render the accommodation available, not only for their 
own scholars, but also for those of the remaining Board schools, rooms 
have been specially fitted up for the work, and two teachers have been 
appointed to give instruction in this subject. The method of instruc- 
tion adopted is for the teacher at one lesson to explain, and demonstrate 
by actual practice, the cooking of some special article of food, and for 
the children, from the notes which they have taken of this lesson, to 
themselves perform the operation on the next occasion. The materials 
are purchased by the instructors, and after having been cooked are dis- 
posed of at cost price to the scholars or teachers of the school ; and the 
fact that this process, for the whole of the schools under the Board, 
entailed a loss of less than £3 for the past twelve months, affords a 
strong proof that the instruction given is not merely very popular with 
the girls, but is also fairly successful. 

Ko direct scientific iristruction is given to children below the fourth 
standard, but a scheme of object lessons on common things and natural 
phenomena has been prepared for children in the infant schools, and 
in new reading books on the subject of geography, which have been jDre- 
pared specially for the use of this Board, care has been taken to grad- 
ually familiarize the children in the earlier standards with the great 
truths of physical geography, to illustrate which the teachers have been 
provided wherever possible with some simple apparatus. 

It may be observed that in the figures quoted a^bove as illustrating the 
results of the work, no mention is made of Standard YII. The reason of 
this is that in the year to which the figures relate the children in that 
standard had already completed the full course in mechanics i^rescribed 
in the Education Department's code, and could not therefore be again 
examined. In those cases where the number of such children in a school 
was sufficiently large to justify that course being adopted, classes were 
formed for that year in the subjects of heat (for boys) and animal phys- 
iology (for girls). 

A further experiment has recently been commenced, and appears 
likely to be attended with very favorable results. A special evening 
class has been formed of boys gathered from various Board schools who, 
in the course of the ordinary demonst^-ations at their schools, have 
shown a special aptitude for the study of science. These are being 
taken through a course of experimental lessons on magnetism and elec- 
tricity, and their regularity of attendance and the interest they display 
in the subject appear to indicate that, if the boys can be enrolled in such 
evening classes before leaving the day schools to go to work, much may 

400 



INTEENATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 463 

be done to induce them to carry on the study of such subjects without 
the interruption which now ordinarily takes place between the time at 
which a boy leaves school and that at which, if at all, he joins an even- 
ing: science class. 

This portion of the paper should not be closed without reference to 
the important efforts which the Library and Museum, and Arts Commit- 
tees of the City Council are making to encourage systematic instruction 
in science, not only in the Board schools, but in the public elementary 
schools generally throughout the city. The Eev. H. H. Higgins (chair- 
man of Museum Sub-Committee) and the curator of the museum have se- 
lected special sets of beautiful and striking specimens of natural objects, 
including shells, fossils, sponges, birds, insects, etc. ; these are arranged 
in drawers fitting into neat and specially constructed packing-boxes, 
numbering altogether say twenty; one of these is sent to each of the as- 
sociated schools, and is allowed to remain there a month, in order that 
the teachers may have ample opportunities for giving special instruc- 
tions thereon to their scholars ; it is then sent on to another of the as- 
sociated schools for a similar period, and so on in succession throughout 
all the schools. Additional boxes are from time to time added, and 
the objects in the several boxes also are in some instances changed. 
The head teachers have been accorded the privilege of obtaining on 
application from the museum specimens to assist them in giving any 
special instruction in subjects not covered by the circulating specimens. 
Arrangements have also been made by which opportunities are afforded 
to teachers of taking a class of their scholars to the museum for the 
special study of any particular series of objects. This scheme has now 
been in operation for nearly twelve months, and so far has been highly 
appreciated both by teachers and scholars. 

II. THE SYSTEM AS APPLIED TO ASSISTANT AND PUPIL TEACHERS. 

As has no doubt been gathered from the foregoing particulars, the 
principal difficulty in introducing the experimental teaching of science 
in elementary schools arose from the fact that so few ordinary teachers 
were qualified to take part in it. To overcome this difficulty the Board, 
at the same time that they introduced the science subjects into the cur- 
riculum of their schools, took steps to form their pupil teachers into 
classes for similar but more advanced instruction. At first this instruc- 
tion was, in tbe case of female pupil teachers, confined to the last two 
out of the four years of their apprenticeship. But as candidates for 
such appointments have been more and more largely drawn from the 
scholars who have received the benefit of the Board's science instruc- 
tion, it has been found possible to commence the classes at an increas- 
ingly early period of apprenticeship. Within the past few months the 
last step in this direction has been taken by the introduction of the 
subject into the classes in which candidates for pupil teachership re- 
ceive for a year or two special preparation for their future career. In 
the case of the male pupil teachers, the science instruction was given 
more generally from the commencement, and it also has been completed 
in the same way as that for the female teachers. 

But the Board's efforts in this direction have not been limited solely 
to the scholars and the pupil teachers ; they have also been extended 
to those teachers who, after completing their apprenticeship, have, 
without going to a training college, been engaged as assistant teachers 
in the Board schools. Classes have been formed for preparing these 
teachers by a three years' course for the Education Department's exam- 

401 



164 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

ination for teaching certificates ; and natural science forms an impor- 
tant branch of the instruction given in these classes. Thus there is 
now a continuous and progressive course of definite experimental scien- 
tific instruction in connection with the schools of this Board, which 
commences with the scholar in the fourth standard, is continued through- 
out his subsequent school career, is carried forward through his prep- 
aration for apprenticeship and through his four years' term as a pupil 
teacher, and is supplemented by a three years' course of instruction for 
the certificate examination. The instruction for both male and female 
teachers includes a preliminary course in elementary chemistry, which 
is followed, in the case of the females, by successive courses in ele- 
mentary and advanced physiography, and elementary and advanced 
animal physiology, and, in the case of the males, in sound, light and heat, 
magnetism and electricity, and ijhysiography. This curriculum is in 
both cases supplemented throughout its whole course with instruction 
in drawing and, in the case of male teachers, in mathematics. 

The value of the special training, including that in elementary science, 
which the pupil teachers under this Board receive, is clearly shown by 
the following particulars as to the position which they have taken dur- 
ing the past few years in the Queen's scholarship examination. This, 
which is an examination open to all pupil teachers in England and 
Wales on the completion of their aiDprenticeship, is annually attended 
by about 1,300 males and 2,000 females. 

The percentage of those candidatew who have been placed in the first 
class, and the corresponding results attained by those sent in by the 
Liverpool Board schools, are shown by the following table, viz : 



Year. 



Males. 



England and 
Wales. 



Liverpool 
Board. 



Females. 



England and 
Wales. 



Liverpool 
Board. 



1882 
1883 
1884 



25.7 
24.9 
25.7 



58.3 
75.0 
.33.3 



29.5 
30.0 
27.6 



61.9 

54.8 
60.0 



The classes for assistant teachers have not yet been sufficiently long 
in operation for any similar test of their effect to be yet available, but 
there can be little doubt that they will be attended with equally favor- 
able results. In the case of pupil teachers, as in that of scholars, the 
benefits of the course of instruction established are not exclusively con- 
fined to the Board schools, but, so far as the available accommodations 
will permit, are placed at the disposal of the voluntary schools of the 
city. And so far as male pupil teachers are concerned, this privilege is 
very largely taiken advantage of. 

The effect u])on the education of the scholars of the attention which 
has been paid to the training of the teachers has already been consid- 
erable, and is increasing every year. But the beneficial effects of the 
system are not confined to these results, or even to this one city. Not 
only are the teachers generally able in their recapitulatory lessons to 
supplement more efficiently, and to enforce more effectively, the teach- 
ing of the science demonstrators than was formerly the case, but from 
their ranks have been selected, on several occasions, the assistant dem- 
onstrators rendered necessary, either by changes in the staff or by an 
increased area of operations — and some of these have already been pro- 
moted to the charge of independent scientific work in other towns. 

402 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 165 

While the Board felt, at the commencement of the work, that the 
only method of satisfactorily introducing experimental science instruc- 
tion into their schools was the employment of a distinct staff of specially 
qualified instructors, they also believed that more good would be ef- 
fected if the work could be done in each school by a properly qualified 
member of the staff. They have always, therefore, looked forward to 
the time when the ordinary teachers of the schools should be able, under 
the general direction of the science demonstrator, to undertake and carry 
on this teaching themselves. 

Towards the realization of this hope an important step has recently 
been taken by the selection, in the case of four or five schools, of assist- 
ant teachers who have received their training under the Board, and who 
are considered by the science instructor to be fully qualified ifor the pur- 
pose, to give the demonstrations in their respective schools under his 
general superintendence, in consideration of which additional work an 
appropriate increase has been made in their emoluments. Arrange- 
ments are likewise being made, not only to supply these assistant teach- 
ers with the necessary apparatus, but for them to attend a course of 
practical lessons in the construction of simple appara,tus. This course 
is also thrown open to any assistant teachers from the Board schools 
who may desire to qualify themselves for similar employment and in- 
creased remuneration. 

The system of experimental science instruction described in this paper 
has found a very warm and energetic supporter in Mr. William Lant 
Carpenter, who not only ventilated the question at the meeting of the 
British Association, at Southport in 1883, but has since then read papers 
on the subject before other important scientific bodies, and has delivered, 
in several of the large towns of England and Scotland, lectures advo- 
cating the system. 

If this method of teaching, therefore, should ultimately be adopted 
by any considerable number of the school boards of the kingdom, it 
will to a very large extent be due to the untiring exertions of this con- 
sistent defender of scientific instruction. 

403 



STUDY OF MUSIC IK KEW HAVEN. 
By B. Jepson, 

Teacher of Music in the Public Schools of JS'eiv Haven. 



I entered the employment of the New Haven Board of Education 
January 5, 18(35, and have consequently finished the twentieth year of 
service as vocal instructor in the New Haven public schools. If my 
experience may prove valuable to others, I shall only be too glad to 
give a brief outline at this time. 

In my young manhood I became thoroughly imbued with the idea 
that childhood was the time and the public schools the place in which 
to commence a musical education. I also felt that the "-poll i^arrot" 
practice of rote singing, which then prevailed throughout the length 
and breadth of the land, should be made to give way to something 
better, and that much of the time spent in singing " Yankee Doodle" and 
" Billy Boy " might better be utilized in elementary drill. I believed also 
that the study of music could be so arranged and adapted to school work, 
as to place it on a par with other branches in reference to manner of reci- 
tations, marking, discipline, credits, etc. Some years elapsed before I 
was in a position to put my theories into practice. In the meantime I 
had elaborated a system of elementary instruction covering the six or 
eight years of school life, the same consisting of a multitude of easy 
steps, suitable for every grade from the primary to the high school. 
This system of instruction has been continuously and almost daily re- 
vised and improved during twenty years of actual experience in the 
school room. 

At the beginning of our work we attempted what always has proven 
and always will prove a failure, viz., to build from the top down. In other 
words it was thought that the study of the science of music was only 
suitable for the pupils of the high school and the advanced scholars of 
the grammar grades. Year by year I asked that the work might be 
extended into lower and still lower grades; but it was only when we 
reached the bed rock of elementary work (viz., grade one) that we began 
to realize that in music, as in all other studies, the foundation for suc- 
cessful building should be laid at the bottom. 

You will gather from my preliminary remarks that I have little to 
present in favor of music as a " recreation." My mission (if I have any) 
is, and has been, to teach to public school children the elementary 
science of music. With those whose only idea of music is, that it may 
be used to spice the general order of exercises, or to entertain visitors 
on reception days, I have no argument at this time. If I have achieved 
a degree of success as a public school musit; teacher, it has been in the 
line of regular, systematic, unremitting, elementary drill. I would not 
discard song singing altogether, but 1 do urge and insist that in every 
grade, even the very lowest, at least fifteen minutes per day shall be 
404 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 167 

spent in some form of elementary drill, which shall be to every child an 
actual beginning in his musical education. 

But, says one, can the very little children be interested from day to 
day with simple elementary exercises ? 

It has been my experience that children become interested in any- 
thing which they can be made to understand. I do not recollect the 
school or the visit where there has ever been a lack of genuine enthusi- 
asm, to say nothing of ordinary interest. 

The scheme of study which I desire shall take the place of anything 
new which I might possibly write in reference to methods, is the result 
of a life-long experience in the elementary department of vocal music, 
;ind is the one now in successful operation in the ISlew Haven schools. 
The underlying principle is the one known as the "movable (?o" theory. 
So far as I know, the public school teachers of America are practically 
unanimous in the opinion that the opposite theory of " anchoring" the 
tonic syllable must be abandoned. 

The plan of instruction which divides the responsibility with the 
regular teacher, and thus secures her interest and co-operation, is pre- 
sumably the best. By this plan the pupils are naturally brought into 
sympathy with the work, and yield more readily to discipline than they 
would to special rules enforced by special teachers. From the begin- 
ning of my work until now, the regular teachers have always been re- 
quired to be present at the recitations in music, and are expected to 
note carefully the new points ; also, to give to the class the necessary 
drill of fifteen or twenty minutes each day until the next visit of the 
vocal instructor. In the case of an inexperienced teacher, or of one 
without musical ability, an exchange of recitations is arranged with 
some other teacher. 

In all grades above the first the children are supplied with music 
readers; nevertheless, frequent and almost daily opportunities are given 
in every -grade for sight singing from the blackboard. My own experi- 
ence justifies the remark that, all in all, nothing in charts or books can 
furnish the inspiration for effective work which blackboard practice 
gives to both teacher arycl pupil. 

By way of examination, a yearly test exercise is placed on the black- 
board of each room by the vocal instructor. Being a relative test, the 
exercise is the same in all rooms of the same grade. Each individual 
scholar is also given an opportunity to sing at sight a single-part exer- 
cise, or otherwise to take part in a duet, trio, or quartet. Last year 
the number of " star singers" (as they are denominated) reached about 
4,500. This year they will probably reach a total of 5,000, being about 
one-half of the total number in attendance. 

A i)oiut of great interest to all communities where music has not yet 
been introduced as a regular branch of study, or where doubts exist as 
to its practicability, is the fact that in twenty successive annual exam- 
inations it has been found that the number of children who are com- 
monly reputed to have "no ear for music" is less than four per cent, 
of the whole. Of those who are thus classed as " monotones," large 
unmbers become sufficiently familiar with the theory of music to en- 
able them to accompany their classes on the piano and organ. 

In connection with the instruction in notation, much attention is 
given to the manner of breathing, whether in songs, solfeggios, or de- 
votional music. The quality of tone is cultivated by the use of various 
vocalizing syllables and vowels. Perfect accuracy in time is obtained 
in the only rational way yet devised, viz, a motion of the hand. My 
own plan is to use the right hand, closing all but the index finger. 

405 



168 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

I would not appear to be egotistic in proclaiming "results," and yet 
I ought not to hesitate in making known the fact that success has, in 
a large degree, compensated the labor of twenty years. Perhaps it 
will be sufficient to say, as the outcome of my work in JSTew Haven, 
that a number of operas and several of the oratorios have been given by 
choral societies, composed almost entirely by graduates of the schools. 
Amongst the latter I might mention Mendelssohn's " Elijah," with The- 
odore Thomas's orchestra for accompaniment. 

It is opportune at this time that I am enabled to quote from a commu- 
nication evidently designed for publication, and which is all the more 
satisfactory to me Us it comes so unexpectedly. It is from my old friend, 
Ariel Parish, for sixteen years superintendent of schools in !N"ew Haven, 
and now resident in Denver, Colo.: 

Denver, Colo., January, 1885. 

■In September, 1865, on assuming the duties of superintendent of the public schools 
in the city of Ne^^^ Haven, Conn., I found Mr. B. Jepson employed ae a special teacher 
of vocal music. 

Instruction in this branch was introduced but a few mouths previous, simply as an 
experiment, and only a few of the upper rooms in the larger schools were placed 
Tinder his charge for this purpose. At the outset no books were required for the 
pupils, but all lessons were written on the blackboard for daily jjractice. 

The success of the experiment was such that gradually lower rooms were included, 
until vocal music became a branch of instruction in all grades, from the primary de- 
partment to the high school. 

» » * . * » •» * 

The valuable results of twenty years of careful training of the children through 
their school life axe manifest in Sabbath-schools, religious assemblies, and on public 
occasions in which music constitutes a part of an entertainment, whether by chorus 
or individual performance ; and it is surprising to observe with what ease and perfec- 
tion vocal music seems to be spontaneously produced. Musical societies highly credit- 
able to the city have grown up in New Haven. Many individuals have becom'e su- 
perior vocalists, with reputations as public singers, securing to them valuable pecun- 
iary compensation. To the multitudes who have received musical training in the 
schools, without doubt an element of enjoyment has been supplied which has con- 
tributed not a little to make them happier through life, and perhaps better citizens 
than they otherwise would have been. 

»**■#»#» 

A prominent characteristic of the instruction in the N^ w Haven schools is, and has 
been from the beginning, that the 2mnciple8 of music are thoroughly instilled into the 
minds of the children. From the first effOrfc of the primary children in learning to 
sing the scale, onward until the day when the high school diploma is awarded, music 
is taught and studied as a science. The results manifest to-day come from the skill, 
energy, and persevering study of one man through a score of years of uninterrupted 
effort, viz, a success not excelled in this department of instraction by any other city 
in the Union. 

A. P. 
406 



COUNTY MODEL SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE PROVINCE OF 

ONTARIO. 

By I. I. TiLLEY, 

Inspector of County Model Scliools. 



Previous to 1877 the work of training students in the theory and 
X^ractice of teaching was conducted solely in the two provincial normal 
schools; but as attendance at these institutions was not compulsory, 
and as certificates were granted by county boards of examiners merely 
upon examination in literary subjects and in the theory of education, 
only a minority of those who wished to enter the teaching profession 
availed themselves of the advantages afibrded by the normal schools. 
It was thought, however, that the time had arrived when all should 
not only possess the necessary scholastic attainments, but should also 
receive proper preparatory training and furnish satisfactory evidence 
of their ability to organize, teach, and govern a school, before receiving 
a license to undertake the important work of instructing the youth of 
our country. To have provided the facilities for aflbrding this profes- 
sional training in additional normal schools would have required a large 
immediate outlay, and would have involved a very considerable annual 
expenditure. It was thought desirable, therefore, to adopt some less 
expensive plan for accomplishing the purpose. Accordingly our pres- 
ent county model school system was established, which is somewhat 
similar to the system devised many years ago by the late Dr. Ryerson, 
Chief Superintendent of Education, but not generally introduced into 
the Province. 

Before a student can be permitted to enter upon the course in a 
model school he must have passed the non -professional examination for 
a third-class certificate. This examination includes reading, spelling, 
penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, history, English 
literature, composition, algebra, Euclid, drawing, book-keeping, and 
physics. He may, however, pass the non-professional examination for 
a second-class, or even for a first-class certificate, before attending a 
model school. If successful at the close of the term, he receives a third- 
class certificate, valid for three years and limited to the county in which 
it is obtained. Having taught at least one year, and having passed the 
non-professional examination for a second-class certificate, the teacher 
may, upon the recommendation of the public school inspector under 
whose supervision he taught, enter a normal school for additional pro- 
fessional training, and if successful at the final examination in that in- 
stitution, he receives a second-class certificate, valid throughout the 
Province and to be held during good behavior. First-class certificates 
are granted upon written examinations in professional and non-profes- 
sional subjects to those who have already obtained third-class and sec- 
ond-class certificates. In this way only can certificates be obtained. 
The obtaining of a non-professional certificate does not give the candi- 

407 



170 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

date any authority to teacli. It simply gives him the right to enter 
upon a course of professional training. 

EEGULATIONS. 

Model schools are established in accordance with the following regu- 
lations : 

1. The county board of examiners for each county or group of coun- 
ties shall set apart at least one public school for the professional train- 
ing of third-class teachers, subject to the approval of the Education De- 
l)artment. 

2. The requisites for a county model school shall be, 

{a) One room in addition to those required for ordinary school pur- 
poses. 

(b) Such full and complete equipment as is now required for the 
fourth class in a public school. 

(c) A principal holding a first-class provincial certificate, with three 
assistants holding at least second-class certificates. 

(d) A special assistant to relieve the principal during at least half 
of each day during the model-school term. 

3. The teachers-iu-trainiug shall attend regularly and punctually 
during the whole model school term, and shall be subject to the disci- 
pline of the principal, with an appeal in case of dispute to the chair- 
man of the county board of examiners. 

4. The principal shall report to the board of examiners at the close 
of the term the status and progress of each teacher-in-training, as 
shown by the daily register. 

5. The teachers-in-traiuing shall be subjected to an examination in 
practical teaching at the close of the session, and also to a written ex- 
amination on papers prepared by the Department.^ 

6. Boards of trustees are authorized by resolution to require a fee of 
not more than five dollars, to be paid by each teacherintraining. 

7. There shall be one session of thirteen weeks in each model school 
during the year, beginning on the second Tuesday in September. 

8. Each model school shall be inspected at least once during the ses- 
sion by the Departmental inspector. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

The course of study embraces, 

1. Principles of education: School organization, management, and 
discipline, methods of instruction, and practice in teaching. 

2. Physiology and hygiene : 

{a) Laws of health, temperance, cleanliness; hours for study, rest, 

recreation, and sleep. 
(&) Heating and ventilation of the school room. 
(c) Functions of the brain, eye, stomach, heart, and lungs. 

3. Music, drawing, and calisthenics.^ 

4. School law: A knowledge of school law, so far as it relates to 
the duties of teachers and pupils. 

1 These written examinations are upon the same papers iu all the schools, and are held 
at the same time in accordance Avith a time table drawn np by the Department. The 
answers are read, the values determined, and the certificates awarded by the coiiuty 
board of examiners. 

"These subjects are not compulsory, but if taken up due credit is given ibr work 
done in them, in awarding certificates. 

408 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 171 

5. Eeview of uon-professional work : The teachers-in-traming are re- 
quired to review and supplement their knowledge of the principal sub- 
jects of the public-school urriculum, such as composition, spelling, arith- 
metic, and literature. For this purpose the principal gives a few exer- 
cises in these subjects during the term, and by oral and written examina- 
tions tests the students' knowledge of matter, as well as of methods of 
instruction. 

MANAGEMENT. 
First Section of Term — Tivo WeeTis. 

1. Teaching by principal: For the first two weeks of the session the 
principal teaches in the separate room provided for this purpose those 
subjects with which he intends the students subsequently to begin. In 
teaching a class as above, the principal first lays before the students 
the plan of the lesson, and illustrates this plan by his teaching. He 
also requires the students to take notes of his methods, and these are 
discussed in the criticism hour. In this way about ten lectures, com- 
bined with illustrative teaching, are given on the best methods of teach- 
ing some of the primary subjects. During this time the students are 
not required to visit the different departments of the school for obser- 
vation, as it is believed that no one can observe intelligently or with 
j)rofit until he has some idea of the object to be attained by the teacher. 

2. The students having noted and discussed the methods as outlined 
by the principal, and having observed the practice of these methods' 
are now themselves prepared to begin to teach. They are therefore 
next required to teach classes in the separate room, under the guidance 
of the principal, and subject to the criticism of their fellow students after 
the conclusion of the lesson. 

3. Observation : The principal next prepares the students for taking 
observation in the different rooms set apart for model-school purposes, 
their attention being specially called to the matter of the lesson, to the 
method of presenting it, and to the class. 

Second Section of Term — Three WeeTcs. 

1. Observation and class teaching in the separate room : During this 
section of the term, one-half of each day is occupied by the students in 
the model school-room — 

(I) In observing class teaching by the principal. 

(II) In class teaching before the principal and their fellow-students. 

(III) In criticisms. 

2. (Observation in the different divisions : During the second half of 
the day the students are engaged in observing teaching by the assist- 
ants in the different rooms, and in taking notes. These notes are after- 
wards given to the principal, and discussed in the separate room. The 
assistant teachers are required to explain to the students the purpose 
and plan of the lesson before they begin to teach, to call attention to 
points in the progress of the lesson, and to summarize at the close. 

Third Section of Term — Seven Weeks. 

Teaching by students in the divisions: The students having seen 
the principal teach a number of subjects, having taught the subjects 
themselves under the direction of the principal, having observed how 

409 



172 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

classes are taught by tlio assistants, and liaving somo idea of tlic matter 
and method of a lesson, are now able to tal^e charge of classes in the 
subjects already illustrated. The assistant teachers are required to take 
notes of the work done by the students, and to report the same to the 
principal. Students, when assigned to a room, remain a week in one 
division. The average number of lessons taught by each student dur- 
ing the session is thirty. 

Fourth Section of Term — One Weeh; 

Eeview and examination : Students are not required to do any school 
work during the last week of the term. 

TEXT-BOOKS. 

The following text- books are compulsory: 

1. A complete set of the text books prescribed for use in the 
first four classes of public schools. 

2. Baldwin's Art of School Management. 
The following are recommended: 

McLellan's Mental Arithmetic, Part I. 

Normal Music Course, Part I. 

Hughes' Drill and Calisthenics. 

Whitney's Elementary Lessons in English (teacher's edition). 

Ayres' Orthoopist (revised Canadian edition). 

KEOEIPTS. 

A grant of one hundred and fifty dollars is given by the county 
council to each model school in the county, and an equal amount is 
given by the Government. The fees paid by th<^ students average one 
hundred dollars to eacli school. The amount received by each board of 
trustees is therefore about four hundred dollars per annum, and this 
sum is ami)ly sufiicient to provide a special assistant to relieve the prin- 
cipal from his ordinary school duties, and to meet contingent expenses. 

NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AND OF STUDENTS. 

Fifty-one model schools have been established in the Province, and 
the average number of students that attend each school is twenty. 

TIME OCCUPIED BY THE STUDENTS IN TEACHING. 

Taking twenty as the average number of students in a model school 
and allowing one half-hour lesson per day to each student, we have ten 
hours per day for teaching by the students in the whole school. Taking 
four divisions as the number used for model school purposes, with a 
senior and a Junior section in each division, we have eight classes for 
ten hours of "teaching by the students, or an average of one hour and a 
quarter for each class "during each day for seven weeks. When the 
number of students exceeds twenty, more than four divisions are used, 
if possible. The students are distributed among the different rooms, 
and while one teaches the others observe and take notes. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

When our present county model schools were first established, fears 
were entertained by many that the regular work and discipline of the 
410 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 173 

schools in which they were established would be disturbed by them. 
These fears were realized to some extent, and after an experience of two 
or three years the trustees in a few cases refused to allow their schools 
to be used any longer for model school purposes. But in at least eighty 
per cent, of the schools the work went on smoothly from the first and 
was a decided success. When the principals of the public schools in 
which model schools were established first took charge of this extra 
work, they had to teach a division of pupils from 9 A. M. till 4 P. m.; 
and as no special assistant was provided for their relief, they were 
obliged to deliver their lectures to the students before and after the 
regular school hours. During the day the students were assigned to 
the different divisions, and employed their time in observdag teaching 
and in teaching classes. The students being thus i^laced under the 
guidance of the assistants during the day and being allowed to teach 
from the beginning of the term, almost necessarily retarded the prog- 
ress of the x)upils and caused more or less friction. By means of the 
relief afforded by the special assistant all the work is now done during 
school hours, and the students being mostly under the instruction of 
the principal and having been drilled in the theory and practice of 
teaching during the first half of the term, are enabled to do very fair 
work in the divisions when they take charge of classes during the sec- 
ond half of the term. The schools that were closed have been re- 
opened, and complaint is now rarely made that the model school work 
interferes with the ordinary routine of the school or with the work of 
the pupils. On the contrary, many principals claim that the general 
standing of the school is improved by the establishment of the model 
school. 

Our model school system during a period of eight years has steadily 
grown in public favor, and its utility and efficiency have been well es- 
tablished. It furnishes to all young teachers a fair amount of profes- 
sional training near their own homes at a less cost to them than if it 
were furnished in a few large centers, and at a cost to the Province of 
certainly not more than one-third of what would have been required if 
provision had been made for furnishing this training in j^rovincial normal 
schools. For these reasons I think that our model schools, which were 
established as an exijeriment at first, may now be considered as an 
important and permanent part of our educational system. 

411 



SECTION B— SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 

LOWER- COLLEGIATE, LOWER TECHNICAL, AND TRADE 

SCHOOLS. 



HONORARY CHAIRMAN. 

PHILIP MAG-NUS, M. A., Director and Secretary of the City arid 
Guilds of London Institute. 

HONORARY SECRETARY. 

Rev. Dr. A. G. HAYGOOD, Secretary of the John F. Slater Ftmd, 
Emory, Ga. 

CHAIRMAN. 

Gen. FRANCIS A. WALKER, LL. D., President of the Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology, Boston. 

vice-chairman. 

C. A. WOODWARD, Ph. D., Bean of the jllanual Training School, 
Saint Louis, Mo. 

SECRETARY. 

W. D. PARKER, President of the State Normal School, River Falls, 
Wis. 

ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 

Principal MOSES MERRILL, High School, Boston. 

413 



A SOUTHERN GEADED SCHOOL. 
By Rev. A. D. Mayo, D. D. 



I cannot forget my first day's experience in what I recognized as a 
genuine type of the new southern graded public school. It was in one 
of the little cities of the State of Korth Carolina, a coiomunity of perhaps 
five thousand people, two thirds of whom were white. This school was 
for white children, and, at the time I speak of, had been established not 
more than six months. 

Previous to this, the educational affairs of the place had gone on after 
the usual method in this class of southern towns. There had been an 
academy for boys and a seminary for girls, both relying a, good deal on 
boarding pupils, the latter established io a large building with spacious 
grounds around it. There were probably a dozen little groups of chil- 
dren gathered in private houses for instruction, and a considerable 
number of young people were being educated away from home at a cost 
of from $200 to $500 a year. 

At the time of which I speak, however, the two academies had broken 
down, and were satisfactory to nobody. The little private schools were 
even less satisfactory. The public school was in operation, for both 
races, on State funds some three months in the year, and was what this 
sort of school is apt to be. In short, the community was paying, at 
home and abroad, money enough to secure a good elementary schooling 
for the 800 children of school age. But everything Avas at odds. The 
religious sects had rival notions, obstinate individuals of influence in- 
dulged themselves in impracticable theories, while the children were 
beating their way up to American citizenship, at the most momentous 
era in the world's history, like a scattered fleet making a harbor in a 
storm, at least one-fourth their number coming up in absolute ignorance 
of all that belongs thereto in a land like ours. 

At this juncture a few leading people resolved to " take the bull by the 
horns," and to persuade the community to establish a thorough system 
of graded public instruction. There is no part of the world where a 
dozen clear-headed, influential, right-minded people can do so much 
good in a community of 5,000 inhabitants as in a southern American 
town. By ways familiar to southern life, this phalanx of solid men and 
sensible women " captured" the little city, and persuaded the white peo- 
ple to try the experiment of the graded school. Unfortunately the 
colored folks, having bud advisers and insisting on having their own 
way with their portion of the general fund, continued keeping up the 
short-lived public school of the county, eking out their means with 
church donations, the school itself being little better than a children's 
mob. Later they caine into the general system under the city superin- 
tendency, and their school, as far as could be, was the same as that I 
am about to describe for the white children. 

415 



178 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Wbile waitiiDg for lejijislative permission to impose a local tax, the 
people raised a sufficient sum by subscription to make the new school 
free for a year, up to its secondary, or academical, grade. In due time 
a local tax of perhaps two mills on the dollar, added to the State fund, 
supplied the means for the running expenses. The city purchased the 
establishment of the girls' seminary, which with proper rei)airs made 
an excellent school-house, surrounded by handsome grounds, for the 500 
white children. 

An excellent superintendent was chosen from among that remarkable 
body of young graded- school masters which the State of Tennessee has 
given to'^the South; his salary, perhaps $1,200 for the first year or two, 
was paid by the Peabody Fund; and he was placed at the head, "with 
power to act." The South still holds fast by its old traditions of com- 
petent leadership, invaluable in organizing a graded school. The su- 
perintendent was permitted to nominate his ten assistants, and given 
all needful authority for their training and direction. He brought one 
college graduate as his "chief of staff," to take charge of the academical 
classes; the remaining teachers were women, of whom perhaps two were 
experts from abroad, the rest being the most hopeful of the teachers 
already at work in the place. In this way he avoided collision with 
half a dozen competent lady teachers, while giving them more reliable 
employment than before. 

I suppose the salaries of the women ranged from $300 to $400 for the 
nine months of school, while the young man may have received from 
$600 to $800. Thus the entire running expense, including incidentals, 
hardly exceeded $6,000, an average of $10 per annum for each pupil. 
When the colored schools came into line, the whole system could, by 
economical handling, be made to school 800 children nine months in 
the year, up to the academical grades, for less than $8,000. 

The original outlay for buildings is a variable quantity. In many 
southern towns there are buildings that can be had for public school 
purposes with only the expense of repairs and suitable furnishing; in 
other places valuable school properties can be bought at nominal prices; 
sometimes good school-houses, built by northern churches, are turned 
over to the authorities. The southern graded school, except in the 
larger cities and occasionally in towns, is not yet established in its 
final quarters. Its teachers are poorly paid ; its superintendents work- 
ing on nominal wages, and overwhelmed with labor and responsibility. 
But the genius of the American common school does not demand a 
palatial school-house filled with apparatus, or a schedule of high sala- 
ries, or even a group of accomplished graduates of superior institutions 
as teachers. All these are the body, but the soul is a resolute, united 
community, determined to do its duty by the children, and a faithful, 
open-minded, improvable corps of teachers, bent on doing their best, 
at all hazards to themselves. And nowhere, in this or in any country, 
is this fundamental condition of success more thoroughly realized than 
in hundreds of these new graded schools in our Southern States. I 
find the "best blood", and, what always makes good blood, the best 
mind, heart, tact, and executive force of the Young South, engaged in 
the inspiring work of building up the southern people's schools. And 
I wish thousands of our over- critical, well-paid teachers from the Korth, 
sometimes in danger from a too indulgent constituency, could go with 
me on my visitations to these new graded schools of the South-land, 
and learn anew that precious art of service consecrated to the children, 
which built up the common school of New England half a century ago, 
416 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 179 

and will always build up, whenever young American manliood and 
womanhood are invoked for self sacrificing labor in any good cause. 

The first thing that attracted my attention, on arriving in this little 
city, was tbe pride and enthusiasm of the people concerning their new 
graded school. I had seen a condition of public feeling like it only 
during the progress of a revival of religion, a working up in temperance, 
or in a period of overpowering interest in time of war. Every man I 
saw had a good word for the school ; the village newspaper printed 
long columns of its work; the county folk thronged its rooms, so that it 
had become necessary to shut out the public, except on certain half- 
days, on account of the interruption of over- visiting ; crowds of people 
would collect opjjosite the main entrance, on the dismissal, to watch 
the long, soldier-like lines of boys and girls march down the broad 
walk, file out the great gate, and, at a word, break up with a shout for 
home. 

At the beginning the trustees were incredulous about the attendance, 
and failed to supply seating enough; but the children came pouring in, 
week after week, till almost every able-bodied youngster was on hand. 
Wild stories were told about sick children that dodged out the back 
door at home, and ran away to school. Indeed, there had occurred sev- 
eral cases of children being whipped to make them stay at home. Evi- 
dently, the Young South was "up and coming"; and I have had occa- 
sion to note that this enthusiasm does not die out, but, while the school 
is kept up as it begins, the children are eager to attend. 

So here was the first beautiful result of the new movement. For the 
first time the great majority of these people were united in the general work 
of uplifting the community. Personal and family pride, sectarian big- 
otry, social and political distinctions, had fallen to the secondary place, 
where they belong, and all hearts and minds were brought into accord 
for the children. And as the children always respond to a generous 
demonstration in their behalf, going to school became the fashion. 
Even great, gawky boys x)nt their ])ride in their pockets and submitted 
to be classed with smart little girls, who rejoiced to play tug to the 
great sleepy hulks by their side and tow them out into the deep water 
of the " three E's." 

I soon discovered one secret of this wonderful public interest in the 
new graded school: it was evidently the complete discipline, or rather 
the harmonious living and working together of the children and youth 
of a whole town, in an orderly and persistent pursuit of all things true, 
beautiful, and good. To me it was inexpressibly affecting to think how 
all these people, after a whole generation of horrid civil war, the disso- 
lution of society, and nameless conflicts and exasperations, embittered 
by the wreck of fortunes and the loss of their bravest and best, had 
now for the first time beheld with their own eyes this spectacle of peace, 
harmony, and joy, in this union of their little ones. It was a daily ob- 
ject lesson on the theme of the angels' song, "Peace on earth, good 
will to men." IsTo v/onder that old battle scarred faces melted into 
laughter and tears as they looked upon this new vision that dawned 
upon the sadness of their age; that the village grumbler for once lost 
his audience; and that the candidate for office who did not "face the 
music" on education found himself, before he knew it, in a political 
vacuum. Even the parson, who had preached against "secular educa- 
tion," either looked on and recognized a new revival of Christian love, 
or hid his sermon and bided the time, which never will come, when the 
specious thing will be revealed as the last clever device of the Evil One. 

417 



180 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

It was also a marvel to scores of harassed mothers to mark the change 
in manners and home morals of their obstreperous boys and " trifling " 
girls, and they would steal in, at every opportunity, to feast their eyes 
on their children sitting so peacefully, marching to music, playing with- 
out roughness, and generally filling the ideal of a good child. One 
eminent gentleman demonstrated to me in advance (how easy such 
demonstration is!) that the graded school would break up in a riot. 
" Southern children were accustomed to so much freedom that they 
would never submit to the government that prevailed in the northern 
public school." I found him a happy convert, after six months', observa- 
tion as a trustee in a graded school of 800 children, where there had 
been no punishment to attract public attention, where not one of the 
new benches had been hacked with a jack-knife, or one " work of art" 
in chalk, " grinned horribly a ghastly smile" from door, fence, or post. 
The explanation was, that children, every-where, like grown folk, be- 
have well when they are pleasantly occupied, and naturally prefer order 
and pleasant society to the "rough and tumble" of barbarism. In the 
graded school they were every day making new friends ; finding out 
each other's good points ; learning to mind their own business in a crowd ; 
in short, rehearsing the great drama of American life, in which " all 
sorts and conditions " of people are trained to live peacefully in a 
freedom environed by an inclosure of just and equal law. Instinctively 
these young Americans fell into line on the appearance of the leader of 
men, whom they recognized in their superintendent, and almost without 
knowing why, gave cheerful obedience to public law when they would 
bave made a dame's school-room uninhabitable, kept a private academy 
in a breeze, or headed a rebellion on the college campus. The most 
mischievous or wicked youth has a sense of the majesty of a rule and 
discipline that represents the sovereign people's will, and behaves ac- 
cordingly in the only place where a child feels that command, in the 
people's common school. 

It became evident to me that this superintendent understood the 
southern child's temperament, and by mixing reasonable personal 
freedom while at work with a liberal supply of gymnastics and military 
order in movements, together with little distinctions for merit, had fast 
hold of the majority, and held in wholesome check, with hope of reform, 
the criminal class which is always represented in a community of 
children. The man who can look on this spectacle, now seen in hun- 
dreds of southern graded schools, and declare the system " irreligious", 
has evidently never learned that three parts of all true religion are the 
very moral training he there beholds, and the other part that law of 
love which nowhere more beautifully shines forth than in a well-ordered 
school-room, taught and governed by one whose daily life is the incarna- 
tion of devout trust in Almighty God and unselfish loving service to 
the little children whose "angels behold the face of the Father in 
Heaven." 

But the more observing people of the community were even more at- 
tracted to the new graded school by its novel and beautiful methods 
of instruction, than by its admirable discipline. There was no end of 
wonder at the way in which little children, from six to eight years of 
age, were taught, by natural methods, to read and spell and write and 
draw; to talk with' the pencil in simple sentences, laying the corner 
stone of training in language; to begin arithmetic, not by "figuring" 
up in the air, but by connecting the elementary operations with familiar 
objects; to study geography from the school-room outward, combin- 
ing physical and political geography with the history of the family, 

418 

f 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 181 

town, county,- state, and nation; to observe the outward world and 
learn daily lessons from earth and sky, river and forest; to stndy the 
fly, instead of impaling him on a pin; to come into kindly relations 
with all creatures, even the mule, the champion dunce of them all; to 
sing by note and learn to walk erect ; all these things being taken up in 
a way so natural and inspiring that the dullest fellow was waked up to 
life somewhere, and the brightest child was kept from over- strain by the 
charming variety. 

It did not require more than one visit by a sagacious business man 
to perceive that these natural methods in school were a i>art of that 
mighty movement of the human mind which, within half a century, has 
revolutionized modern industry, harnessed man to the sublime forces 
of nature, and made every instructed youth, to-day, in comparison with 
his grandfather, the supernatural human being of whom the Scripture 
jjrophesies : " Thou Jiast made him a little lower than the angels and hast 
crowned him with glory and honor. * * * thou hast put aU things under 
his fetty This bright man of affairs sees, at a glance, that here is the 
key to that union of mental and industrial training of which so much is 
said and so little to the point; that a generation thoroughly trained 
by such methods will leave school, at fifteen, with a mental habit that 
will put the brain into the fingers and enable these children to use their 
mighty inheritance of labor-saving machinery, to become the intelligent 
workers who will develop this marvelous South-land. And after seeing 
this, such men will no longer be heard doubting the policy of schooling 
the seven millions of freedmen, whose prolonged ignorance will bring 
a whole brood of worse than Egyptian plagues upon these States ; or 
the "low-down" white man, who still abides in the great highland 
center of the South, keeping it a lonesome wilderness, while it should 
be the great mine of wealth for every State grouped around its foot- 
hills. All this will be read out by the few men in the community 
who " put things together," and see the end in the beginning; and the 
thoughtful women will also understand that this thorough school train- 
ing of the girls of the laboring people is ilieir only hope for a generation 
of servants, housekeepers, and workwomen who will be able to handle 
a modern house, and bring out the home life of the South in all the com- 
fort, couvenieace, health, and beauty of which it is capable, in aland so 
evidently designed by Providence for the Eden of the Kew World. 

It will be seen, also, that the new graded school solves the whole 
problem of the academical and higher education in the community 
where it exists. The radical weakness of the upper story of southern 
education is that, like Mohammed's coffin, it is suspended between 
heaven and earth, with no adequate foundation of elementary training. 
The academy in this place, for girls or boys, had been a collection of 
young people, mostly past fifteen, who had come to it from town and 
country with no real preparation for the advantages it offered, with 
only two or three years, at most, in which to acquire a respectable knowl- 
edge of the higher English branches, with French, and perhaps Latin, 
the girls spending an hour or two a day at the piano and subject to 
the allurements of the " Department of Art." As few of the pupils had 
any thorough training in the three E's, the task of the intelligent and 
faithful teacher was as near hopeless as can be imagined. The southern 
school public is becoming thoroughly impatient with that class of aca- 
demical humbugs who hang a big sign over the school-house door and 
promise a " complete education" in a course of three years, to a youth 
who comes to their "college" untaught in the elements, and filled with 
that conceit of ignorance which is the real teacher's most deadly foe. 

419 



182 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

It is impossible to get this sound elementary schooling of any class out 
of the swarm of little home, private, and parochial schools on which 
so many of. the children must now depend. The only hope for the 
academy and college is the elementary graded school for city and coun- 
try, which shall send forth the majority of children' before fifteen com- 
petent to begin the work of life, and the few prepared for the higher 
training of the superior seminary. Where no good academy exists, 
this work can be done b.y bailding up higher classes, under the direction 
of superior teachers, a moderate tuition fee being exacted if expedient; 
or, if a good academy is already established, it can easily be adjusted 
to the graded school, to receive its graduates. In this way college and 
academy, in time, will be able to dispense with the '' jjreparatory de- 
partment," which is the bane of education in the South, and place their 
work on a permanent basis to meet the increasing demands of the 
people. 

I also observed that the new graded school had considerable patron- 
age from families who sent their children from the rural districts, or 
even removed to town and bought property to make practicable the 
schooHug of the young folks. Especially I found there a class of bright 
girls from the outlying families who proposed to teach. The most hope- 
ful side of southern education is this bringing in of great numbers of 
the finest young women to the work of teaching the children. These 
good girls often have no chance for schooling at home, and the distant 
academy is either too expensive, or unadapted to the training of teach- 
ers according to the gospel of the IsTew Education. But in this school 
they can be well taught at moderate cost ; can see the best methods of 
organization, instruction, and discipline, and be trained by the superin- 
tendent, in a teacher's class, to go back and build up the district school 
at home in the right way. I have small hope of southern country 
school-keeping until a center can be established in every county, which 
can thus be a model, and send out fit teachers for all the schools. This 
work is done for the colored people in the same way, their school being 
graded and handled in like manner, under the same suj)erintendent, 
with a fair proportion of colored trustees on the general board of direc- 
tion. 

But all this beautiful result of the new graded school, 1 could see, de- 
pended on the sui)erinteadent, the man or woman who is at the head, 
and who must finally be held responsible for success or defeat. It is 
coming to be understood that nowhere, in any country, does so much 
depend upou the head of a school as in the establishment of the south- 
ern people's new system of instruction. Every community is brought 
up to the point of taxing itself for the graded school through opposition 
and distrust, and begins the new experiment in the face of criticism. 
And often the people most strenuous in their opposition are opponents 
because they know nothing of the system, and accei)t the opinions of 
men opposed to popular education or interested in rival schools. In- 
deed, nine-tenths of the incredulity of intelligent and right-minded peo- 
ple on such matters is owing to the stupid and mischievous fumbling in 
the school room to which they were subjected in their youth. N^ow, if 
the people look upon their new school as a convenient institution to 
pension off some respectable imbecility of a played-out pedagogue, or 
each of the trustees is more concerned to make a position for an impe- 
cunious lady relative than to educate the children, it is easy to see that 
the new venture will speedily come to wreck. 

Even a scholarly man or woman, of the old time college or academ- 
ical type, though well up in the classics, may be utterly at a loss when 

m 



UsTTESNAMONAL CONGEESS Ot' EDtJCATOIiS PAPERS. 183 

placed at the head of the entire school population, of a southern com- 
muuity. If he is a broad minded person, conscientious and teachable, 
he will inforDi himself of the best ways of doing this difficult work aud 
come to his undertaking with som^e real fitness* and in a progressive 
temper that insures success. But if " he knows it all " from the first, 
and holds in contempt all wisdom beyond his Alma Mater, he will cer- 
tainly make within a year a muddle that will disgust the better class, 
and ''the last state" of that town "will be worse than the first." Su- 
perintendency of the graded school is a profession, and only the man or 
woman competent lor the work should undertake it. Sometimes a su- 
perior young woman of the place, w^ho has qualified herself by study, 
reading, observation, and practice, is passed by, and a man who knows 
nothing of this special work is placed at the head. 

But the fit superintendent of such a system as I describe has a greater 
opportunity to help the whole people than any man of any profession ; 
he becomes the guide, philosopher, counselor, and friend of the chil- 
dren and youth of all classes and both races ; he trains his own teachers, 
and is supplying others for the whole region round about; he is the 
adviser of the foremost young men and women in their plans for self- 
improvement ; he plans the course of lectures, the new public library, 
and directs the amusements of the young into higher and more refined 
channels; he is the best teacher, perhaps the superintendent, in the 
Sunday school, and quietly reconstructs its methods of operation ; he 
teaches, perhaps manages, the county or State institute, uses the press, 
and in all suitable ways directs public opinion on matters within his 
broad domain. In short, the superintendent, or " professor," as the 
people call him, becomes the functionary of all educational work for a 
large community, the person whom the people can least afford to spare, 
and to whom they should give a great reward. They do give that re- 
ward in everything but money, and in that about as much as they give 
the clergy. Oi course it is hard for the superintendent to bear this 
overwhelming burden for the wages of a book-keeper or a skilled me- 
chanic. But the man who goes on doing it is growing, all the time, 
into a nobler manhood, and is " laying up treasure" in the heaven of 
the children's and parents' dearest love. And many a proud and ambi- 
tious young man, earning twice the money, or haughty young woman, 
high up In the fashion, even with no social companionship with this 
faithful public servant, is, all the time, learning from this sweet, toil- 
some, patient laborer the grandest of all lessons, — that the crown of 
the loftiest manhood or womanhood is just this divine spirit of sacrifice 
which inspired the Great Teacher w^ho "went about doing good." 

Time would fail for an attempt to jncture the complex, subtle, and 
far-reaching influence of the graded school, as I describe it, on the 
locality, city, or county, State and nation. First appears its pecu- 
niary advantage in a southern town or city. It brings to the place, for 
the education of their children, substantial families, and, in scores of 
towns, the rise of the price of real estate in two years exceeds the whole 
expense of tlie system. In due time it makes its influence felt in every 
sphere of industry; for while sham education does breed laziness, shift- 
lessness, and youthful conceit, culminating in the frightful distemper of 
" big head," true schooling makes the young people more valuable and 
faithful in every department of work. Every progressive clergyman 
regards such a school as the true annex to his church; for the church of 
any name that relies on an ignorant and narrow discipleship is like the 
idiot who, in n storm at sea, lashed himself for protection to the anchor, 
and went to the bottomless deep without a bubble as a headstone over 

421 



184 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

his grave. Social life is all tlie time growing more genial, catholic, and 
refined, the "lower orders" disappear, and a wondrous change comes 
over the «ntire community. The public life of the town takes on a new 
element, — public spirit; and the little, detestable, local partisan politi- 
cian, who lives by the defamation of his betters, retires in favor of the 
man whom office seeks for the people's good. 

In a generation or two a change comes over that city, or rural domain, 
like the loveliness of the young spring transforming the wintry world. 
That community rises to the most enviable form of influence in the State. 
Its young men and maidens go forth to kindle the fire, and publish its 
good name to all abroad. Out of such neighborhoods is born the true 
glory of a commonwealth; and from the current of uplifting influences, 
whose headspring is the people's graded school, shall flow the blessed 
inundation of truth, and virtue, and industry, and beauty, to fertilize 
the nation, to bring the children of all States into patriotic accord, to 
make our legal and formal union that solid compact of clear heads, 
busy and valiant hands, and consecrated hearts, against which the 
united powers of the world shall not prevail ; for a nation so nurtured 
shall become, in God's own time, the graded school of freedom, with a 
mission from Heaven to all the sons and daughters of mankind. 

422 



SECOND AEY EDUCATION IN ONTARIO : AN EXPLANATION 
OF THE LEADING FEATUEES OF ITS HIGH-SCHOOL 
SYSTEM. 

By D. C. McHenet, M. A., 

Principal of the Collegiate Institute, Coiurg, Ontario. 



The secondary education of Ontario cannot be fully understood apart 
from a consideration of that on which it is based— the elementary, and 
that to which it leads — the superior 5 for our educational operations are 
reduced to a system, consisting of the public school, the high school, and 
the University. 

In this paper, however, I shall not attempt an elaborate description 
of this part of our educational work, but shall endeavor so to present 
its essential characteristics and prominent features, that persons un- 
acquainted with our system may be able to include Ontario in those 
comparative examinations that are largely to occupy the attention of 
this section. 

I. INTRODUCTORY RETROSPECT. 

The order generally observed in establishing schools in new countries 
was reversed in Ontario, grammar schools being opened fully a decade 
in advance of common schools. Nearly a century has elapsed since the 
first steps were taken towards providing instruction for the youth of 
our land ; and, as above remarked, education other than elementary 
first received attention. 

In 1797 public land to the extent of half a million acres was set apart 
for the support of a university and four grammar schools — one for each 
provincial district.^ Unfortunately, little or no revenue was realized 
from this endowment, and at this point the movement rested for sev- 
eral years. 

While public efforts seemed as yet to bear no fruit, it is interesting 
to know that classical schools were being established, chiefly through 
private enterprise. Of these one was opened at Cataraqui (Kingston), 
by the Eev. Dr. Stuart, in 1785 ; one in Newark (Niagara), by the Rev. 
Mr. Addison, in 1792 ; one at the same place, in 1794, by Rev. Mr. Burns, 
and in 1796, by Mr. Richard Cockrel; one at York (Toronto), in 1802, by 
Dr. Baldwin; and one at Cornwall, by Dr. Strachan, in 1804. Dr. 
Strachan afterwards took charge of the school at York (Toronto). 

In 1806 the question was revived, and Acts were passed establishing 
a grammar school in each of the eight districts into which Upper Canada 
was then divided, £100 per annum being secured to each head master. 
It was in 1816 that the Legislature first passed an Act relating to ele- 
mentary instruction, and appropriated £6,000 to aid newly- established 
common schools. 



^ At first the Province was divided into four districts ; afterwards into eight. Sub- 
sequently the term county was substituted for that pf district, of which there are 
now 45, and 5 outlying districts, 50 in all, — J. G. H. 

, 423 



1S6 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTiOiSIS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITIOM. 

Beyond this point growth was slow, but the progress was fairly 
substantial. During the twelve years after the first eight grammar 
schools were opened only one additional grammar school was estab- 
lished. In 1831 we find eleven, and the grant increased to £1,400. 

Thus far these secondary schools were sustained solely by govern- 
ment aid and fees. In 1839 the principle involved in permissive local 
municipal grants was introduced, and £100 was offered by the Legisla- 
ture to each district grammar school, on condition that by local effort 
an equal amount was raised.^ 

During the next ten years the principal events were the appointment 
(in 1844) of Dr. Ryerson as chief superintendent of education and tLe 
introduction of important modifications, mainly through his instru- 
jmentality, especially those relating to local supervision and general in- 
spection, qualifications, appointment, and protection of head masters 
:and assistants. 

In every progressive educational movement prejudices arise among 
those who regard with suspicion all efforts in the field of secondary edu- 
cation. One of the greatest obstacles to progress at this early period 
was the lack of local support, arising from this unreasonable prejudice. 

What is known as the Education Department, then consisting of the 
chief superintendent and an advisory Council of Instruction, was already 
assuming definite form, and in 1855 existing grammar schools were 
brought more immediately under its control. Eegulations were pre- 
scribed for their government, courses of study were revised and en- 
larged, and, in fact, the leading permanent features of our grammar 
schools were at this time introduced. 

Even thus early, the value of trained teachers received recognition ; 
the necessity of providing for this training was admitted, and accord- 
ingly in 1858 a model grammar school was established at Toronto. This 
institution was closed in 1863.2 

In 1860 Dr. Eyerson made a tour of the Province, to consult local 
school authorities and the public generally on educational questions. 
This was repeated at different times, and in each case resulted in im- 
portant legislation.^ 

In 1871 the term "high school" was substituted for " grammar school," 
the title "collegiate institute" being applied to certain schools main- 
taining a higher status, particularly in classical work. 

Until 1876 the government grant had been distributed on the basis 
of average attendance. The plan of " payment by results" was now 

1 In 1871 what had been permissive was first made obligatory, after a good deal of 
opposition and discussion. — J. G. H. 

^It was closed in the hope that Upper Canada College, Toronto, would thereby be 
the better enabled to perform the twofold duty of providing a good classical and 
■commercial education for boys, and at the same time of affording facilities for training 
high school teachers. The latter was not done ; but it has been proposed (in 1885) to 
supply this omission by designating certain of the county high schools for collegiate 
institutes to perform this important duty.— J. G. H. 

=5 The most important legislation in relation to grammar schools (now high schools 
and collegiate institutes) took place in 1866. 

In this connection, it is important to note the fact that in 1809 and subsequent 
years it was easy to procure legislation for the benefit of grammar schools; but in 
1866 (and a few years previously) it was most difficult to induce the Legislature to 
consider these schools of (at least) equal importance to the elementary schools. Tlie 
latter were considered of prime importance. The writer of this note speaks fi om per- 
sonal experience. He was deputed by the Chief Superintendent of Education to repre- 
sent the Department at Quebec, in 1866, in seeking to obtain legislation on beh;ilf of 
the grammar schools. Had it not been for the tact and judgment of Hon. Wni. Mac- 
dougal, C. B., then Provincial Secretary, it would have been impossible, for various 
reasons, to have got the Remedial Grammar School Bill through the Honse of Assem- 
bly. Happily it was passed, much to the satisfaction of all parties concerned. ~J. G, H. 

m 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS— I»At>ERS. 187 

adopted ; and recently this has been displaced by a method based on 
the amount paid for teachers' salaries. 

Not to continue this retrospect, enough has been given to throw some 
light on the origin of our high schools, the rate and mode of their growth, 
and the fundamental principles of the system. Let us now consider in 
greater detail — 

II. THE LEADING- FEATURES OF OUR HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM. 

1. Relative Position. 

From what has been said you will understand that, unlike the schools 
known as high schools in certain of the American States, our high schools 
stand directly above the common or elementary schools, forming the one 
stepping stone from the public school to the University. At the same 
time two " forms " or " classes" of the public school course overlap upon 
the high school course, while the latter nominally includes the first year's 
university work. It does not follow, however, that this repetition of 
work is really carried out; for practically pupils leave the public school 
at the end of the fourth form, the remaining two being reserved for the 
high school ; and, except in our largest schools, no " university work" 
is attempted. This grade of schools therefore occupies a secondary posi- 
tion in our system. 

2. Kow Established. 

The opening of a new high school rests primarily with the people, as 
represented in their municipal councils. On furnishing certain guar- 
antees and satisfying the Government of the need for such a school, the 
county council is allowed to appoint three trustees and the town coun- 
cil three, these constituting a board of management, whose powers and 
duties are duly specified. In case of cities and towns separated from 
their counties, this power is vested in the city or town council. 

Every county or union of counties is supposed to have at least one 
high school. In most counties there are several, and their number is 
annually increasing. The leading restriction is one which prescribes 
that no school can be established unless the high school fund of the 
Province is sufficient to guarantee a certain minimum grant without 
interfering with grants to schools already established. 

3. How Supported. 

The cost of school site, building, furnishing, repairing), warming, etc., 
must be met by the locality. The initiative resting with the board of 
trustees, the council have power to raise the necessary amount by local 
assessment. Once established, the school's revenue consists of a grant 
from Government, a grant from the municipality (which must be at least 
equal to that from government aid), and, in about half our schools, a 
further sum received as tuition fees. 

A general idea of the way in which this support is distributed among 
those who are responsible may be obtained by noticing the following 
items from the Keport of 1883 : 

Number of schools, 104; pupils, 12,473; legislative grant, $84,304; 
municipal grants, $196,43^; pupils' fees, $29,269. 

The local municipalities, it will be seen, contribute a large proportion 
of the amount expended on our high schools. , 

4. Soiv the Government Grant is Distributed. 

For many years the government grant to each high school was deter- 
mined solely on the basis of average attendance. This was found to be 

425 



188 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

unsatisfactory, since an undue share of the grant was being- absorbed 
by the city schools, which i)ossessed facilities for draftiDg into their 
high schools large numbers of pupils from the public schools. In 1876, 
therefore, the plan of " payment by results" was introduced. According 
to this method other factors than attendance went to determine the 
amount received by any school. A part was distributed {)) in payment 
of a minimum fixed allowance to each school, in order that to weaker 
schools a certain degree of stability might be given. A part was dis- 
tributed (2) on average attendance ; a part (3) on the results of inspec- 
tion ; and a part (4) on the results of an examination which took place 
midway in the course, dividing pupils into "upper school" and "lower 
school." The sum of $72,400 would be distributed under these four 
heads in about the following proportion: under (1), $42,000; under (2), 
$5,000; under (3), $10,000; and under (4), $14,000. The effect of this 
mode of dividing the grant was in some respects satisfactory, new life 
being infused into the whole system. It was found, however, that what 
ought to have assumed the form of vigorous, healthy competition among 
our schools, in too many cases degenerated into an unhealthy cramming 
for this common examination. Besides the unseemly rivalries that ap- 
peared, it placed to an unfair degree the financial burden upon head 
masters and teachers generally. This result was soon apparent, and by 
degrees the plan was changed, until now almost the only test applied in 
distributing the grant is the far-reaching one of amount i^aid in teachers' 
salaries. It is probable, however, that there will soon be added to this 
the old criterion of attendance, and that of general equipment — build- 
ings, library, laboratory, etc. It has been tbund exceedingly difficult to 
secure such a basis of distribution as is satisfactory to the several grades 
of schools, conducive to the best development of teaching power, and at 
the same time likely to call out local liberality and enterprise. Some 
schools would continue to iiourish if the government grant were with- 
drawn. Others, depending almost entirely on legislative aid, would not 
long survive its withdrawal. The general principal acted on is, that 
those schools are most liberally aided which are best sustained by local 
effort. 

The cost of supporting high schools is not burdensome, when looked 
at from the standpoint of the individual tax-payer. Take, for instance, 
the case of a person whose assessment is $1,000. In most towns his 
school-tax would not exceed $4, and of this sum about one-fourth would 
go to the high school. As to the cost per pupil for keeping up our sys- 
tem, the average is $27.56 for the whole Province. It costs $6.42 per 
j)upil to educate our children in the public schools of the country, 
including our smallest rural schools. The cost of our secondary educa- 
tion may therefore be regarded as reasonably low, both to the individ- 
ual and to the State, whether compared with our own public schools or 
with the high schools of other countries. 

5. Sow our High Schools are Controlled. 

{a) The local control is vested in a Board of Trustees appointed by the 
municipal council. In certain cases the selection rests with both town 
or village council and county council. These trustees are appointed 
for three years, two retiring every year. They possess all the powers 
usually vested in such corporations, so far as are found necessary for 
carrying out the purposes of the laws relating to high schools. This 
board has to deal with all matters pertaining to the support and man- 
agement of the high school, including the erecting, repairing, and fur- 
426 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 189 

nishirjg of suitable buildings; the makiug application to the municipal 
council for such sums as may be required for high school purposes ; the 
imposing and collecting of fees; the appointing and removing of teach- 
ers and other officers; and the carrying out the departmental regula- 
tions relating to courses of instruction. 

{b) Governmental control is exercised, in general, by means of depart- 
mental regulations, which prescribe in detail the duties of all in any way 
connected with the school ; by annual and semiannual reports ; and, 
directly, by a system of inspection. This supervision is entrusted to 
two officers of the Department, who visit each school at least once a 
year, devote one or two days to the examination of the classes, and 
report in detail to the Minister on the condition and operations of the 
school. The Government is represented also in the person of the town 
or county inspector, who presides at the principal examinations and is 
responsible to the department for the proper conduct of such examina- 
tions. 

From this it will be seen that the control of these schools is very prop- 
erly divided between the Government and the municipality ; and that 
it is fairly commensurate with their respective financial obligations. 

6. Sigh School Buildings. 

In most cases the high school is conducted apart from the public 
school. In our cities and many of our larger towns excellent buildings 
have been erected. Some places, through local enterprise, have pro- 
vided very superior edifices. Doubtless high schools are becoming 
increasingly i)opular, but in some localities there is yet such indiffer- 
ence to the claims of higher education as to render somewhat difficult 
and often unpleasant the duty devolving on trustees of providing suit- 
able high school accommodation. The main source of encouragement 
in such cases is in the larger government grant given to schools in good 
buildings, and in the fact that prejudice is rapidly disappearing, being 
now confined to a few old fossils who still linger in every community. 
The general tendency, however, is towards placing our high schools in 
buildings that will be a source of pride to the place. 

7. Grades of Schools. 

As already remarked, our secondary schools are of two grades, high 
schools proper and collegiate institutes. The conditions on which a 
high school might become an institute were, until recently, (1) four 
masters fully employed in teaching subjects of the prescribed curric- 
ulum ; (2) dailj^ average of not fewer than sixty male classical pupils. 
To schools thus equipped a special annual grant of $750 was made. 
The object aimed at was "to encourage the establishment of superior 
classical schools."^ Of 104 schools, 16 are now institutes. The special 
grant has been reduced to $250 and the conditions modified as follows: 

(1) Suitable school buildings, out-buildings, grounds, and appliances 
for physical training. 

(2) Library containing standard books of reference bearing on the sub- 
jects of the programme. 

'Not only this, but to dot the Province with local colleges, as feeders of the uni- 
versities, of a grade not inferior to Upper Canada College. See the Paper on the 
" University System of Ontario" (page 2'63). — J. G. H. 

427 



190 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

(3) Laboratory, with all neceSsary chemicals and apparatus for teach- 
ing the subjects of elementary science. 

(4) Four masters at least, each of whom shall be specially qualified to 
give instruction in one of the following departments : Classics, mathe- 
matics, natural science, and modern languages, including English. 

(5) The other members of the teaching staff must possess such qualifi- 
cations as will secure thorough instruction in all the subjects in the cur- 
riculum of studies for the time being sanctioned by the Education De- 
partment for collegiate institutes. 

It is proposed to require also a daily average of 100 for the first half 
year, and 80 for the second. 

Unquestionably our collegiate institutes have been to some extent 
instrumental in keeping alive the study of the classical languages in 
our country. The tendency of late years has been towards superseding 
these branches of culture by those of a more practical type; and it must 
be admitted, as a matter of fact, that the classical test did for years act 
as a breast-work against the tide of modern lines of instruction. High 
schools employ from two to six teachers ; institutes, from four to seven- 
teen. 

8. Teachers. 

To be legally qualified, a head master must be a graduate in arts of 
some university within the British dominions, and satisfy the Depart- 
ment of his knowledge of the science and art of teaching, and of the 
management and discipline of schools. 

To be legally qualified as an assistant, a teacher must be a graduate, as 
above, or hold a provincial certificate of the first or second class. There 
is no s|?eci^e(Z difference between the qualifications of teachers in high 
schools and those in institutes; but the difference is clearly implied in 
the general tenor of the conditions given above. 

The practice in our best schools is in favor of departmental work in 
preference to general or form teaching. It is found that greater effi- 
ciency is secured when one teacher gives exclusive attention to mathe- 
matics, another to classics, etc., than when all the subjects of a given 
form are assigned to one teacher. In small schools, of course, the de- 
partmental method cannot be carried out. 

The remuneration of high school teachers, though improving, is far 
from what it should be. Head masters receive in high schools from 
$700 to $1,200; principals of institutes, from $1,200 to $2,250; average 
for all head masters, $1,034. Assistants receive from $400 to $1,200. 

Head masters are classified as follows, as regards their universities: 
Toronto University, 53; Victoria, 18; Queen's (Kingston), 12; Trinity 
(Toronto), 4; Albert. 4 ; Aberdeen, 2 ; Queen's (Ireland), 2; Dublin, 1; 
McGill, 1; Cambridge, 1; Glasgow, 1. 

Assistants who are graduates would be divided principally among 
the first three universities, and, I presume, in about the same i^ropor- 
tion as the head masters. 

Specialists are employed in many schools to teach music, drawing, 
painting, phonography, etc. 

Doubtless our high school system is imperfect in manj^ respects ; but 
in one particular it must be regarded as seriously defective. I refer to 
the unaccountable anomaly of our having no course of professional 
training for high school teachers. For over twenty years, while insist- 
ing on such a course for even the humblest public school teacher, we 
have been without any corresponding provision for our high school 
teachers ! lam pleased to be able to say that a plan is nearly matured 
428 ' 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 191 

which will secure for every one desirous of teaching in a high school a 
suitable course of professional training.^ 

When that is accomplished, our teachers will compare favorably in 
efficiency with those elsewhere employed in secondary education.^ 

9. Pupils. 

Provision is made for conducting a self-sustaining preparatory class 
in connection with our high schools 5 but very few such classes exist^ 
and our pupils come to us, as a rule, directly from the public schools. 
In the latter there are six forms or classes. On completing the fourth, 
pupils are ready for the high school. An entrance examination is held 
twice a year, in July and December, for the admission of candidates. 
The papers are prepared at the Education Department, and are uniform 
for the Province. The Board of Examiners consists of the head master 
of the high school, the public school inspector, and, in schools not in 
cities and towns separated from the county, the chairmen of high school 
and public school boards are included.^ Their report is subject to the 
approval of the Central Departmental Board of Examiners. The stand- 
ard for admission is now considerably higher than formerly. Of 9,607 
candidates in 1883, 4,371 were admitted. 

The schools are open to both sexes, and in most cases they receive 
instruction together. The plan of employing two sets of teachers for 
teaching the same subjects has been very properly superseded by the 
more economical and effectual method of classifying and teaching pupils 
altogether independently of sex, taking ability and attainments as the 
sole basis. 

About sixty per cent, of our schools are free. In the others a fee, 
varying from $2 to $34 per anuum, is charged. The present tendency 
is in favor of a small minimum fee, to be made obligatory in all schools, 
the trustees having power to exempt from fees pupils whose parents 
may be unable to pay. It is claimed for this plan that pupils who pay. 
a fee are more regular in attendance, more diligent in study, and more 
appreciative of their privileges, than those who attend free schools. 

The pupils of oar high schools may be classified as follows : (1) Boys 
and girls, residents, who have been regularly promoted from the public 
schools, and who are taking the high school course, not in view of any 
particular examination, but in order to acquire a good general educa- 
tion, as furnished ia our secondary schools. (2) Pupils who are being 
fitted for taking situations in some department of commercial life. (3) 
Pupils who are definitely preparing to matriculate at a university or to 
enter directly one of the professions. (4) Young men and women pre- 
l^aring for the work of teaching. 

' Since this Paper was "".vritteu the Provincial Legislature has enacted as follows: 

" Tlie Education Department shall liave power — 

" (5) To set apart, subject to such regulations as may be made in that behalf, not 
more than five high schools or collegiate institutes for the purpose of providing such 
instruction iu the theory' and practice of teaching as maybe deemed necessary for 
promoting the efficiency of assistant masters of high schools and collegiate institutes, 
and of teachers holding a first-class uon -professional public school certificate." (See 
Note 2, p. 1H6.) 

"In the Act recently passed, the examining board is constituted as follows : 

" The Board of Examiners for the admission of pupils to each high school shall con- 
sist of the public school inspector for the county, city, town, or district in which the 
high school is situated, the head master of the high school, and the chairmen of the 
high, public, aud [R. C,] separate school boards respectively." (Section 39, Act of 
1885.)— J- G. ii. ' 

439 



102 KDIKIA'I'IONAI; OONVIONTIONH AT NllW Olv'MaNS lOXI'OHITLON. 

All iiiHiXictioii of out' couiMC ol' .study will hIiow tliiit uinplo j)n>vi.si«)ii 
ia made lor those four classes of students. 

1.0. Ooiirse of TnstrucUon. ^ 

Tlie subjects of our (iourse im^ of two classes: I. Ohligatory — iuclud- 
inj^' I'vu/^liNli /jiriiiinniii', lOiiyliNli li(,(M';itiit<^,<;()ni|)().sitiion, rejulinjj;',<Ii<5liitioii, 
hi.slory, j^co^iiipliy, jiiiMini<'.ti<!, hook keeping-, drill, ii.iid ('.iili,stli(Mii(;.s. 
II. OpiUmal — includiiif^' nJ^rlirji;, l<]iiclid, u;iiur;i.l i»ljiloN<)|)liy, <;h('inislry, 
ItotiMiy, |»liyNiolo<iy, liy^icno, |U"in<',i|)l<',,s ol" ;i,;j;ric.iiil,ur<',, Lnliii, Oi-<M',k, 
I'^rcncli, (Ici'niJMi, iiiu.sic;, !MmI dfiiwiuf;. ' ICveny lii<;li hcjIiooI inust ])i'o- 
vi(l(i iuislriu'J.iou in id I llni HuhJrclN of tJie lir.st (^Immm. Tlio jioiird of 
Ti'UHt(U'.s nmy select IVoin tlie Hceond eliiHS .sneli Md)j('<;tN as the cireuni- 
stsinces of tJi<^ hcIiooI niiiy I'Ciciuire. 

Tlfe raiif^e of insl, ruction in thcNc^ HuhJ<M;t.s nmy l)(^ Huid, in a woi'<l, to 
eo\'<M' t.ho c.nlirci ground I'roni tho fourtili lorni in tJio puhlic/ n<;IiooI (in- 
cliulini>'a revi(^w of (M',r'l-a,in (^le-inent,ary port, ions) tJirouj^h tln^ tii'Ht, y<^iir',s 
work at, tlu^ univeiHity. Hoin(^ of our well-('(puppe<l iiiHtitiut^cvs under- 
tu-ko IImm iidviUMH^d (sjiuior matriculation) work, but conii)arjdively lew 
schools <;:in atl(Mnpt< il. 

TImi non prolcNsional work of all fjrades of public school teachers is 
now <lonc in our lii^li schools. The model a<nd noi'nial sc,hools cotdine 
their jdii'ntion to prolessionaJ work. The exandujitionson this literary 
work ;u(i not <i, piii't ol" our hiyli school machinery, hid; ar(i in <;h;i,r^(', of 
iii locid hoard orexaniiiMMS iind thecent rail coinmitjtiuud the l)epa>rt<nK;nt. 

The Ir.it-hooks used are pr<'scrihed and a,ul,hori/ed by the Minister of 
lOdiication, and ari^ iiiiirorm for the Provinct^ 

1 1 . Ui<ilb /School Graduation. 

From what Inis been said it will be seen that the entrance exaniinar 
tion is lh(^ only one now held in connection with our hi^h schools. The 
exa^iniinitions lor tejichers — se(!on<l and third class — occur a.houl, midway 
in the school course; tha,t tor tirst class, neariir the end. ^IMie ordinary 
university ina>tricuIa,tion exainina,tioii, aiiid those for la,w, medicine, et/(;., 
include hut' a. part, ol' the hi^h S(;hool courstv 

It has IxM^n I'eltithat., inasmu<;h as a lar^'e proportion of our stiuUuits 
a.r(^ not directly interested in any of tlKUixaiininations riilerred to, there 
ou;;'hl: to l)e a, Jlnal exa.minaXion foj- tJiein, leadinj^' t,o (/radiudioii, on the 
eomph^tJon of th(^ <'<ourse. This would luiiVe the <^lte(;t of inducing' a< 
larj^e a.ttenda,nce of this class of pu])ils. It would pla.cea, detinite ohji^ct 
belbre many who are now employed in an aimless (joiirsi^ jind would 
{;ive correspomliu^' <lelinit(Miess to tln^ work of t(«U!hers. Many whose 
ai)iliti(^s and circiimstan(;es warraut tluMr coiitinuin^ at the hi^li school 
for a year or t wo lon}4<ir would \h\ led to complete th(^ course and gradu- 
a.te, insteail of dropj)mj;' out; when about half way throu;4li. 

It- is proposed to iitili/e the univcsrsity maXriciilatJon ♦'ixaininations for 
the j)urpostvs of this liijiih school graduation scheme. Diplomas are to 

' 'J'li(( llij;li Hcliool Act. uIno ]>r()vid(ih tlin.t — 

" (I) It. hIkiII Ix* liiwl'iil lor Mi(^ Iii(^lll,(•.llll.nt.-0(>V(l^In»^ ii) (Joiiiic.il t-()]H'<iH(Mil)(i ii, courHt^ 
of («l(MM(tiil.iir.v iiiillla.ry iiiMl riiclioM lor hijrli hc.IiooI piipilH imkI Io ji.|)|>ro]>rijil.o out of 
ti.iiy iMoiioy ^'ni.Ml.(^(l for lluf |)lll'|)oH(^ n. .siiiii not. <i\c(f(i(liii<;' fif|,y dolIiU'M \hm annum to 
ii,ny Ncliool (iMiployiiij;' ii. compctcMil. dirll inHl.riid.or, luid in vvliicli w(diooi ii (diiH.s of not 
1('HH liliji.n live* |tii|)il,s liiw Uvii\ liini;lit for ii ptM'iod (d" at l(Mi.st wix moid. lis. 

" (*i) Sncli (diiHHc^M ti.nd iii.strnc.tion hIhiII Ix^ HMltJdct to HM(di inH|)(^<d.i<m iind oversight 
UH tlio Ijitiid.onii.nt-U()vonior in Oonncil may diivot." (Koctioii 54.)— J. CI. H. 

.|:iO 



IMTKKMATiUJNAL C'()iN(iJiKyS <)!'' lODlJOA'I'OKiS I'AI'KUH. 193 

be issued mnler llic siulliority of llic Miiiislcr ol" lOduciitioii, Jtiid prc- 
st'iili'd fit sonic snitjiltlc public; incetiu};- — the e\er(;ises pjiitiikiti;;- of the 
nature oC coninieneenient exercises in Iiij^lier institutions of Uiiiniin^^ 

1'iie honor thus bestowed will be ttiore than nominal, as th(5 di])h)iiia 
will be a piissi)ort to any arts university; will be ;i,vailable iit, teaelusrs' 
exaininalions; will be accepted by the iruj<lical, the dental, and the 
pliannaceuli(;al colleges; and, probjtbly, :dso by the Law Society. 

The benelits likely to accrue lioui such a scheuie are all but uuiver- 
aally admitted, as the proposal meets with general acceptance by all our 
leading educationists. 

12. Literary Anftociations, etc. 

Valuable auxiliaries to the ordinary work of the class-room are sup- 
plied in the nourishing literary associations connected with many of our 
high schools and collegiate institutes. The exercises of these societies 
aim at i)ers()nal improvenuint, parti<;idarly in music, elocution, a,nd com- 
]K)sition. In addition to tluise some, institutes have; a regular <;ourse of 
lectures ibr the students on subjects of a suitable chara<',ter. These hict- 
ures are generally ])laced at the (;lose of the weeic's work, a,nd come 
once or twice a month. The s])(;akers are usually resident ministers, 
or others (;omi)etent to interest and instruct. 

Much imj)rovenu!nt is noticeabU^ in regard to hifjk achool libraries^ 
many schools being sup{)lied with the Ix^st standard works of refen^nce. 
In some ])laces there are reading rooms where students have acc(5ss to 
the leading periodicals. The Ministei" of lOducation has issued a very 
excellent catalogue of b<K)ks suitable for high school lil)raries. 

At the annual convention of teachers i'ov the Province our high school 
masters mec^t in a separate section and discuss vaiious matters ])ertain- 
ing to tiieir work. For many years their suggestions have had much 
to do in shai>ing the school legislation of the country. These teachers 
generally participate also in our county conventions, thereby bringing 
themselves into friendly relations to our public school teachers. 

13. Jlvjh School HtatiHtics, 1883.^ 

The number of higli schools in Ontario is 104, of wliujli TO are ranke<l 
as collegiate institutes. During the i)ast thirty years then} has been 
an increase of 40 schools, Number of i)upils, 11, 813 — males, 0,050, 
females, 5,787. 

Receipts. — Legislative grant, $84,090; municipal grants, $208,160; 
jees, $30,000. Total, $378,880. 

JiJxpenditurefi. — Halaries, $200,310; building, rent, re|tairs, $20,012; 
fuel, books, contingencies, $00,482; ma,|)s, prize-books, apjiaratus, 
$2,135. Total, $3,18,047. Thirty years ago this total was only $47,033, 
an increase of $301,914. 

The cost per pupil, based ou total expenditure, is $29.47. Number 
of pupils admitted during the year^ 4,37J. Lowest number attending 
any high school during the year, 31 ; highest number, 577 ; average ]ter 
school, 55. Fr<;e s(;hools, 07; charging fee, 37. 

Number of pupils in optional subjects: French, 5,318; (ierman, 9(J1 ; 
Latin, 4,439 ; Greek, 903; algebra, 10,290; geouu'try, 10,071 (trigonom- 
etry, 397; mensuratiiui, 8,003) ; natmal philosophy, 1,298; chemistry, 
2,450 ; physiology, 415 ; drawing, 3,538. 



'From the Miuintoi''H Koporfc ibr iMb'l. 

7950 COT, i>t. 2 13 



431 



194 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Compared with American secondary scliools, we, as yet, bestow less 
attention on such branches as mental science, civil government, politi- 
cal economy, and elementary science generally, although these subjects 
are coming into greater prominence. 

Schools under united boards (high and public schools), 51; schools 
opened or closed with religious exercises, 92 ; number matriculated at 
some university, 277; entered mercantile life, 768; occupied with agri- 
culture on leaving school, 683 ; joined any learned i)rofession, 868; total 
masters and teachers, 347 ; average head master's salary, $1,068. 

III. GENERAL KEMAKKS. 

1. To every close observer it is apparent that, while our public schools 
have deservedly taken a firm hold upon popular regard, our high schools 
are now almost as generally felt to be a necessity. The senseless preju- 
dice of former years is rapidly disap])earing, and the day is not far dis- 
tant when these schools will be a source of popular pride. They are no 
longer select in the sense of being exclusive. .Accessible to every part 
of the country, they are practically open to all classes, and in charge of 
intelligent trustees and efficient teachers. The poorest lad in the laud 
can enter a public school, then obtain a high-school education, and 
finally work his way to the highest point of honor in the University. 
As lately remarked by our Minister of Education, " the high school is 
the poor man's school par excellence^ More than sixty per cent, of them 
are free to ail, and all are virtually free to the poor man's child. It is 
the high school that educates the poor boy's teacher, thus supplying 
our public schools with competent instructors. To close or enfeeble 
our high schools, means to place our public schools where they were 
years ago, in charge of superannuates from other callings, unsuiited for 
anything but " keeping school." 

■ Those whose children are at the high school need no formal argument 
to be convinced of its value ; those whose children attend the public 
school, as a rule, think of promotion to the high school as desirable, 
and cheerfully recognize the claims of secondary schools on them for 
supf>ort ; while the more intelligent of those who have no children at 
either school, see what high schools are doing for the country at large 
and willingly submit to be taxed for their support. 

Local demands and local jealousies sometimes interfere with the exer- 
cise of well-intended liberality on the part of trustees, and schools that 
might be vigorous are kept at a few degrees above starvation i)oint, 
mainly to gratify illiberal bat influeutial taxpayers. Fortunately, our 
schools are not completely at the mercy of these individuals, the law 
very wisely giving large discretionary- powers to boards of trustees in 
regard to the expenditure of money. These trustees, moreover, are not 
dependent on a popular vote for their position. There is profound wis 
dom in the remark of John Stuart Mill, " There is an educatiou of which 
it cannot be pretended that the puhlic are competent judges — the edu- 
catiou by which great minds are formed." Our high schools would still 
be in the condition they were m thirty or forty years ago if they had 
been exposed to the perils of popular whims and prejudice. 

There is less danger now than formerly. It has been seen that there 
are retributive results attendant on a penurious policy. Even these 
illiberal tax-payers can see that. It is found, under the present mode 
of distributing government aid, that a well-equipped school is really 
less burdensome m a community than one kept barely alive; just as 
a dead and -alive business of any kind is proportionately more expensive 

4^2 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 195 

than one kept up to a good working and competing point. On the 
whole, our financial outlook is very encouraging. 

2. The purpose of our high schools is twofold : to fit pupils for higher 
educational or professional work ; and to prepare our youth for the 
ordinary business callings of life. They are not merely a means of feed;- 
ing colleges, but are fitted to give a superior education in varied 
branches— literary, scientific, and commercial — to such of our young 
people as desire this education for its own sake. Added to this intel- 
lectual culture, it is not too much to say that in many of our schools 
there is imparted a good moral training. 

Our universities know how dependent they are on these schools for 
students, and they accordingly vie with each other, not only in acknowl- 
edging these obligations, but in doing all they can to increase their effi- 
ciency. They send down to us their best teaching talent to mold 
their coming matriculants, and they measure their success very largely 
by the number of masters they place in our high schools. This inter- 
action is likewise one of the main sources of our strength. 

3. Perha ps nothing is more needed just now inour high schools than 
a season of rest from periodical changes in our school laws, courses of 
study, text-books, and minor regulations. Owing to the undue fre- 
quency of such changes, our progress has been irregular and some- 
what experimental. It is clear that now teachers, trustees, pupils, and 
parents, all long for such a period of rest as will allow of a little thorough 
teaching and real culture. 

Closely allied with this is the too prevalent practice of hurried prepara- 
tion for university and for other examinations. To do the maximum of 
work with a miniaium of time and expense, is the aim and ambition of 
many who come to our high schools. In too many instances the circum- 
stances of these students, and in some cases their inclinations in favor 
of certain lines of work, are allowed to control us. Classes and subjects 
are passed over per saltmn, and new students allowed to tumble in at 
any place. Our course must be more rigid, our progress mofe system- 
atic and thorough, if we ever are to succeed in producing anything 
like respectable scholarship. 

4. There are elements of unrest inseparable from the teacher's lot, 
but this might be lessened in our high schools if such salaries were paid 
as would secure the best teaching talent and retain it. The privies of- 
fered in other callings are annually taking from us gifted teachers who 
should not be allowed to leave us. Eaw recruits are cheap, and many 
trustees, even high school trustees, have yet to learn that in educational 
work cheapness is synonymous with inferiority — that the best teacher 
is the cheapesi, cost what he may. 

In this particular, however, we are improving. The principal appoint- 
ments are virtually permanent, and legislation, sujjported by public 
sentiment, is making it profitable for trustees to proceed in the order, 
(1) secure tlie very best teachers ; (2) pay them what they deserve and 
enough to hold them — instead of, (1) employ the cheapest teacher that 
can be procured by tender; (2) change him as soon as possible for a 
cheaper one, "on the ground of economy." 

But I must bring these general remarks to a close. There are many 
interesting topics connected with our high schools to which I cannot 
even refer, my object being merely to contribute, for the information of 
persons supposed to be unacquainted with our school system, a plain 
statement of its leading features, particularly those relating to the sec- 
ondarv schools of Ontario. 

4:53 



HOW CAN INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS BE 
MADE MOEE EFFICIENT"^ 

By Clarence W. Fearing, 

Boston, Mass. 



The high school stands as the capstone of public instruction. As 
such, its true object should not be forgotten or smothered in tbe eft'orts 
of any class of specialists to control it for tbeir own ijurposes. AVliy 
should the high school, any more tban tbe piimary, be made completely 
subservient to the interests of any private or incor])orated institution'? 
Public institutions exist for the public good; and the high school is no 
exception. Its position indicates that its work is to generalize and 
perfect the work of the lower schools, and to prepare pupils from every 
grade and calling of society, as far as public education can, for the 
highest and best citizenship. To divert it from this grand object is to 
make it inefficient and extravagant in the eyes of the public who sup- 
port it. It is the opinion of the writer that the devotion of high sobool 
work to special ends, more than any other single cause, produces ad- 
verse criticism of the high school as a public institution, and deters a 
great number who complete the courses of tbe lower schools from com- 
pleting, or even beginning, the high school course. 

But these remarl^s are not intended to convey the idea that the high 
school should pay no attention whatever to special ends; from the 
nature of its j)Osition it must pay some attention to these. It is only 
maintained that special ends do not constitute tbe grand object of high 
school work. The high school does not exist simply for the purpose of 
preparing ijupils for some college, or technical school, or normal school; 
nor to serve as a substitute for a normal, or a classical, or a commercial 
school. And yet it may — nay, must — recognize and support these and 
many other ends, but only as helps to its one great work. Would it 
not help to make high school instruction more efficient if its real object 
were kept more jjrominent! At least it would remove the ridiculous 
idea that the high school is the jilace to foster superficial culture, or 
"rose-water" accomplishments. 

What does the high school do towards preparing pupils for active 
life*? As an answer it may be said, "all that it is in a condition to do." 
Here and there a school has something that is called a " business course." 
The probability is that it ignores that timely remark in a recent report 
before the Massachusetts Teachers' Association : " It is the trained 
mind, not the details of the accountant's art, that makes the best foun- 
dation for a successful career in commercial life." Can not a similar 
criticism be made concerning most of tbe so-called " English courses" 
and "scientific courses," so much in vogue at the present day? 

It must be confessed that the idea of preparation for- active life has 
not been developed as much as the idea of preparation for higher schools. 
The great need of the high school of to-day is more efficient preparation 
434 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS, 197 

for active life, and that without detracting from the preparation for the^ 
higher schools. And here, let it be remembered, the term " efficient 
preparation " refers to quality rather than to quantity. Indeed, there 
may be less of Greek that halts, of Latin that lapses, of French that 
bungles, and of English that groans, but there must be more of correct 
methods of thought, of study, and of expression — more of true language; 
fewer algebraic puzzles and trigonometrical formulae, but more of mental 
" mnscle" to grapple with the vicissitudes of life; fewer scientific curi- 
osities, but more of observation and of judgment. There should be less 
overloading the memory indiscriminately, and a greater and more sys- 
tematic effort to develop the memory and along with it observation, com- 
prehension, reflection, judgment, invention, self-reliance, resolution, and 
other powers of the mind so necessary, not only in practical matters, 
but also in matters of theory. In a word, in order to prepare pupils 
more efficiently for active life, the instruction should be subjective as 
well as objective. 

It would seem that the invaluable " object methods " of instruction 
often fail to achieve the results they should, through b^ing made too 
objective, a failure plainly due to the teacher and not to the methods. 
And right here is the door to a very great improvement in the efficiency 
of instruction. Let the teacher himself exercise his own powers more 
and those of other i)eople less, become more subjective and less objective 
in his work. Not only should he develop his own individuality, but he 
should also strive to develop individuality in his pupils ; and he should 
not allow his instruction to be merely an accumulation of information,, 
but, as it were, should grind and bolt and proportion and leaven and 
bake it, and then, before it is dealt out, should provide that a vigorous 
appetite be awakened by a seasonable alternation of rest and of exer- 
cise. He must remember that his pupils do not live to eat, but eat only 
to live. 

However, the great difficulty is for the teacher to learn to instruct 
himself and to become subjective in his methods, when he is himself the 
product (might we not say the victim "?) of an objective method. It is 
only by efforts almost Herculean that he can accomplish this, and so 
come to feel the thrill of independence in his mental work as a strong 
man feels the thrill of health in his physical labor. Such a teacher is a 
real leader of youth, an educator, and is not a driver of mental dys- 
peptics. 

The writer believes that for a suitable preparation for active life the 
teacher who uses subjective methods is indispensable. With the school 
in the hands of such a teacher, the curriculum would become very much 
modified, a new order of text-books would be demanded and would be 
produced, pupils would not be so willing to graduate from the lower 
schools directly into active life, and the question of the economy of the 
high school would lose much of its force. And yet it is to be feared 
that there are not many among high school teachers who have the reso- 
lution, or even the disposition to undertake subjective methods. 

In this connection it is to be remarked that there should be greater 
encouragement to recognize high school instruction as a noble and per- 
manent profession. The college stripling whose only qualiflcatiou is a 
mass of second-hand information, ancl whose only object is to raise funds 
enough to help himself into some other profession, should iiot be in- 
trusted with the high office of preparing citizens for active life; nor, on 
the other hand, should the efficient teacher be subject to the whims of 
local politicians. The teacher also should be held to exemplify i^ractical 

435 



198 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

morals iu the most scrupulous manner, especially with regard to the 
securing and the leaving of positions. 

There is a pernicious practice on the part of parents and of pupils, 
not to say of teachers, that cannot be condemned too strongly, and the 
removal of it would promote efficiency very much — the practice of 
indulging the childish fancies and tastes of pupils with reference to 
the selection of studies. This is in direct opposition to the plainest 
teachings of common sense. In the development of the physical system, 
no one disputes the propriety of bestowing special attention upon the 
weaker parts; but in the development of the mind, it is only the stronger 
powers that are encouraged and fostered with care. And what shall 
we say of the folly of intrusting to an immature, illy-developed judg- 
ment the selection of the field of its future success or failure, and of 
hazarding all upon a temporary impulse or fancy ? 

There are other important considerations that the lack of time forbids 
mentioning, but they can all be summarized iu the statement of that 
prime requisite of good citizenship. Mens s ana in corpore sano, a maxim 
that should be inscribed upon our walls and worn upon our brows, so 
that it might b6 a perpetual reminder to parents and to teachers and to 
pupils. 
436 



FEMALE EDFCATICm IN OKTAEJO. 

By R.EV. Alexandre, Burns, D. D., LL. D., 

Governor and Principal of the Weslei/an Ladies' College, HamiHon, Ontario. 



In Ontario, as in other countries, the higher education of women was 
not originally considered an essential part of even a complete system 
of education! Our common schools, high schools, normal schools, and 
our University are all established on a liberal scale, and are cause of 
just pride to our Province.^ To the normal schools women have always 
been admitted, and a large proportion of the teachers in our public 
schools have been women — many of them prepared in these normal 
schools, and a number in the high schools. But beyond furnishing the 
facilities for preparing to become school teachers the State has done 
absolutely nothing for the higher education of women. ^ 

But while the matter has been thus ignored by the State, private 
generosity has largely supplied the appliances and facilities to give 
women an introduction to those higher walks of literature, science, and 
philosophy, so long monopolized by the sterner sex. 

In no country has higher education depended more on private effort, 
and in no country has it received a more generous support. The first 
institution opened for higher education was the Upper Canada Acad- 
emy (now Victoria University, Coburg) — the offering of the Methodists 
of Canada. It has been followed by several others on the voluntary 
basis, and Victoria, Queens, Trinity, and others have done work and 
wielded an influence that would be a credit to the colleges of any 
country. 

So in efforts for the higher education of women. The first ladies' 
college opened in the Province, the Wesleyan Ladies' College of Hamil- 
ton, was under the auspices of the Methodist Church. This also has 
been followed by others, furnishing ample accommodation to all aspir- 
ing after a liberal education. There are at present seven ladies' col- 
leges that have been established by denominational patronage, and 
have never received any assistance from the State. Of these the . 
Methodist Church has three — the Wesleyan Ladies' College of Hamilton; 
the Ontario Ladies' College of Whitby ; and the Alma College of St. 

I From the Report of the Minister of Education it will be seen that the number of 
girls attending *the public schools in 1883 was 220,098; Roman Catholic separate 
schools (not reported, but estimated at), 12,000 ; high schools, 5,787 ; normal schools, 
213 ; provincial model schools, 377 ; total, 239,075, out of 503,482 pupils reported as 
attending these institutions in 1883. The number of female teachers employed in 
the same year was : public schools, 4,082 ; Roman Catholic separate schools, 300 ; high 
schools (not reported, but estimated at), 75; provincial normal and model schools, 10 ; 
total, 4,467, out of 7,686 teachers of these schools reported as employed in 1883. The 
number of females receiving or imparting instruction in these various institutions m 
1883 was 243,542, out of a gross total of .511,168 so engaged in that year. — J. G. H. 

* A tardy admission has been granted to women ix) attend lectures with male stu- 
dents at University College, Toronto, but this involves no extra expense or special 
grant. 

437 



200 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Thomas. The Church of England has two — the Bishop Strachan School 
at Toronto, and tlie Hellmnth Ladies' College of London. The Presbj"- 
terian Church has two — the Ottawa Ladies' College, and, the Brautford 
Ladies' College. Although these institutions are under denominational 
auspices, still no sectarian test or subscription is required of their 
students, and even their faculties represent several denominations. 
Besides these colleges, each Roman Catholic diocese has one or more 
convents for the education of women, and, in some of them, the higher 
blanches receive considerable attention. 

To give an idea of the work done by these colleges it will be neces- 
sary to particularize somewhat; and for this purpose I will take the 
oldest of them, the Wesleyan Ladies' College of Hamilton. The chief 
difference between 'its curriculum and that of the ordinary college for 
gentlemen, is in the classics — the Latin and Greek. In other respects 
the course of study is fully equal to the pass work for the ordinary B. A. 
Indeed, in some departments it is more extensive. Two courses of 
study have been established, a classical and an English; the latter re- 
quires no other language than the English. In the classical course, 
Latin, French, and German are each carried through the whole course 
of four years. Mathematics extends through algebra, geometry and 
trigonometry. Physiology, zoology, botany, chemistry, and geology 
receive due attention. A very full course in history — ancient, mod- 
ern, and biblical — is required. The study of English literature is pur- 
sued daily through two years. Logic, mental and moral science, and 
evidences of Christianity are studied, both from lectures and in the or 
djnary university text-books on these subjects. We are quite safe in 
saying that the graduate of this college has taken a course which, with 
the exception of the Latin and Greek, is fully equal to that required by 
the average British college for pass work. That women appreciate op- 
portunities for higher studies is seen in the fact that this college alone 
has graduated nearly 200 ladies, and has had in its classes since 1860 
over 2,000. The present senior class contains a dozen young ladies 
whose work consists in studying logic, psychology, moral science, evi- 
dences of Christianity, biblical history, and English literature. These 
are all pursued as in the universities, and by the use of the university 
text books. The English literature class is reading critically Chaucer, 
Shakespeare, Johnson, and Macaulay, after a general study of the sub- 
ject in Collier and Arnold. 

What has been accomplished by the Wesleyan Ladies' College is 
aimed at, it is believed, in all the others, and several hundred ladies are 
annually registered in the ladies' colleges of Ontario. Last year the 
Wesleyan alone had 163. 

But few of the undergraduates of these colleges are satisfied with 
the work of the curriculum. More than ninety per cent, carry side by 
side with the prescribed course a very liberal course in music and art. 
A large percentage of the graduates are excellent musicians, able to 
render with comparative ease the works of Beethoven, Bach, Mendels- 
sohn, Chopin, and Liszt. Many of them are also well advanced in art 
studies, — drawing, water colors, and oil painting. Indeed, to one ac- 
quainted only with the old standard curriculum for men, it must always 
be a matter of wonder how ladies can manage to carry so much of 
what are called the "accomplishments" in addition to the ordinary 
collegiate course. I am thoroughly satisfied that the work completed 
by the graduate of this college is fully equal to that required for grad- 
uation in the best of our colleges lor gentlemen. It is also worthy of 
mention that the lectures and recitations of this college are snpple- 

438 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 201 

mented by exiierimeiits in cliemistry and ])bysics, by an extensive col- 
lection of specimens illustrative oi geology, mineralogy, aud natural 
history, and that pupils have free access to globes, maps, charts, and 
the standard books of reference. The examinations are written and 
conducted by specialists in the several departments. 

From this brief sketch it will be seen that the higher education of 
women has not been neglected in Ontario. In the ladies' colleges alone, 
any young lady can obtain an education as extensive and as j^ractical 
as even the most cultured society need desire. It may be said that the 
omission of Greek makes a great disparity between the two courses of 
study. In reply we would call attention to the fact that Greek is 
rapidly becoming on elective study everywhere. But should ladies ask 
for the Greek, it could easily be furnished, as most'of the ladies' col- 
leges of Ontario have classical graduates in their faculties. 

In addition to the facilities furnished by the ladies' colleges, the 
colleges and universities of the Province, hitherto occupied exclnsively 
by gentlemen, are now opening their doors to admit ladies to all their 
lectures and recitations, and also to their degrees, on the same condi- 
tions as gentlemen. This removes the last difficulty out of the way of 
ladies having every educational advantage that they can possibly desire. 

It seems too late in the day to put obstructions in the way of co edu- 
cation. IsTot that co-education is best for every girl, or that it is likely 
ever to become universal, but because it is practically the only hope 
that multitudes can ever have of securing the higher education. No one 
that has ever become acquainted with the system under fair trial will 
hesitate for a moment to admit that girls can hold their own in every part 
of the curriculum. My own experience extended through thirteen years, 
and during that time I have seen girls lead their classes in the most 
unlikely subjects,— in Aristophanes, ^schylus, and Euripides, and the 
gentlemen in these classes would have been considered fair Greek schol- 
ars anywhere. I have seen the same thing in the differential and inte- 
gral calculus. That matter is settled beyond a doubt. There can be 
no possible objection to co-education on the ground of intellectual in- 
equality, nor is the girl's health more likely to suiferthan her brother's. 
The closest observation and the most extensive statistics, stretching 
over half a century in some cases, have abundantly proved this. Ober- 
lin, Antioch, the colleges in the Northwestern States, and Cornell, for 
a shorter period, attest the same. 

Neither does co-education increase the difficulties of discipline. I 
have no knowledge of any ladies having become less delicate and refined 
through the presence of gentlemen. I have known very noisy i:^eetings 
brought suddenly to order by the entrance of a few ladies. Manhood 
is at a low ebb when its better i^hases respond not to the presence of 
woman. An appeal to the colleges in which co-education has been 
iUirly tried will dissipate at once all fears touching any of these objec- 
tions. Prejudice may retard the movement for a time; so may the awk- 
ward antics of a few inconsiderate freshmen; but already is the battle 
fairly and fully won. 

Still there will always be a large number of our people who will prefer 
to have their daughters educated at the ladies' colleges; and there will 
always be a goodly percentage of girls who will do better in such insti- 
tutions than in tho»e to whose classes both sexes are admitted. There 
will always be mothers who will think more of the surroundings of thek* 
(children while receiving their education, — of good taste, of delicacy of 
thought and action, of refinement of manners, of those items whose sum 
total constitutes true lady-like culture, than of the intricacies of syntax 

439 



202 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

or the subtleties of metaphysics; and who can blame them? But when 
ladies' colleges farnish all the advantages offered by the other insti- 
tutions in both syntax and metaphysics, and in addition supply the de- 
mands of woman for instruction in music and art, and kindred subjects 
that lend a charm to home and social life, they will assuredly be pre- 
ferred for many a day by the leading families of our country. 

I would open to women all the colleges of the land, — technical institu- 
tions included. The ladies' colleges will still be needed. 

These institutions should be encouraged more than they have been, 
for they have done a work of incalculable value to the country — a work 
that but for them would not have been done. "Who educates a woman 
educates a race"; and these colleges have sent into thousands of homes 
in Canada a pure Christian refinement and a lofty, peaceful patriotism 
that will tell on the ages yet to be. 

The Government should recognize the degrees conferred by these 
colleges. True, thev do not represent as much Greek and Latin as the 
usual degree, but they represent an equivalent in other subjects, that 
are of perhaps equal value in the homes of our land. Then if the present 
curriculum is not satisfactory, let it be made so. The ladies' colleges 
will not object to a change for the sake of securing a recognition that 
has been most unreasonably refused hitherto. 

The present outlook for the higher education of women is, upon the 
whole, promising. No lady need leave our Province to secure even a 
university education and a university degree. Those who wish to couple 
with a liberal education in arts the accomplishments peculiar to a ladies' 
college have all that they can desire or use. And it may reasonably be 
predicted that ere long the Government will give such recognition to 
the colleges that have pioneered and conducted the grand work of 
woman's education that a new impetus will be given, new courage in- 
fused, and still better equipment will respond to the increasing de- 
mands of a more exacting one. 

Note.— To the foregoiBg valuable paper by the Rot. Dr. Burns I have added the 
following, prepared by me for the Education Department, and incorporated as a pam- 
phlet which was sent to the Conference on Education held in London, England, under 
the presidency of Lord Reay, in August, 1884 : 

Schools and colleges for the higher education of women in Ontario comprise : 

1. The Wesleyan Female College, Hamilton. 

2. The Bishop Strachan School. Toronto. 

3. The Helimuth Ladies' College, London. 

4. The Ontario Ladies' College, Whitby. 

5. The Brantford Ladies' College. 

6. The Ottawa Ladies' College. 

7. Alma College, St. Thomas. 

1. The Wesleyan Female College is incorporated by Act of the Provincial Legislature, 
and was opened in 18G1. Although in connection with the Methodist body, its Presi- 
dent and members of the Board may belong to other Protestant denominations, from 
whom many pupils come, and they are at full liberty to attend their own churches. 
The college has power to confer scholastic distinctions, and its graduates include 
several from the United States and other countries. Some of these are now mission- 
aries in the Northwest, and also in Japan. 

2. The Bishop Strachan School was founded by the late Bishop of Toronto, the Rt. 
Rev. John Strachan, D. D., in connection with the Church of England. It is open 
to all pupils who may conform to its regulations. It was incorporated by Act of the 
Provincial Legislature in 1868 (31 Vic, chap. 57), but began work on September 12, 
1867. It removed in 1870 to its present building, Wykeham Hall, where the ac- 
commodation, both in buildings and grounds, is very suitable for its objects. The 
course in certain branches is about equivalent to that of the second year at the Uni- 
versity, and pupils are prepared for the examinations in the course of study for women 
at Trinity College. Regular instruction is also given in Christian evidences, Script- 
ure and Church history, and catechism. The Bishop of Toronto is President of the 
governing Board. 

• 440 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 203 

3. The TJdhmit^i Ladies' College is situate near tJie city of London (Ontario), and 
was foun(kcl by the Eight Rev. I. Hellmutli, D. D., the Anglican bishop of the diocese 
of Huron. It was inaugurated in 1869 by H. E, H. Prince Arthur. H. E. H. the 
Princess Louise became its patroness on her visit in 1879. It is now affiliated with 
the Western University, and is under the personal supervision of the Bishop of Huron. 
It stands in spacious grounds on the banks of the Eiver Thames. 

4. The Ontario Ladies' College at Whitby was Incorporated by Act of the Legislature 
in 1874, and inaugurated by Lord Dufferin. It is in connection with the Methodist 
Church. The course of instruction involves the elementary and higher branches up 
to the standard of matriculation in Victoria College. The buildings are extensive, 
and are surrounded by grounds of large extent. 

5. The Branfford Young Ladies' College was established in. 1874, and is in connection 
with the Presbyterian Church in Canada. Its object is the higher education of young 
women, for which instruction is provided in the literary, music, and fine arts depart- 
ments. 

6. The Ottawa Ladies' College and Conservatory of Mtisic was incorporated by Act of 
the Legislature in 1869, and is in connection with the Presbyterian Church, and the 
majority of the Board of Management are required to be Presbyterians. This college 
was ibunded to meet the views of those who desire to place higher education within 
the reach of young women. 

7. Alma College was established at Sk Thomas, in connection with the Methodist 
Church, for the higher education of ladies, and as a separate institution for this pur- 
pose in addition to "Alexandra College" — the ladies' branch of Albert College at 
Belleville. 

Besides the ladies' schools mentioned, there are convents in each of the Roman Cath- 
olic dioceses of the Province, in which much attention is paid to the higher subjects 
of education for ladies. They are respectively situate at Toronto, Ottawa, Kingston, 
Hamilton, and London. Superior private schools for the education of young ladies 
exist in Toronto and other places in Ontario. — J. G. H. 

441 



AGEIOULTURAL EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 
By J. George Hodgins, M. A,, LL. D., 

Dejjuty Mimster of Education for Ontario.^ 



" Book farming," as it was often derisively called, was for a long time 
looked npon with contempt in this Province ; and unfortunately, too, 
such an opinion was often held and freely expressed by the more ener- 
getic and successful farmers. The cause was not far to seek. It involved 
a knowledge of "agricultural chemistry" and kindred subjects, the very 
name of which was enough for such men, who, in the early times in this 
Province, knew very little '^beyond what their own experience and good 
sense taught them, and, therefore, despised "book learning" of any 
kind. 

It was not until some men of mark amongst us, such as the late well 
known and esteemed Hon. Adam Ferguson, and the late lamented Hon. 
David Christie, introduced scientific farming into this country with 
remarkable success, that public opinion, especially amongst the farmers 
themselves, began to change. The interest, too, excited in the farming 
community by the success of and competition at the county and pro- 
vincial agricultural fairs, deepened the convictiim — at all events in the 
minds of the younger generation of farmers and farmers' sons — that 
there was " something in it " after all, and that " book farming" was not 
to be despised. 

The late Rev. Dr. Ryerson did all in his power to foster this better feel- 
ing in the country. In 1847, when the Government House and its spa- 
cious grounds in Toronto were under his control (for the iJurposes of 
education ofBces and normal school), he freely placed these grounds at 
the disposal of the Provincial Agricultural Association every year, for 
the purposes of their annual fair. In his Report, too, on a " System of 
Public Elementary Instruction for Upper Canada," published in 1846, he 
thus referred to the subject of agricultural education, which he included 
in the subjects of instruction which he proposed to introduce (at as early 
a date as possible) into the public schools. He said : 

(12) Agriculture — the most important department of human industry — has not yet 
been, introduced in any form whatever as a branch of elementary education in our 
schools. 

The Legislature has given some pecuniary assistance, and societies have been formed 
with a view to encourage experiments and promote improvements in Canadian agri- 
culture; but experiments without a knowledge of principles will be of little beneht, 
and improvements in the practice of agriculture must be very limited until the scieuce 
of it is studied * * * The agricultural pupil should be made acquainted with,the 
different kinds of soils and their characteristic qualities; the modes of qualifying and 
improving each ; different kinds of manure and other improving substances ; the eifecta 
of different kinds of soil on different crops ; rotation of crojis, and the best methods of 

1 Prepared chiefly from material sent to the writer by James Mills, Esq., M. A., Presi- 
dent of the Agricultural College, Guelph. 

442 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 205 

producing and securing them; agricultural implements and the machines wMch have 
been iuveutedto save labor ; different kinds of stock, the various modes of feeding 
them, with the economical advantages of each ; the method of keeping full and accu- 
rate, accounts, so that the farmer may be able to ascertain precisely, not only his gross 
profits and losses, but the profit and loss in each detail of the system, and from each 
field of his farm. Of course specimens, models, pictures, or drawings should be used 
in teaching these elements of agriculture, etc. 

The liformal School for Upper Canada (Ontario) was established in the 
autumn of 1847. In the programme of studies then drawn up, it was pro- 
vided that one of the masters should deliver a course of lectures to the 
students on "Agricultural Chemistry; comprehending the nature of the 
substances which enter into the composition of vegetables; the sources 
from which those substances are derived ; the origin and composition 
of soils ; the conditions necessary for producing a luxuriant vegetation, 
etc., etc." In the early spring of 1848, and in addition to these lectures, 
a portion of the grounds attached to the normal school {i. e., the present 
Government House grounds) was set apart for agricultural i)Lirposes 
and for agricultural experiments under the direction of a skilled expert. 
A report of these experiments was regularly made to the Chief Super- 
intendent of Education, and the students were examined in the subject 
generally. 

In 1849, when the seat of Government was removed from Montreal to 
Toronto (after the burning of the Parliament House in the former city), 
the Government House (in which the normal school had been held) with 
the grounds attached was resumed by the Government. The experi- 
ments consequently ceased. But the Governor-General (Lord Elgin) 
was so impressed with the value of the instruction given to the students 
in agricultural chemistry that he instituted two prizes for proficiency 
in that subject. For some years these prizes were continued, and 
much interest was manifested in the competition for them. A chair of 
agriculture was subsequently established in the University; but the 
number of students who attended lectures on the subject was not large. 

Eor some years little was done to promote the study of agriculture 
except the stimulus derived from agricultural i)ublications and the suc- 
cessful agricultural exhibitions, fairs, and farmers^ clubs, which gave a 
special prominence to the subject. 

In 1870 the Chief Superintendent of Education, being desirous to 
carry out his original intention of making agriculture one of 'the subjects 
of study in the public schools, prepared a manual on the subject which 
he dedicated to the Board of Agriculture.^ In ttie dedicatory preface 
he used the following language, striking and admonitory as it is: 

Identified as I am by birth and early education with the agricultural population 
of this country, I regret to see so many of our agricultural youth leave the noblest of 
earthly employments and the most independent of social pursuits, for the professions, 
the counting room, the warehouse, and even for petty clerkships and little shops. 
*■ ■* * As a general rule the sons of farmers, as soon as they begin to be educated, 
leave the farm; this is a misfortune to the parties themselves, a loss to agriculture, 
and to the country. * * * Politicians are accustomed to call farmers "the bone 
and sinew of the land" ; and bone and sinew they will remain, and never anything 
else, without education. It is a supreme law, illustrated by all history, that head 
rules muscle ; and all farmers who educate only their muscles, and not their heads, 
must occupy the inferior relation of muscle. * » * i know it may be said by some, 
" Our fathers were not educated, and yet were successful farmers." But these very 
farmers will bear witness that they would have done and felt much better had they 
been educated. 



' In his introductory note Dr. Ryerson intimated that his labor in preparing this 
work was entirely a gratuitous contribution to the cause, 

443 



206 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

The first and great staple interest of our country requires young men who will de- 
vote to agriculture their talents, their attainments, their fortunes, and their lives; 
and in no other pursuit is a wider and more inviting field of enterprise open to them. 

In that year (1870) the distinguished President of the Agricultural 
Association for Ontario, Hon. David Christie (Senator of the Dominion), 
in accepting on behalf of the Association the dedication of the "First 
Lessons on Agriculture for Canadian Farmers and their Families," said : 

My conviction is that the [teaching of agriculture] must begin in our common 
schools ; that is, elementary agricultural and mechanical instruction should form a 
leading part of the teaching. Dr. Eyerson has published a valuable little work on 
agriculture, whichlhopetoseemadeatextbookinalltheruraldistricts. * * * Dr. 
Eyerson has done good service to the country by compiling the manual, * * * 
and I hope that he will see to it that the benefit which it is so well calculated to con- 
fer shall not be lost to the country. It is a good thing for the cause * * * that 
we have so able a coadjutor as the Chief Superintendent of Education. I feel con- 
vinced that he will soon make agricultural and mechanical instruction a leading 
feature in our common-school teaching. 

During the same year, Hon. John Carling, Commissioner of Agricult- 
ure for Ontario, in his Eeport, thus intimated the intention of the Gov- 
ernment to promote elementary and higher education in Agriculture. 
He said in that Eeport : 

What now appears to be more especially needed in carrying forward this great work 
is, in addition to the ordinary instruction in common schools, the introduction of 
elementary instruction in what may be termed the foundation principles of agricult- 
ural and mechanical science. * * * One enlightened and energetic Chief Super- 
intendent of Education would, I believe, approve and help forward such a movement. 

A special agent was sent * # * some months ago to visit the agricultural col- 
leges of the United States, to ascertain and report upon the best and most successful 
system there adopted, with a view to the establishment of such an institution in this 
Province. * » * The local Government has already determined upon introducing 
agricultural teaching into our common schools, and also to establish an agricultural 
college in this Pi'ovince during the ensuing year. 

The late lamented William Johnston, Esq., M. A., formerly President 
of the newly established Agricultural College (now situated at Guelph), 
thus continues the narrative of the establishment of the college. He 
says : 

Duriug the winter of 1870, the Hon. John Carling, at that time Minister of Agri- 
culture for Ontario, commissioned the Eev. W. F. Clarke, editor of the Ontario Farmer, 
to visit some of the agricultural colleges of the United States and report on them, at 
the same tinie drawing up a scheme for the establishment of an agricultural college 
in Ontario. Mr. Clarke's report forms an appendix to that of the Commissioner of 
Agriculture for the year 1870. A farm at Mimico, seven miles from Toronto, was first 
purchased, but, on the advice of many experts, whose reports form an appendix to 
that of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1872, that farm was sold and the present 
one at Guelph purchased in the fall of 1873. 

AN OUTLINE OP THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE ONTAHIO AGKICULTURAL 

DEPARTMENT. 

The Ontario Agricultural College is situated on a farm of .550 acres, a mile south of 
the city of Guelph, in the county of Wellington. The college building, of magnesiau 
limestone throughout, is 240 feet in length, of an average depth of 42 feet, and is of 
two stories and a basement. The center portion has an additional story. It contains 
the usual public lecture rooms, library, reading-room, inuseura, and at the present 
time a small laboratory. Connected with it, at the rear, are the dining-rooms, kitch- 
ens, laundry, matron's, and servants' apartments. The staff is composed of: 



1. A President. 

2. Professor of Agriculture, 

3. Professor of Science. 

4. Professor of Veterinary Science. 



5. Mathematical Master. 

6. Farm Foreman. 

7. Horticultural Foreman. 
H. Mechanical Foreman. 



I. The course of stiidi/, which is of one or two years, includes the following subjects : 
First year. — Practical agriculture, veterinary anatomy, veterinary materia modica, 
physical geojjjraphy, chemistry, botany, zoology, English, and mathematics. 
Second yeow. — Agriculture and horticulture, veterinary pathology, veterinary sur- 
444 



I 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 207 

gery and practice, agricultural chemistry, economic botany, entomology, meteorology, 
book-keeping, leveling and surveying, English literature, and political economy. 
And these are arranged under the departments of 

1. Agriculture. I 3. Veterinary science. 

2. Science. I 4. English and mathematics. 
Connected with the course of study in the class-rooms is, outside on the fields and 

in the yards, barns, stables, and shops, 

II. The course of aj^prenticesliip, which is divided into 

1. The field department. 1 3. The horticultural department. 

2. The live-stock department. 1 4. The mechanical department. 

The terms of admission to the regular course is the educational standard requisite 
for entrance into the high schools of the Province. The academic year is divided into 
two sessions, the winter one beginning on the ls1» of October and ending on the 31st 
ot March ; and the summer session commencing about the 16th of April and closing 
on the 3l8t of August. The library is still very small, as are also the laboratory and 
the museum. The boarding-house, when fully completed, as it will be in a month, 
will accommodate 140 pupils, and that number has already, I understand, entered. 
It is directly under the charge of the President, assisted by the mathematical master. 
The farm is all under cultivation, except four groves of woods, which are purposely 
left upon it. The farming is that which is generally known as mixed farming. More 
attention has been paid to the actual farming and stock breeding than has been given 
to them in any othe^; agricultural college in America. There are herds of the im- 
proved shorthovu, Ayrshire, Hereford, Devon, and polled Angus breeds of cattle ; flocks 
of the Cotswold, Border Leicester, Oxford Down, and Southdown breeds of sheep ; and 
of the improved Berkshire and small Suifolk breeds of pigs. The latest implements 
and machines are used, including a steam thresher and a steam pulping apparatus. 
The horticultural operations are subsidiary, but on a sufficiently large scale, the 
kitchen garden covering sis acres, and the flower gardens, lawn, and shrubbery ex- 
tending over twenty-five more. The mechanical deijartment, which is also subsid- 
iary, has confined itself hitherto to permanent improvements, in the shape of fencing, 
draining, and building, with repairs and setting up of all implements and machinery. 
The students labor on a daily yearly average at least five hoars a day — that is, the 
whole day during the summer months, half the day during the spring and autumn 
months, and a shorter time during the winter ones. Thus, leaving out the evenings, 
half the day, counting the whole year round, is taken up with the course of appren- 
ticeship, and the other half with the course of study. The students are allowed for 
skilled labor at a maximum rate of ten .cents per hour. The rules and regulations 
need not be enumerated. 

The whole expense is borne directly by the Provincial Legislature, there being no 
endowment fund. The cost of yearly maintenance is about $22,000; and at the close 
of this year the Province will have expended on capital account, in the shape of a 
farm, buildings, and other permanent improvements, very nearly $200,000. The pro- 
ceeds of the farm and stock have hitherto been spent in building up the farm. Fees 
have only been charged for a short time, students from the Province now paying a 
tuition fee of $25 per annum, and from outside the Province, $50 per annum. The 
management of the outside is under the charge of the farm superintendent and pro- 
fessor of agriculture, that of the inside under the President, and the financial man- 
agement of the whole under the bursar. There is no board of trustees or regents, or 
any other advisory body ; biit the whole institution, and each and all of the officers, 
art) directly under the charge of the Commissioner of Agriculture, who is directly 
responsible to the Government, the latter to the Legislature, and that, of course, to the 
people. In conclusion allow me, in no boastful spirit, to point out that the Ontario 
Agricultural College excels in its basis any other on the continent of America, and 
in any part of Eorox)e or Germany, in these five cardinal points-^points which we 
have seen lie at the foundation of the success that has been achieved by any in exist- 
ence in teacliing simply agricultural education : 

1. It does not attempt anything but strictly agricultural education. 

2. It is not a mechanical or general industrial college. 

3. It is not in any sense a literary institution, with a leaning to agricultural sub- 
jects. 

4. It places as much importance on a course of apprenticeshij) as it does on a course 
of study. 

5. It makes manual labor a stern reality as well as a name, causing its students to 
perform the work of a farm of 500 acres. 

It is deficient in many of the aijpliances for teaching, far behind many of the other 
institutions we have described in its equipment, and inferior to (lie raoyt of them in 
tlie number of its teachers, but its foundation is fairly good, and iis progress, whilst 
already gratifying, is, I may be allowed to say, along the line that experience shows 
us can alone lead to permanent success. 

445 



208 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

In liis evidence before the Ontario Agricultural Commissiou (in 1880), 
the present able President of the Agricultural College at Guelph, Jainos 
Mills, Esq., M. A., elaborates this statement of his predecessor, Mr. 
Johnston, and gives the fullest particulars as to the condition and great 
value of the college. Want of space forbids its insertion here. 

The present staff of the college is as follows : James Mills, M. A., 
President, Professor of English Literature and Political Economy; 
Williim Brown, C. E., P. L. S., Professor of Agriculture and Arbori- 
culture; E. B. Hare, B. A., Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry, and Lect- 
urer on Geology and Meteorology; J. P. Playfair McMurrich, B. A., 
Professor of Biology and Horticulture, and Lecturer on English; F. C. 
Grenside, Y. S., Professor of Veterinary Science; E. L. Hunt, Assistant 
Eesident and Mathematical Master; A. T. Deacon, Bursar. And of the 
farm, William Brown, C. E., P. L. S., Farm Superintendent; P. J. 
Woods, Farm Foreman; James Forsyth, Foreman of the Horticultural 
Department; James Mcintosh, Foreman of the Mechanical Department. 

The number in attendance at the college is about two hundred. The 
fees for tuition are: for residents, $20; for non-residents, $100. Board 
and lodging are from $2.25 to $2.50 per week. , 

446 



TEOHOTOAL EDUCATION. 
By E. B. Wilson, 

Instructor in Drifton {Pa.) Industrial School for Miners and Mechanics. 



Teclinical education is at present engrossiug tlie attention of indi- 
viduals, corporations, and members of State legislatures. Wlien the 
attention of the last two is attracted, it may l>e inferred that skilled 
workmen are in demand and that the workingmen themselves are agi- 
tatijig the question. 

The phrase "technical education " at ])resent seems to be enveloped in 
a cloud of mystery, as its use now signilies practical, as opposed to theo- 
retical, or college training, so that "technology," which formerly signi- 
fied terms used in the sciences, now carries vaguely with it the meaning 
of sciences applied to indnstrial arts. The fact having been long ago 
recognized that a college graduate without practical experience is no 
more an engineer than a mechanic without theoretical training is a me- 
chanic, it was decided to institute technical schools, where theory and 
practice might to some extent go hand in hand. Such schools, however, 
were designed for those who could afford to devote their whole time to 
study. It is not the intention of this paper to treat of such schools any 
more than to classify them, as follows : 

{a) Technical schools projjer are institutions where the theory and 
practice of professions are taught ; also, those schools where college 
graduates are taught the practical part of their j)rofessions. Such 
schools are designed for practical professional men who have means 
and time at command for study. 

(b) Secondary technical schools, designed to make skilled and intelli- 
gent workmen. We may subdivide this latter class into industrial 
schools where trades are taught, and industrial schools where studies 
are pursued by those learning or having trades. 

It is in behalf of this latter class of secondary technical schools that 
your attention is solicited ; for here the harvest will be greatest, and it 
is to be hoped the reapers will be most numerous. The utility of such 
schools has been demonstrated beyond a doubt, as those instituted over 
fifty years ago in Germany are still continued. The Drifton Mining 
School, organized in 1879, by Hon. Eckley B. Ooxe, has also proved the 
same fact, although not conducted on so large a scale. 

Experience has taught us that study, after a day's manual labor, is 
injurious, oftentimes oppressive, and never accomplishes as much as 
study in the daytime. As a scholar once put it, " some evenings I. un- 
derstand everything and the time flies, other evenings I cannot under- 
stand one thing and the time drags." Besides this, the limited time 
will not allow the ambitious pupil to advance speedily enough to com- 
pensate him for this extra endeavor ; at least, many seem to think so, 
and therefore become discouraged and give up in disgust. When, 
however, a part of the day is devoted to study, we approach more 

447 
7950 GOT, pt. 2 — -U 



210 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

nearly the best of "teclinical schools." For such schools we have 
poorer material, educationally not mentally, hence we must begin with 
a low grade of studies. 

In this elementary department the more diflScult work of the school 
is encountered, as here we may exi^ect scholars whose ages will vary 
from 15 to 35. The youuger scholars are more apt than the older, but 
the older, better comprehending the importance of an education, apply 
themselves the more diligently, so that as far as age is concerned this 
difference is about equal. The scholars who will attend such schools, 
besides being deficient in education, oftentimes come from uneducated 
parents, and having associated with persons of the same ilk are exceed- 
ingly deficient in words, expression, and ideas. With such material, it 
is very necessary to cultivate from the start their expression and per- 
ceptive faculties, by asking questions and having the pupils describe 
some easy subject orally and by writing. Schools of this class should 
be designed particularly with reference to the employment of the schol- 
ars, so that what they learn may facilitate the understanding of their 
work. ' In such classes object lessons, free-hand drawing, and mental 
exercises should be taught, besides the common-school branches. When 
such studies have been thoroughly mastered the first class of the indus- 
trial school proper may be formed. The time required for a scholar to 
finish his studies in such schools will depend upon the time allotted for 
study, the proficiency of the candidate, and object to be attained. With 
four hours per day devoted to study and exercises very fair progress 
may be made, even if two of the hours are at night, but just two hours 
at night are not enough. The studies most essential are, first, arithme- 
tic and algebra, studied by working out numerous practical problems, 
and doing this as far as possible analytically. Second, geometry and 
trigonometry 5 text-books such as " Davies' Legendre" or Loomis's are 
well suited for such schools, because such books are clear and precise, 
and aid greatly in developing the reasoning faculties and arriving at 
correct conclusions in a methodical manner. The teaching of them 
should not conform to school methods, or be in any way mechanical, 
but so as to be thoroughly understood ; the pupil should be able to dem- 
onstrate the theorems, not necessarily in the language of the author, 
but so that he shows he knows them himself and can explain them to 
others. These studies are so important that they should be continued 
throughout the entire course, in some one of their numerous phases. 
Numerous problems should be given to be worked algebraically, and 
also drawn to scale. 

Then come physics and mechanics. Here again practical problems 
should enter largely into the studies, to illustrate each principle as far 
as possible and help to fasten it in the memory. No formulas should 
be employed the a?, ?y, z^s of which are not understood, or the pupil is 
not able to deduce himself; for time consumed in discussion and calcu- 
lations of abstruse principles and laws, the derivation and application 
of which have no clear place in the pupil's mind, is but wasted ; more 
over such formulas tend rather to mystify than enlighten, by giving 
the pupil a feeling of insecurity (which is very depressing) and also 
lack of confidence. A person without confidence in his ability is never 
fitted to command. 

Grammar, composition, and keeping accounts should enter largely 
into the curriculum. The uses of these are so well kno vvn and appreciated 
that it is needless to mention them. 

Drawing is not, as perhaps the majority of people consider, a merely 
ornamental study, as there is no mechanical industry requiring con- 
448 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 211 

structive skill which does not to some extent employ the principles of 
drawing. In an industrial school it should form one of the chief studies ; 
for, as James Nasmyth put it, " one can with a few strokes of the pen- 
cil make clear that which any number of words will fail to explain in- 
telligibly." Beginning- with free-hand, it should embrace mechanical 
and perspective drawing, and cease only after a course of construction 
and designing has been finished. Models, plates, geometrical problems, 
drawing to scale from actual measurements, and lastly designing, should 
be the methods employed in teaching. 

We claim for drawing that it is applicable to the mechanical arts, de- 
velops artistic perception and power of correct expression ; it enables 
the artisan to interpret the work and carry into effect the plans of the 
designer; it trains the hand and eye, and secures manual accuracy and 
dispatch ; it encourages neatness and carefulness, and broadens percep- 
tion; it teaches observation, and, in short, meets the requirements 
which a good mechanic should possess more than any other one study. 
The object being to produce skilled workmen, drawing should be indus- 
trial rather than artistic ; still, in free-hand we have discovered artistic 
skill in the pupils, and would recommend it, since it trains the hand 
and eye more, probably, than mechanical drawing. It is a curious cir- 
cumstance that the less intelligent very often are the better scholars in 
free-hand drawing. 

The studies above enumerated are the A B C of mechanical pursuits, 
therefore they have been mentioned; but the object to be attained by 
the school or scholars must determine the character of the future studies, 
and the depth to which the above should be entered into. 

The method of teaching will be to some extent dependent upon the 
teacher's ingenuity and the time for study. Teachers for such schools 
must be experienced men in practice, as well as possessed of theoretical 
knowledge; they must take an interest in their work, be able to explain 
clearly and precisely, and at the same time interest their pupils. The 
progress made in these, more than in any other schools, will depend 
upon the teachers ability to make each subject clear; for the scholars 
will not have time to devote to books, and so make up what the teacher 
lacks; besides, it is one thing to understand a subject for one's-self, but 
an entirely different thing to explain what one knows so that others 
will understand it. 

In Germany the teachers are taken from the different departments 
of the works, and teach those branches in which they are specially 
employed. This is a good plan, for it insures practical men being 
employed ; but at present our engineers have enough work and worry 
without the work of teaching being saddled upon them ; besides, I 
doubt very much if every engineer is capable of teaching, or, even if 
he be that, that he will find time to devote to the preparation of his 
lectures and to equipping himself for school- work, esiJecially where the 
teaching will depend so much on the preliminary remarks which should 
accompany each exercise. A teacher in any class of schools should 
always study a lesson before attempting to teach it, no matter how well 
he supposes he knows it, for he will be questioned severely. Other 
requirements for such work, besides ability, are pluck, patience, and 
never tiring in explanation, even when it has to be done individually . 
with each scholar. Apparatus, diagrams, etc., should be employed for 
illustration, for the mind will grasp ideas .better when explained in the 
above manner. Studies should always when possible be illustrated by 
practical examples, 

449 



212 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Some claim that it is better to work for^ thau to, answers, claiiQiug 
that it gives confidence, and insures the scholars' performance of the 
work. After four years' experience we can see no grounds for such 
statements, and prefer to have the scholars work to answers in most 
cases ; for our time is limited, the mistake can be more easily found 
and corrected, and it is much more satisfactory to the pupil. We claim 
that this method will foster self-reliance fully as much as any other we 
have yet come across. 

There are numerous good elementary text-books, not so voluminous 
as the German, but this may be considered a good point. If such 
books lack illustrations and examples, the teacher should be capable of 
manufacturing them, or at least obtaining them from other text-books. 

The object of this paper has been to call your attention to industrial 
schools. Your congress will probably treat of higher education, but it 
is our firm belief that you can treat of no more useful branch of schools 
than the one here spoken of. Being in a position to know how much 
interest is taken in them by the state, individuals, corporations, and 
workiugmen themselves, we can state it is very great, and therefore de- 
mands your attention, as it is for the benefit of the masses individually 
and the nation as a whole. For supplying skilled labor, and at the same 
time intelligent labor, these schools are indispensable. 
450 



THE MECHANICS' INSTITUTES IN THE PROVINCE OF 

ONTAEIO. 

By Otto Klotz, 

President of the Association of Mechanics^ Institutes of Ontario. 



J. THE OBJECT. 

The original object of the establishment of mechanics' institutes was 
to organize a system of instruction which would prove best adapted to 
impart useful knowledge for practical life to the industrial classes. 

To accomplish this object it was deemed essential to establish a library 
with suitable books and accessible to each member; a reading room sup- 
plied with good reviews, magazines, periodicals, and uewsi)apers, and 
oi)en at convenient hours; and evening classes under the direction of 
competent teachers, whereat any member desiring the same might obtain 
either elementary or technical instruction. 

This system of instruction was considered as a continuation, and an 
enlargement for practical adaptation, of the system of instruction pur 
sued in the common schools of the country, and especially in those 
branches which have a direct bearing ui)on the occupations of the me- 
chanic, the artisan, the tradesman, the farmer, and the housewife; and 
it is for this reason that the name "mechanics' institute" was adopted. 

The original object obtains to the present da.y, though the system of 
instruction li?s from time to time been enlarged and improved, in accord- 
ance with the progress of the institutes and the demands of the public, 
and tlie membership at present numbers representatives of various pro- 
fessions and callings. 

II. THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION. 

The present system of instruction consists of: 

(1) A library comprising works specially adapted to mechanics, manu- 
facturers, artisans, tradesmen, farmers, and housewives, as also works on 
science, fine arts and decorative art, biograx)hy, history and travels, po- 
etry and drama, dictionaries, encyclopsedias, and standard novels. The 
books are properly classifi.ed, numbered, and catalogued, easy of access, 
and readily found whenever required by members. 

(2) A reading room supplied with magazines, periodicals, reviews, and 
newspapers. 

(3) Evening classes held in suitable rooms, supplied with the requi- 
site accommodation and apparatus, and under the superintendence of 
competent teachers, where elementary and technical instruction are 
given. The elementary instruction comprises: {a) Writing (including 
shorthand and telegrai)hy), book-keeping, English grammar, arithmetic, 
and mensuration; (6) drawing, and the elements of physics and chem- 

451 



214 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

istry. The technical instruction comprises : Primary grade, B — {a) free- 
hand drawing from flat examples; (&) practical geometry; (c) linear 
perspective; (d) model drawing ; (e) drawing from memory. Second, or 
high grade, iV — (a) shading from flat examples ; (&) outline drawing from 
the round (cast or nature); (c) shading from the round; {d) drawing 
from flowers and objects of natural history ; (e) advanced perspective ; 
(/) descriptive geometry and topographical drawing; (g) drawing from 
dictation; (/i) machine drawing; (*) building construction; (j) industrial 
design. 

(4) Public lectures, either general-subject lectures or scientific lectures, 
the former upon any subject which is considered by the Board of Directors 
to be instructive and useful, and at the same time interesting; the latter 
upon a special subject of popular science, and illustrated by objects and 
apparatus. 

(5) As auxiliaries to that system there have been added amusements, 
diversions, and recreations ; these comprise concerts, public readings, 
recitations, picnics, excursions, and recreation rooms supplied with bill- 
iard tables and tables for chess, checJiers, and other innocent games. 
These auxiliaries have been found to be of considerable benefit to all 
partakers thereof, while at the same time they have in many instances 
argely aided in improving the ipnances of the institutes. 

III. THE FUNDS OF THE INSTITUTES. 

The funds for the maintenance of the institutes are supplied, (1) by the 
annual subscriptions of members, which according to the by-laws of the 
respective institutes varies from one dollar to three dollars ; (2) by the 
annual legislative grant from the treasury of the Province, paid over 
under certain conditions (more fully explained under V) ; the.maximum 
for any one institute is at present four hundred dollars ; (3) by an occa- 
sional or a regular annual grant from the funds of the municipality in 
which the institute is established ; (4) by the proceeds derived from 
lectures, concerts, or other entertainments ; and (5) by donations. 

IV. THE ASSOCIATION OF MECHANICS' INSTITUTES. 

In order to have a bond of nnion for the numerous institutes in the 
Province and a representative head, "The Association of Mechanics' 
Institutes of Ontario" was formed by authority of a legislative enact- 
ment. This Association is a body corporate, composed of all such insti- 
tutes as elect to join the same; its oflScers are, a President, a Vice-Presi- 
dent, three Directors, and a Secretary-Treasurer. Its object is to promote 
in a more systematic manner the real purpose of mechanics' institutes, 
and to devise means for carrying the same into execution. Bach asso- 
ciate institute is authorized to send two delegates to the annual meet- 
ing of the Association. 

The funds of the Association formerly consisted of an annual contri- 
bution by each associate institute of five per cent, of the amount of 
its legislative grant; but that contribution has been abolished, and. at 
present the Association receives an annual legislative grant which is 
not to be less than twelve hundred dollars, 

The surplus fund of the Association, after deducting the necessary 
working expenses, has been from time to time applied for different 
purposes, and as considered by the delegates assembled at the annual 
meetings best calculated to promote the objects of the institutes. These 
purposes comprise prizes for essays on mechanics' institutes, prizes for 
45S 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATORS PAPERS. 215 

competition at evening classes, books for presentation to institutes, and 
payments toward the eha*rges of lecturers who deliver authorized lect- 
ures under the auspices of institutes. 

The officers of the Association have from time to time laid before the 
Government of the Province the wishes and desires of the public in 
respect to extended privileges and further aid through legislative en- 
actment, as the same have been expressed by the delegates at the an- 
nual meetings; and it is most gratifying to record that in the majority 
of cases those representations have been favorably received and enact- 
ments passed in conformity therewith. 

Y. LEGISLATIVE AID. 

Although the Legislature of the old Province of Canada as early as 
1847 did grant out of the provincial treasury assistance to several 
mechanics' institutes then in existence, and repeated such grant during 
some of the following years, it was not until 1868 that mechanics' insti- 
tutes were acknowledged by statute as annually entitled to legislative 
aid. 

Immediately after the confederation of all the Provinces into one 
Dominion and during the first session of the first Parliament of the 
Province of Ontario, an Act was passed which provided that "Any 
mechanic's institute incorporated in due form, having evening classes 
organized for the imparting of practical instruction to its pupils ; or 
having established a library of books on mechanics, engineering, or 
chemical or other manufactures, shall be entitled to receive from the 
unappropriated moneys in the hands of the Treasurer of the Province, 
for the purpose of aiding in such class instruction, or technical library, 
or both, a sum not to exceed two hundred dollars in any one year, Pro- 
vided the sum so paid shall not be greater than the sum locally con- 
tributed or appropriated by such institute for such specific object or 
objects." 

During the second session of the same Parliament, in 1869, the above- 
cited Act was amended by substituting the words " manufactures, agri- 
culture and horticulture, science, the fine and decorative arts, history 
and travels," for the words " engineering, or chemical or other manu- 
factures." 

A most important improvement was granted during the fourth sfession 
of the first Parliament, in 1871, upon the petition of the Association, by 
an enactment which increases the legislative grant from two hundred 
dollars, as above recited, to four hundred dollars; and which moreover 
provides that a sum equal to one-half of the amount to be so paid by 
the Government is locally contributed or appropriated, or has been 
expended by such institute during the current year for such specific 
object or objects. 

The demand for a larger variety of reading matter, however, increased, 
and upon representation by the officers of the Association of that de- 
maud to the Government, an amendment to the last cited Act was 
made during the second session of the second Parliamentj in 1873, allow- 
ing institutes to expend not exceeding one-fourth of the legislative grant 
and its equivalent from local contribution for the purpose of a reading 
room, and adding to the list of authorized subjects of library books, works 
on philosophy, poetry, and biography; in fact, it was permitted to pur- 
chase books upon any subject, except works of fiction and licentious 
works. But the reading public demanded works of fiction, and at a 
special meeting of the delegates held in 1879 it was decided by a large 

453 



216 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

majority to apply for permission to purchase _works of fiction witli the 
money received as the legislative grant. 

The Legislature in 1880 granted certain powers to the Educational 
Department, including the power to make regulations for instruction to 
be given in evening classes, and for the purchase of books other than 
those expressly authorized by the Act. Accordingly the officers of the 
Association waited upon the Honorable the Minister of Education, and 
siicceeded in obtaining his permission to expend not exceeding twenty 
per cent, of the legislative grant in the purchase of standard works of 
fiction anproved of by the Department. xVnother encouragement given 
by the Minister of Education for the promotion of evening classes of 
technical instruction is, that each institute which expends at least $50 
(exclusive of fees) in addition to the legislative grant of $100 for evening 
classes, shall be paid an additional sum of $1 for every student over 
fifteen years of age who attends at least two-thirds of the required time, 
and obtains one certificate; and $2 for every student who receives two 
certificates ; or $4 for every student who obtains all the certificates in 
drawing. And as a further inducement to establish evening classes the 
Department will forego the local contribution for this purpose, and the 
directors will not be called upon to raise any definite sum, but may use 
the government grant of $100 and the pupils' fees exclusively, to meet 
the expenses of the drawing classes, on the following conditions: l,That 
they engage a properly qualified teacher; 2, that there be at least twelve 
pupils over fifteen years of age ; 3, that the prescribed course of study 
be followed; 4, that pupils submit to examination at end of session. 

The benefit and privileges derived from those certificates are: Certifi- 
cates entitling the holder to teach industrial drawing in public schools 
will be granted to successful candidates in grade B ; and certificates 
entitling the holder to teach in high schools, county model schools, 
mechanics' institutes, and industrial art schools, will be given to suc- 
cessful candidates in grade A. (See grade B and grade A, explained 
under II.) As a further encouragement to institutes the Minister of 
Education has permitted to be paid out of the legislative grant the ex- 
penses for rent, light, and fuel, and also the expenses connected with 
authorized i>ublic lectures, and for advertising, hall rent, and other inci- 
dentals, provided such amount shall, in no case, exceed $15 for a scien- 
tific lecture and $10 for a general-subject lecture. 

Of ^he representations made to the Government by the officers of 
the Association at the request of the delegates, expressed at the an- 
nual meetings, with a view to the granting of further privileges, which 
have not been favorably considered by the Government, may be men- 
tioned : An application for an increase of fifty dollars of the legisla- 
tive grant to any institute for every fifty pupils over two hundred in 
attendance during the prescribed time at evening class instruction ; 
and an application for permission to institutes to apply a certain por- 
tion of the legislative grant for the purpose of assisting in the erection 
of institute buildings. 

It may also be mentioned that the Dei)artmeiit of Education has repeat- 
edly by circular informed institutes that no charges for salaries will be 
allowed to be paid out of the legislative grant. 

VI. THE FREE LIBRARIES. 

The Legislature of the Province in 1882 passed an Act authorizing the 
establishment of "free libraries" in any city, town, or incorporated 
village in the Province. Uppu petition of a certain number of elec- 

454 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDXJCAToRS — PAPERS. 217 

tors (in cities 100, in towns 60, and in villages 30) presented to tbe 
Council, praying for the establishment of a free library under that Act, 
such Council may pass a by-law giving effect to the petition, with the 
assent of the electors qualified to vote at municipal elections given be- 
fore the final passing of the by-law. 

In case of the establishment of a free library under that Act, the 
government, the general management, regulation, and control of the 
library, and of the news-room and museum (if any), are vested in a Board 
of Management, whose duties and powers are defined by that Act. And 
for the purpose of providing for the expenses necessary for carrying 
that Act into effect, the council of the municipality is required to pro- 
vide the same by assessment in manner directed by that Act. And it 
is also provided thereby that any mechanics' institute in the municipal- 
ity may transfer to' the corporation of the municipality for the purpose 
of that Act, all or any property, real or personal, of the institute. 

In consequence of that Free Library Act of 1882, a number of free 
libraries have been, established in cities and towns in Ontario, where at 
the time large mechanics' institute libraries were in existence, and the 
mechanics' institutes, by the transfer of their property to the corpora- 
tion of the municipality of the same place, ceased to exist. 

VII. THE aEADUAL PROGRESS OF THE INSTITUTES. 

The first mechanics' institute was established in Toronto in 1830, and 
in subsequent years, up to 1868, the number of institutes had increased 
to 13. The statute of 1868, by which mechanics' institutes were ac- 
knowledged as entitled to aid from the provincial treasury, and by which 
statute the Association of Mechanics' Institutes of Ontario became es- 
tablished, has materially aided the progress and beneficial influence of 
mechanics' institutes. 

In the year 1869, 13 institutes received by legislative aid $1,610. In 
the year 1874 there were reported to the Association 50 institutes; of 
the report made by each the following is the aggregate: Legislative aid, 
$15,143. Expenditure for books, $15,439.99 ; for periodicals, $3,945.40 ; 
for. evening classes, $4,170.29. l^et income, $42,476.31. Number of 
members, 8,262 ; number of volumes in libraries, 67,210 ; number of vol- 
umes issued during the year, 123,000; evening classes held in 23 insti- 
tutes with 723 pupils ; number of lectures, 62 ; number of concerts and 
entertainments, 109. 

In the year 1883 there were 139 institutes in the Province ; of these, 
107 reported to the Association for the fiscal year ending May 1, 1884, of 
which reports the following is the aggregate: Legislative aid, $22,754.98. 
Municipal aid, $3,723.79.^ Expenditure for books, $17,609.32; for pe- 
riodicals, $4,832.13; for evening classes, $3,539.97; number of members, 
12.878; number of volumes in libraries, 143,108; number of volumes is- 
sued during the year, 239,170; and evening classes held in 30 institutes. 

The other 32 institutes, with a membership of 2,737, and 27,326 vol- 
umes in their libraries, had not reported to the Association up to the 
time of the annual meeting in September, 1884. 

In the Report for 1874 are included those large mechanics' institutes 
in cities and towns with an aggregate of membership of 2,936 and an 
aggregate of volumes in libraries of 19,252, and which institutes are not 
included in the Eeport for 1883, they having transferred their property 
to the several corporations of the municipalities for " free library" i^nr- 
poses, and ceasing to be mechanics' institutes in name, although their 

455 



218 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

large libraries and other property continue to benefit the public by a 
more extensive use of the same through the iree library system. 

It may, therefore, be estimated that during the last nine years me- 
chanics' institutes have increased in number at the rate of about 180 per 
cent., as to membership at the rate of about 125 per cent., and as to 
volumes in libraries at the rate of about 200 per cent. 

The benefi.cial influence which mechanics' institutes have had, and 
continue to have, by affording cheap and practical evening class instruc- 
tion, ample and varied reading matter through books and periodicals, 
and useful and interesting lectures and entertainments, cannot be esti- 
mated by per cent, nor tested by figures; but there are numerous 
instances known where young men, and even men advanced in years, 
suffering from the consequences of a neglected or defective education, 
and thereby rendered unable to pursue with advantage to themselves 
their daily vocations as mechanics or tra,desmen, attended mechanics' 
institute evening classes, commencing in the elementary branches, and 
in course of time attended classes in technical instruction; and, aided 
by self-culture through reading useful books, they became thereby 
experts in their callings, to the great benefit of themselves and their 
families. 

Far greater, however, is the number of those young men and young 
women who, by frequenting the reading room and making extensive use 
of the library, have cultivated a taste for reading good literature; they 
have gradually yet considerably improved their language, their manners 
and habits, their morals, and their knowledge, and have become useful 
members of society. Many a young man has found in one single book 
a treasure which has been the cause of his future prosperity; and many 
a yoaug woman has found in the books of a mechanics' institute library 
the real secret which has enabled her to make the home of her husband 
happy and herself beloved. 

But it is not alone the young men and young women who have received 
and who continue to receive those incalculable benefits from the library 
and the reading room of a mechanics' institute; these benefits extend to 
all members, to men and women of every age, and also to their children. 

Parents who employ their leisure hours with good reading not only 
improve themselves and enrich their own minds, but they are good in- 
structors to their children, and by their example cultivate in the minds 
of their offspring a taste for good reading, and thereby lay the founda- 
tion for the future intellectual development and moral culture of such 
children. 

The first mechanics' institutes in England were called into life by 
philanthropists, by men imbued with a desire to do good to those adults 
whose education had been sadly neglected, who either had not received 
any elementary education or a very defective one, and who were by 
reason of such defect unable to follow with advantage to themselves 
their occupations as mechanics or tradesmen. These philanthropists 
conceived the noble idea of establishing schools of instruction for adults, 
in the elementary branches as well as in technical instruction, and at 
the same time libraries containing such books as would be of particular 
use to such persons. 

Actuated by similar motives, and upon a similar plan, the first me- 
chanics' institutes in this Province were established. In the course of 
years, however, other persons who were not mechanics or tradesmen 
became members of the institutes, so that eventually every profession, 
trade, and calling, and both sexes had representa,tives among the mem- 
bers of mechanics' institutes. This increase of membership necessa- 
456 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 219 

rily produced demands for a more varied assortment of reading' matter, 
and in consequence thereof books upon numerous other subjects not 
before deemed necessary had to be added to the libraries. 

Another most important factor, which is the. main reason why the 
demand for evening class instruction, especially elementary instruction, 
did not increase at the same ratio as the membership, is our excellent 
common-school system, which affords free, good, and liberal tuition to 
all children in the Province ; it was established in 1841 and fully or- 
ganized in 1850 ; it is superior to that of many older countries and not 
inferior to any other. 

It is to our common schools (now styled public schools) we are in- 
debted that among the young men and the young women of the present 
day, there are very few who have not received elementary instruction ; 
The large majority of them now enter upon their duties of life with a 
fair, and many with a superior education. 

Technical instruction no doubt is desirable, and is a valuable acquisi- 
tion for a large number of young men and young women, the better to 
qualify them for the position they desire to fill in the community; a 
systematic plan for that class of instruction, however, has only recently 
been devised and set into operation by the Department of Public In- 
struction, with a view that technical instruction, which heretofore has 
only been given in cities and large towns, may eventually be introduced 
and maintained in the rural sections of the country. 

The want of competent teachers to give technical instruction in its 
various branches is chiefly the reason that the same has not been more 
generally introduced into evening classes ; for although the Province 
is supplied with an abundance of wellqualitied teachers for the public 
schools, men who are competent to give technical instruction have been 
heretofore very rare, and even at the present time are not numerous. 

The plan recently introduced by the Department of Public Instruc- 
tion is designed to remedy this want. The art school at the normal 
school in Toronto educates its students for the profession of teachers in 
technical instruction, and provision is made for the establishment of 
" branch art schools" in connection with mechanics' institutes ; a num- 
ber of those students are now in possession of certificates of qualifica- 
tion to teach, and wherever they have been employed the instruction 
thus imparted is producing beneficial results. 

It may, therefore, be justly expected that by further improvements in 
the system by the art school, the ultimate purpose of mechanics' insti- 
tutes maybe attained in this Province at a time not far distant, namely, 
the technological education of the industrial classes, both male and female, 
the mechanic, the artisan, the tradesman, the farmer, and the housewife. 

So may it come to pass! 

457 



SECTION C— SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 



UNIVERSITIES, PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS, HIGHER COL- 
LEGIATE AND HIGHER TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 



Honorary Chairman. 

H. E. YUSHtr KUKI RIUICHI, Japanese Minister, Washington, D. G. 

Honorary Secretary. 

D. C. OILMAN, LL. D., President Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore. 

Chairman. 

President NOAH PORTER, of Yale College. 

Vice-Chairman. 

Hon. GUSTAVUS J. ORR, LL. D., State Superintendent of Publie 
Instruction, Georgia. 

Secretary. 

President W. P. JOHNSTON, of Tulane Ifniversity. 

Assistant Secretary. 

President GEO. W. ATHERTON, of Pennsylvania State College. 

459 



THE NOEMAL SCHOOLS AND THEIB WOEK IN ONTAEIO. 
By Joseph H. Smith/ 

Public School Inspector, County of Wentworih. 



The people of Ontario feel an honest pride in their educational system, 
reaching as it does from the children attending the primary schools and 
wrestling for the first time with the mysteries of the alphabet, to the 
university graduates who seek not only to master the wealth of learn- 
ing handed down from former generations, but to familiarize themselves 
with the wonderful achievements of modern science. Nor are we proud 
of it simply because it offers to every one a comprehensive course of 
study, and affords excellent facilities for mental culture. We rejoice 
to know that its influence extends to every hamlet, and the children of 
the pioneers in the newest and most remote settlements, as well as of 
the people who live in the midst of a more wealthy, refined, and cult- 
ured society, alike enjoy its benefits, and feel its power to elevate and 
ennoble our common humanity. Our object, however, is not to treat of 
this system as a whole, but to trace the rise and progress of one de- 
partment of it, that has done more than any other to awaken an inter- 
est in popular education and diffuse among the people more correct 
ideas concerning the objects aimed at in educating the masses. That 
department, then, to which we purpose devoting special attention, is 
our system of normal schools. 

In order to appreciate the work done, and rightly value their impor 
tance as a part of our system of education, it will be necessary to trace 
the various stages of growth and development through which they have 
passed, to examine the work they are now doing, and to note the influ- 
ence they exert in the education of our children. Following up this 
outline, we shall proceed briefly to review the history of these institu- 
tions from their inception to the present time. 

As early as 1836, when this Province was but a sparsely populated 
colony, the question of providing for the proper training of teachers 
engaged the attention of those in charge of our educational affairs. No 
systematic effort was put forth, however, until 1846, when the lamented 
Dr. Eyerson, then Chief Superintendent of Education, prepared a "Ee- 
port on a System of Elementary Instruction for Upper Canada," and 
submitted it to the Legislature. The Government of the day, acting 
upon the suggestions contained in that report, appropriated a sum of 
money for the establishment of a normal school for the training of 
teachers. This school was opened in 1847, under the headmastership 
of the late T. J. Eobertson, M. A., formerly an inspector of schools in 
Ireland. In 1850 the Legislature voted the sum of 160,000 for the pur- 
chase of a suitable site and the erection of proper buildings. This sum 
proving insufacient, an additional grant of $40,000 was made in 1852, 
making a total of $100,000. 

461 



224 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

The first few sessions of the uormal schoul were held in Government 
House, but owing- to the destruction by fire of the Parliament build- 
ings in Montreal, i]i 1849, the seat of Government was transferred to 
Toronto. This rendered a removal necessary. Temperance Hall was 
secured as a temporary home, but owing to the very inadequate accom- 
modation it provided, the masters were hamperecl in their work, and 
permanent buildings were rendered a necessity. With a zeal and per- 
severance that cannot be too highly commended the Chief Superin- 
tendent of Education and the normal-school masters persisted in main- 
taining the efficiency of this school, in spite of the adverse circum- 
stances by which they were surrounded. In 3852 the handsome and 
commodious buildings now occupied by the Education Department 
were completed, and the normal school was accordingly removed to 
that place. From this time forward its usefulness was an acknowledged 
fact, and its influence was felt even in the most remote districts of our 
Province. In pursuance of the plan of having an educational museum 
aud a school of art and design in connection with the normal school, it 
became necessary to provide accommodation specially adapted for nor- 
mal school purposes. A suitable building was erected in the rear of 
the Departmental buildings, and the normal school was transferred 
thereto in 1858, where it has since remained. 

Prior to the opening of the normal school, the Chief Superintendent 
of Education, assisted by the Council of Public Instruction, prepared 
a programme of studies for the guidance of the masters and students. 
At the close of each session the head master certified to the attendance 
and conduct of each student, but these certificates possessed no legal 
value. Before these normal school students could become legally qual- 
ified teachers, it was necessary for them to pass an examination before 
one of the local county boards of examiners. In 1853 certificates of the 
first and second classes were granted, for the first time, by the Chief 
Superintendent upon the recommendation of the normal-school masters. 
In 1855, each of these classes of certificates was further subdivided into 
three grades. A, B, and C, A being the highest. These certificates 
were valid during the good behavior of the holder, and in every munici- 
pality in the Province. The rapid increase in the number of elementary 
schools and the growing demand for a better class of teachers led to 
the revision and enlargement of the programme of studies. This was 
done in 1858, and is substantially the same as the one adopted by the 
Central Committee of Examiners in 1871, when the privilege of obtaining 
a provincial certificate was extended to all teachers, whether they had 
attended the normal school or not. After one or two of these uniform 
examinations had been held, it was found that many of the teachers 
throughout the Province were considerably below the standard. This 
led to a demand for more normal school accommodation. In response 
to this demand, a normal school was built in the city of Ottawa, and 
opened for the reception of students in 1875. These two schools were 
soon filled with students, and it became necessary to devise some fur- 
ther means whereby candidates for third class certificates should re- 
ceive some preliminary training in methods of teaching, and school or- 
ganization and discipline. This led to the establishment of our system 
of county model schools, one of which is to be found in every county 
in the Province. 

In connection with, and as appendages to, each of these normal schools 
are two model schools, one for boys and the other for girls. In each of 
these schools four teachers are employed, who are under the direct super- 
vision of the head masters of the uormal schools. The design of these 
46^ 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 225 

schools is, (1) to afford the student-teachers practice in the art of teach- 
ing; 1^2) to exemplify the best methods of organizing a school and classi- 
fying- the pupils; (3) to illustrate the most approved methods of instruc- 
tion ; and (4) to show how proper order and discipline are to be main- 
tained. 

We have thus far briefly skietched, imperfectly it may be, the rise and 
progress of these institutions, and the growth and development of a 
public sentiment that now sustains them and adds to their influence. 
Our work will not be complete nor their value properly appreciated 
until we have examined somewhat minutely the work they are now 
doing. Before taking up this part of our subject, it may be as well to 
glance briefly at the design and functions of these schools. They were 
originally established as professional schools, and designed to train 
public-school teachers for the more efficient discharge of their duties, by 
giving them, firstly, instruction in the science of education, and, sec- 
ondly, practice in the art of teaching. Until quite recently it was 
found necessary to combine instruction in all the elementary branches 
with professional training. This arose from the fact that the majority — 
fully nine-tenths, it is said — of applicants for admission to the normal 
school were so deficient in scholastic acquirements as to need special 
instruction. Since 1871, owing to the indefatigable exertions of the 
high school inspectors, a very great impulse has been given to the cause 
of secondary education, and now all candidates for public-school teachers' 
certificates receive their literary training in the high schools and colle- 
giate institutes. The normal-school masters, who are thus relieved from 
teaching the non- professional subjects, are left free to devote all their 
energies to their legitimate work, the professional training of teachers, 
and we have abundant reasons for believing that this work is done in 
a most satisfactory manner. 

There are two sessions of these normal schools in each year, the first 
opening on the third Tuesday in January and closing on the third Fri- 
day in June, the second opening on the third Tuesday in August and 
closing not later than the twenty-second of December. The hoars of 
daily work are from 9 A. M. to 12 m., and from 1.30 p. M. to 4 p. M. These 
schools are opened and closed by reading a portion of Scripture, accom- 
panied with a suitable prayer. The head master is held responsible for 
the order, discipline, and general progress of the students in all the 
classes, and is required to arrange the division of work among the mas- 
ters, subject, however, to the approval of the Minister of Education. He 
is also required to visit, from time to time, the classes under the different 
masters; to satisfy himself as to their progress; to hold, or cause to be 
held, such oral or written examinations during the course of the session 
as may be necessary to test the work done by the students; and to keep 
a record of the results of such examinations. The assistant masters are 
directly responsible to the head master, and are required to report 
monthly to him the standing and progress of each student in the sub- 
jects of their departments. 

Candidates for admission are required to comply with the following 
conditions, viz: To be native born or naturalized subjects of Her Maj- 
esty ; to have passed the prescribed examination for second-class non- 
professional certificates ; to hold a third-class professional certificate or 
its equivalent; to have taught successfully for at least one year, as cer- 
tified by the public-school inspector in whose inspectorate the teaching 
was done; to give satisfactory evidence of good moral character at the 
time of making application; and, if females, to be not less than eighteen 
years of age, and, if males, nineteen. The necessary blank forms are 
7950 COT, pt. 2 15 463 



226 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AX NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

furnished by the Education Department, which, when properly filled 
out, are examined by an officer appointed for that purpose, and if found 
satisfactory, certificates of admission are issued. At the opening- of 
each session these certificates are presented to the head master by the 
candidates, their names are registered, and they are henceforth ame- 
nable to the rules in force in these schools. These rules are designed to 
impress upon the minds of the students the special purpose for which 
the normal schools were established, viz, to fit them for the proper dis- 
charge of their duties as public-school teachers, so that, by example 
and professional ability, they may make their influence for good felt in 
their respective schools and the community at large. The following 
brief summary will show the scope of these rules : Students are required 
to be regular and punctual in their attendance at the several classes; 
to give due attention and respect to the masters; to act with becoming 
courtesy towards each other; to lodge and board at such houses only as 
are approved by the head master; and not to be absent from such board- 
ing houses later than 9.30 p. m. without special permission. Ladies and 
gentlemen are not allowed to board at the same houses, and communi- 
cations of any and every kind between the sexes are strictly prohibited. 
Classes for religious instruction are to be regarded as regular classes 
in the school. 

In every scholastic institution a carefully prepared course of study is 
an essential requisite. This is particularly the case with those designed 
for the professional training of teachers, since in such institutions every 
lesson taught should be a practical illustration of the best methods 
of instruction, as well as a means of imparting valuable information. 
From what has already been said, it will be observed that none but 
advanced students are admitted into the normal schools. These having 
had, in addition to their literary culture, some preliminary training in 
the science of education and the art of teaching, at our county model 
schools, are prepared to take up a more comprehensive course of study. 
Such a course of study has been prepared, and is now used in our nor- 
mal schools. Minute details of the subjects to be taught, together with 
specific instructions as to the number of lectures required in each sub- 
ject, or division of a subject, are given, of which the following is a brief 
synopsis : 

I. Education. — In this subject a course of eighty lectures is given, em- 
bracing the history of education, the science of education, the prin- 
ciples and practice of teaching, school organization, and school man- 
agement. 

II. English Language and Literature. — The study of these subjects con- 
sists in the critical reading of one of the plays of Shakespeare or the 
work of some other standard author, together with a course of twenty 
lectures upon words and their uses, the proper construction of sentences, 
the use of correct language, and the beauties and defects of style as 
found in the writings of standard authors. 

III. Hygiene. — In this subject a course of twenty lectures is given on 
the preservation of health, the air we breathe, the food we eat, the cloth- 
ing we wear, the fluids we drink, and the physical and mental exercise 
necessary for the highest development of man. 

lY. Chemistry.— In this subject a course of thirty lectures on elemen- 
tary chemistry is given, illustrated by a series of experiments made 
in the simplest manner possible. The objects aimed at are, (1) to make 
the experiments understood, (2) to have them explained by the students, 
(3) to accustom the students to render an account to themselves of natural 
phenomena, and (4) to en able the future teachers to repeat these experi- 
464 



INTEEHATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 227 

ments with very little cost. In order to accomplish these purposes, 
opportunities are afforded for practical work in the laboratory, under 
the supervision of the science master. 

Y. Botany. — This subject- is made as practical as possible by the ex- 
amination of specimens collected from time to time, and consists of a 
course of twenty lectures, embracing the chemistry and the histology of 
plant life, the structure of flowering plants, and the general classifica- 
tion of plants. 

VI. Zoology. — A general outline of this subject is given in a course of 
twenty lectures. 

VII. Physics. — The course in this subject consists of a series of thirty 
lectures upon heat, light, and electricity. In this, as in chemistry, great 
importance is attached to the explanation of the physical phenomena 
of daily life. 

VIII. Drawing. — This subject is taught by a specialist, who gives a 
course of forty lessons, in which designing, model drawing, freehand, 
perspective, constructive drawing, scientific perspective, and practical 
geometry are taught. 

IX. Music. — This subject is also taught by a specialist, and consists of 
a course of forty lessons, in which the scales and their various trans 
positions are taught, combined with the singing of songs in two, three, 
and four parts. 

X. Calisthenics. — The course in this subject consists of a series of 
calisthenic exercises, under the direct supervision of a competent drill 
master. 

XI. Military drill, — The exercises in this subject are taught similarly 
to those In ealisthenics and by the same person. 

XII. — Methods of instruction. — This course consists of a series of one 
hundred and fifteen lectures, in which the following subjects are reviewed 
with the object of illustrating the best methods of teaching them, viz : 
Language lessons, grammar, composition, spelling, reading, writing, 
arithmetic, algebra, Euclid and mensuration, history, geography, and 
object lessons. 

XIII. Practical teaching. — During the early part of each session the 
students, accompanied by the normal-school masters, are required to 
visit the model school and observe the methods of teaching the differ 
ent subjects, as practically Illustrated by the teachers in the model 
school. They are also required to observe the methods adopted for 
securing attention and interesting the pupils in their work. After sufB 
cient opportunities have been given to the students of witnessing the 
manner in which the different subjects are taught in the model school, 
they are called upon to teach before each other in the normal school, 
under the guidance and supervision of the masters, and to criticise each 
other's teaching in a friendly way. 

XIV. School law. — Under this head is given a knowledge of the el- 
ementary principles of law, and of their application under the statute 
to trustees, teachers, inspectors, etc. 

Finally, they are required to take charge of classes in the model 
school, under the supervision of the teachers, and are expected to teacb 
at least three times in each department of the model school. 

The final examinations, which are held during the last week in each 
session, are conducted by examiners appointed for that purpose by the 
Minister of Education. These examiners are not connected with the 
teaching staff of either of those schools. Questions are prepared on each 
subject in the course of study, and the candidates are required to sub 

465 



228 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIOXS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

mit their answers in writing. In addition to these written examina- 
tions, each candidate is required to teach some specified subject to a 
class in the presence of one of these examiners. The results of these ex- 
aminations and of those held during the session, together with the 
reports of the masters of the normal school and of the teachers in the 
model school, determine the final standing of each student. On the 
recommendation of the masters of the normal school, students holding ■ 
second class, grade B, may be awarded grade A, and those holding 
grade A may be " honorably mentioned." The student who obtains 
the highest standing, as determined at the close of each session, shall 
be awarded the Prince of Wales gold medal. 

There yet remains another point to which reference should be made, 
and that is, the influence these schools have exerted in advancing the 
cause of popular education. This reference must of necessity be bviet 
Pacts and figures show a very marked increase in the number of chil- 
<lren attending our public schools, but this increase alone does not 
give an accurate idea of what has been done, nor does it reveal to us 
the sources from whence this growth and development have arisen. 
These sources lie deeper, and are to be found in the lives and work of 
those trained teachers who from time to time have graduated from our 
normal schools, and have gone forth laboring diligently in their chosen 
avocation. In the profession, we find that the great majority of our 
public school inspectors and masters of our county model schools, as 
well as many of our leading high-school masters, are graduates of these 
institutions. These, laboring as they are in every part of the Province 
and from motives higher than the mere acquisition of wealth or fame, 
are introducing better methods of teaching and inspiring those with 
whom they come in contact with a real love for learning. Outside of 
the profession, again, are those who have attended these normal schools, 
but are now in many cases prominent members of other professions or 
leading business men. These, in their sphere, contribute largely toward 
building up a i^ublic sentiment in favor of our system. The united in- 
fluence of these two classes of graduates, now working harmoniously 
together, leads us to look hopefully at the future. "What that future 
may be none can tell, but we fondly hope that our brightest dreams may 
be more than realized. Our task is now done, and we feel justified in 
repeating what we said in a former part of this paper, that these in- 
stitutions have done more than any others to awaken an interest in 
popular education, and difl:use among the people more correct ideas 
concerning the objects aimed at in the education of the masses. 

The writer cannot permit the present opportunity to pass without 
paying a tribute to the memory of two men who were mainly instru- 
mental in laying the foundation of our present system of elementary 
instruction, and who devoted their time and talents to the cause of edu- 
cation. The one, by a careful study of the various rational systems of 
education in the Old and New Worlds, selected their most desirable 
features, combined these into one harmonious whole, and bequeathed to 
us a system that stands almost unrivaled for its many excellencies; 
The other, by his untiring devotion to the profession of teaching, his 
knowledge of the 'art of teaching, and his zeal in the cause of educa- 
tion, did a grand and noble work in training teachers for the proper 
discharge of their duties, and in sending them forth to take charge of 
our leading public schools. These men are the Eev. Dr. Ryerson, for 
many years Chief Superintendent of Education, and T. J. Robertson, 
M. A., the first head master of the Toronto Normal School. To them 

466 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS, 229 

we may justly apply the following tribute, paid to two of America's 
most illustrious statesmen by one of her most eloquent orators: "Al- 
though no sculptured marble should rise to their memory, nor engraved 
stone bear record to their deeds, yet will their remembrance be as last- 
ing as the land they honored. Marble columns may indeed moulder 
into dust, time may erase all impress from the crumbling stone, but 
their fame remains. 'Their bodies are buried in peace, *but their name 
li veth forevermore.' " 

467 



BEEEA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY. 
By Eev. E. H. Fairchild, D. D., Fresident. 



All who know of Berea College are aware that co-educatiou of the 
sexes and the races prevails here in theory and practice. 

The founders of the school were anti-slavery men, and, of course, 
were regarded with suspicion from the beginning. Yet, in the midst of 
slavery and in a sparsely-settled district, it attained a popularity which 
brought to it a hundred students, many of them sons and daughters of 
slave-holders. 

The raid of John Brown in Virginia excited the suspicions and fears 
of the people to such an extent that there was no allaying them. A 
large county convention appointed a committee of sixty-five men, among 
whom were many wealthy and honorable citizens, to remove the school 
from the State. This they accomplished with as much dignity and de- 
corum as is consistent with such an enterprise. 

At the close of the war the school was revived. It had got well under 
way and gave fair promise of success, when a new class of citizens 
began to realize the need of preparation for their new life. 

Two colored youths asked admission to the school. A consultation 
was held; the whole school and community were agitated; and when 
the youths were admitted the next morning, half the students left. This 
was not unexpected ; it was even a better result than was anticipated. 

At this point it seems appropriate to give the reasons for an act so 
rash and ill-considered as, to mauy, this seemed to be. 

The first and most obvious reason was that the colored people needed 
education more than the white. They had now their own business to 
manage, their own bills to settle, their own bargains to make, and could 
neither read, write, nor reckon; and they had not a school or a teacher 
in the whole State of Kentucky. If in such an emergency their best 
friends should reject them, what hope remained? If the prospect had 
been that every white student would leave and a colored school would 
fill the vacancy, the path of duty was plain. 

In three years the school wag more tban twice as large as ever before. 
Those that left had returned, and the colored outnumbered the white. 
From that time to the present it has been the largest school in the State 
of its grade, and always more than one-third, sometimes one-half, have 
been white. 

We are often told that if we would separate the races, and instruct 
them in separate rooms and at different hours, we could have all the 
money we need, and as many students as we could accommodate. 

This leads to the second reason for pursuing our present course, even 
at the sacrifice of so great promises. The negroes are citizens, and are 
to remain so; and if they are to be a useful, happy, contented, peaceful 
class of citizens, they must enjoy all the rights, privileges and respon- 
sibilities enjoyed by other men. But their drill of two centuries in 
468 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 231 

servitude and' for servitude, and an equal drill of the white race iu 
masterhood, have but poorly adapted them for co-operation in the various 
functions of government. They are ill at ease sitting upon the same 
jury, sharing in the county offices, acting as directors of the same bank, 
trustees of the same asylums, members of the same school board and 
town council, pleading at the same bar, sharing in the same recep- 
tions, celebrations, and festivals, and a hundred other interests directly 
or indirectly connected with government. This antipathy, whether 
natural or acquired, must gradually pass away, or another trouble will 
be brewing, which may cost a future generation as much blood and 
treasure as slavery itself. If it is right arid wise to perpetuate and in- 
tensify this antipathy, the most legitimate and effective way to do it is 
to teach our children and youth, in all our grades of , schools, from five 
years of age to twenty-five, that it is utterly unsuitable and abominable 
to unite white and colored in the same school. 

With the hope of aiding to mitigate and remove this general repug- 
nance between the races, we bring them together in the same school. 
They room in the same buildings, board at the same tables, recite in the 
same classes, sit promiscuously in all assemblies, work at the same 
wood piles or in the same dining-hall, play on the same grounds at the 
same games. JSTo distinction whatever is made on account of color. And 
we have found, or think we have, that the natural, constitutional antip- 
athy of race, which, as we are told, will make it necessary to remove our 
colored population to Africa or to some other out-of the-way place, is 
not natural at all, but unnatural, unconstitutional, and senseless. Little 
children know nothing of it till it is drilled into them. They love a 
black playmate as well as a black kitten, or a black mammy as well as 
a white mamma. All southern people know this. It requires constant 
vigilance and effort to keep the white and colored children apart. 

Twenty-five years of mixed schools would hardly leave a vestige of 
this " constitutional, ineradicable antipathy." It is a relic of slavery, 
and, the occasion of it having disappeared, it must be diligently nursed 
or it will pass away. Here lies the objection to mixed schools, not that 
the antipathy will injure the schools, but that the schools will annihilate 
the antipathy and lead to social equality, a thing more hated and feared 
than ignorance or vice. 

Another reason why we favor mixed schools is that in no other way 
can the educational wants of the people be met. Where the colored 
people are few, and but one, two, three, or even ten schools are provided 
for them in a county, while they are scattered all over the county, their 
wants are not met- Few children will attend a public school more than 
three miles from their home. To organize a county into a single school- 
district and direct the colored children from all parts of the county to 
one place for their education, will not give them a very high apprecia- 
tion of their privileges as citizens, nor very soon educate them for their 
civil responsibilities. There are not less than fifty counties in this State 
where no adequate provision is made for the education of colored chil- 
dren, and no adequate provision can be made for them, unless they are 
admitted to the white schools. What great calamity would befall the 
country if two or three or even a dozen colored children should be ad- 
mitted to each of these white schools, we are too blind to see. If the prej- 
udice that prohibits it is more sensible, more dignified, more Christian, 
than Hindoo caste, we cannot discover it. To our apprehension it seems 
not only cruel and unjust, but silly, senseless, ridiculous. We cannot 
think it is to remain a permanent feature of our civilization. Education, 
culture, Christianity must wear it away. 

469 



232 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Ill a thickly-settled county, where the inhabitants are about equally 
divided between the two races, the difBculty is less serious ; but even 
there the burden of maintaining two sets of schools, when one set would 
accommodate all the pupils, is too great to be borne. The people will 
relieve themselves by extending their districts over too much territory, 
by shortening the school year, or by reducing the salaries, and hence 
the qualifications, of teachers. 

In large cities in which the races are about equal in number, the bur- 
den is hardly felt, except in relation to high schools. They must suffer 
by division. 

Every careful observer must see, and every earnest educator must 
regret, the state of feeling which is the greatest hinderance to education 
where education is so much needed. We do not expect any sudden 
disappearance of prejudices or ideas which are the fruit of ages of mis 
rule. But gradually, as generations pass away, and colored men become 
highly educated, and many of them take a high rank as teachers, preach- 
ers, physicians, lawyers, writers, orators, and statesmen, and many be- 
come men of wealth and of influence in commercial circles, people will 
begin to wonder where the "natural, constitutional antipathy" has gone. 
" That time," I shall be told, " is far away." We live in an age of prog- 
ress. If the changes of the next fifty years shall equal those of the 
last fifty, since that noble philanthropist, whose likeness graces the 
walls of our college parlor, wore a rope necklace in the " cradle of Lib- 
erty," we shall sing — 



Watchman, tell us of the night, 
For the morning seems to dawn. 



470 



THE UNIVERSITY SYSTEM OF ONTAEIO. 
By J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., 

Deputy Minister of Education for Ontario. 



University affairs in Ontario are at present in somewhat of a transi- 
tional state. A scheme of university confederation has been recently 
under discussion, which may issue in the grouping together of most of 
the college-universities now in operation. At present there are the fol- 
lowing universities in the Province, viz : 

1. The University of Toronto, projected in 1798, opened as King's 
College University in June, 1843. 

2. The University of Victoria College, Coburg, founded as Upper 
Canada Academy in 1832, opened in October, 1841. 

3. The University of Queen's College, Kingston, projected in 1839,. 
opened in March, 1843. 

4. The University of Trinity College, Toronto, founded in 1851, opened 
in January, 1852. 

5. The (R. C.) University of Ottawa, founded in 1848, opened in 
1866. 

6. The Western University, London, founded in 1877, opened ia 
1878. 

Preliminary Remarks. 

Before referring to these universities in detail, I shall briefly glance 
at the early history of university education in this Province. 

Lieut.-Gen. J. Graves Simcoe, the first Governor of Upper Canada, 
arrived here in 1792. He was a man of comprehensive views and noble 
impulses in regard to university education. He was educated at Eton 
College and partly at Merton College, Oxford, but entered the army 
before taking his degree. He served with distinction under Wolfe at 
Quebec and during the American revolutionary war. 

In April, 1795, Governor Simcoe addressed a letter to the Protestant 
Episcopal Bishop of Quebec — then having jurisdiction in Upper Canada — 
urging him to seek to promote the establishment of a "Protestant 
Episcopal university " in Upper Canada. The reasons which he gave 
for this appeal were characteristic of the English Churchman and of 
the times, and reveal somewhat of the social and religious state of the 
colony. They showed, too, that he was a statesman as well as a Church- 
man. He said : 

The people of this Province enjoy the forms as well as the privileges of the British 
constitution. They have the means of governing themselves ; and, having nothing to 
ask, must ever remain a part of the British Empire, provided they shall become suffi- 
ciently capable and enlightened to understand their relative situation and to manage 
their own power to the public interest. Liberal education seems to me, therefore, to 
be indispensably necessary ; and the completion of it by the establishment of a uni- 
versity in the capital of the country, * * * would be most useful to inculcate 
just principles, habits, and manners into the rising generation ; to coalesce the differ- 

471 



234 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

entcustomsof the various descrij^tions of settlers * * * into one form. In sliort, 
from distinct parts and ancient prejudices .to new-form, as it, ■were, and establish one 
nation, and thereby strengthen the union with Great Britain and preserve a lasting 
obedience to His Majesty's authority. 

* # * * * » « 

I uatTirally should wish that the clergy requisite for offices in the university, in the 
first instance, should be Englishmen, if possible. * * » i most earnestly hope 
that » * * by giving the means of proper education in this Province, both in its 
rudiments and in its completion, that from ourselves we may raise up a loyal, and, 
in due progress, a learned clergy, which will speedily tend to unite, not only the 
Puritans within the Province, but the clergy of the Episcopal Church, however dis- 
persed * * * and on all sides, to bring within the pale [of the Episcopal Church] 
in Upper Canada a very great body of sectaries, who, in my judgment, as it were, 
offer themselves to its protection and re-union. 

These objects would be materially promoted by a university in Upper Canada, 
which might, in due progress, acquire such a character as to become the place of 
education to many persons beyond the extent of the King's dominions. * « * The 
Episcopal clergy in Great Britain, from pious motives as well as policy, are mate- 
rially interested that the Church should increase in this Province. I will venture to 
prophesy its preservation depends upon a university being erected therein. * * * 
I have not the smallest hesitation in saying that I believe if a Protestant Episcopal 
university should be proposed to be erected (even in the United States) the British 
nation would liberally subscribe to the undertaking. * * * The universities of 
England, I make no doubt, would contribute to the planting of a scion from their 
respectable stock in this distant colony.' 

There are two or three things worth noticing in this vigorous letter of 
the Governor: — 

(1) Among the objects sought to be attained by the establishment of 
a university was the conservation of "the privileges of the British Con- 
stitution"; (2) the fusing of the various nationalities represented in the 
colony; (3) the absorption of "Puritans" and "sectaries" into the Epis- 
'copal Church; (4) the growth and spread of loyalty to the King's au- 
thority. 

Two things also are noticeable: First, the Governor did not ignore, 
or underestimate, the necessity of popular education, or " education in 
the rudiments"; second, he gives no hint of a desire to appropriate the 
public domain to the building up of an "Episcopal university". On the 
other hand, he assumes that, if done at all, it is to be aided by contribu- 
tions from England. I call attention to these two points, from the fact 
that they were quite lost sight of by those who afterwards took up the 
cause of university education in Upper Canada where he had left it. 

1 It is of interest to notice that while the present generation owes so much to the 
foresight of the first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, General Simcoe, in antici- 
pating the wants of elementary, higher, and university education in the Province of 
Upper Canada, which in 1791 was about being established by the Quebec Act, he sets 
forth in his letter to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., President of the Royal Society, dated 
Januarys, 1791, "his hope that he would be able to establish in the then virgin 
Province, among other means of civilization, a university"; and thus proceeds to 
speak of the locality which was to be the center of the new community : " For the 
purpose of commerce, union and power, I propose that the site of the colony should 
be in that great peninsula between the lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, a spot destined 
by nature sooner or later to govern that interior world. I mean to establish a capital 
in the very heart of that country, upon the River La Tranche [Thames], which is 
navigable for batteauxloO miles, and near to where the Grand River, which falls into 
Erie, and others that communicate with Huron and Ontario, almost interlock." Upon 
this spot the city of London, in which the Western University has just been estab- 
lished, stands, and while the site of Toronto was subsequently adopted as the capital, 
the views of Governor Simcoe in respect to the university remained the same, and 
have been literally fulfilled in the Provincial University at Toronto, and this one at 
London, according to his expectations as expressed in his letter of the 161 h October, 
1795, to Bishop Mountain: "My views in respect to a university are totally unchanged; 
they are on a solid basis, and may or may not be complied with, as my superiors shall 
think proper, but shall certainly appear as my system to the judgment of posterity." — 
Ajapeal on hehalf of the Western University, 
472 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOKS PAPERS. 235 

Governor Siincoe, having received a liiglier appointment in thecolouial 
service, left soon after. The Bishop of Quebec, however, acted upon his 
suggestion and wrote to the Colonial Minister on the subject, in June, 
1796. In November, 1797, the Legislature of Upper Canada addressed 
a memorial to King George III, asking " that His Majesty would be gra- 
ciously pleased to direct his Government in this Province to appropriate 
a certain portion of the waste lands of the Crown as a fund for the estab- 
lishment and support of a respectable grammar school in each district 
thereof, and also of a college, or university, for the instruction of the 
youth in the different branches of liberal knowledge." 

To this memorial the King directed a gracious answer to be sent. The 
duke of Portland, Colonial Minister, therefore instructed the acting 
Governor, President Eussell, to give practical effect to the prayer of 
the petitioners. In doing so he used the following language: 

[His Majesty] being always ready * * * to assist and encourage the exertions 
of his Province in laying the foijndation for promoting sound learning and a religious 
education, has condescended to express his [desire] to comply with the wishes of the 
Legislature * * * ia such a manner as shall be judged to be most eifectual — 

First, by the establishment of free grammar [classical] schools in those districts in 
which they are called for, and — 

Secondly, in due process of time, by establishing other seminaries of a larger and 
more comprehensive nature, for the promotion of religious and moral learning, and 
the study of the atts and sciences. 

Such were the terms in which the King, through his Colonial Minister, 
intimated his desire that classical and university learning should be 
promoted in this Province. The very comprehensiveness and express 
terms of the duke of Portland's dispatch on this subject gave rise to a 
protracted controversy in after years, especially as the controverted 
expressions were embodied in substance in the royal charter for a uni- 
versity obtained in 1828 by Rev. Dr. Strachan (afterwards first Church 
of England Bishop of Toronto). Around the expressions — "religious 
education," "religious and moral learning," and "other seminaries of a 
larger and more comprehensive nature," etc., a fierce war was waged for 
many years, which, though virtually over now, has yet left traces of 
the bitter conflict. 

The result of the instructions to President Eussell was, that 549,217 
acres of crown lands were set apart for the twofold purpose set forth in 
the Colonial Minister's dispatch. Of these acres, 225,944 were, in 1827, 
devoted to the university that was virtually established, on paper, in 
that year, and by royal charter in 1828. 

This charter virtually placed the proposed university under the con- 
trol of the Episcopal Church. When its terms were known in Upper 
Canada, it was fiercely assailed. The charter was subsequently modi- 
fied, in deference to public opinion; but it was not until many years 
afterwards that the university was, by statute, declared to be free from 
denominational control. Out of the controversy which the duke of 
Portland's dispatch and the charter caused, arose other colleges and 
universities, which will be referred to in detail hereafter. 

I shall now proceed to give a brief account of the various universities 
in Ontario. 

I. The University of Toronto. 

This university was originally established under the charter obtained 
by Eev. Dr. Strachan in 1828. The proceeds of the endowment were for 
many years so small that the university only existed on paper, until 
1842-'43. 

473 



236 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

In April, 1842, tlie corner stone of the new institution was laid by 
Governor-General Sir Charles Bagot (M. A. of Christ Church, Oxford). 
In June, 1843, it was opened under the style and title of the " University 
of King's College," Toronto, by the Eight Eev. John Strachan, D. D.^ 
LL. D., President of the University. In October of that year, an effort 
was made by Hon. Attorney-General Baldwin to introduce a compre- 
hensive scheme of university reform, but it was defeated in the Legisla- 
ture. In 1845 and 1847 other abortive attempts were made to " reform " 
the university; but in 1849 a comprehensive measure was introduced 
into the Legislature and passed into a law, by which it was reincorpo- 
rated under the name of the " University of Toronto," and made a purely 
national institution, by placing it under the sole control of the Legisla- 
ture and of a senate and officers appointed by the Government. 

After the controversy caused by this change died away, the popular- 
ity of the University largely increased; and it is now in a highly efficient 
state. 

After the change made in the management of the institution to which 
I have referred, and its separation into University College and the 
University of Toronto, Eev. John McCaul, LL. D., was appointed Presi- 
dent of University College. He had taken high rank in classics in the 
University of Dublin and had been professor of classics in King's Col- 
lege. He gave to University College a prestige in that department of 
learning which it has maintained ever since. He was a pleasant and 
agreeable man, and never failed to give Sclat to convocations and public 
gatherings by his well-rounded periods and eloquent utterances, — espe- 
cially on historical or patriotic subjects. On his retirement from ill 
health he was succeeded by Daniel Wilson, LL. D., of Edinburgh 
University and Professor of English History and Literature. The new 
president is a man of distinguished ability as a writer and speaker and 
an active Christian worker. 

I shall proceed to deal with a few details : 

Under a royal charter granted in 1828, as modified by subsequent 
statutes of the Legislatures of Upper Canada and of the Province of 
Ontario, the University of Toronto and University College are now con- 
stituted, The University prescribes the requirements for degrees, schol- 
arships, and prizes; appoints examiners; and confers degrees in the 
faculties of law, medicine, and arts. University College gives instruc- 
tion in the departments of arts and science prescribed by the University 
for the degrees of B. A., M. A., and LL. B. 

The governing body of the University is the senate, composed of — 

1. Ex officio members. 

2. Members appointed by the Government. 

3. Members elecfed by convocation. 

4. Eepresentatives of affiliated institutions. 

5. Eepresentatives of high-school masters. 

Under the control of the senate are — 

1. University College. 

2. The School of Practical Science. 

3. Upper Canada College and Eoyal Grammar School. 

University College is a teaching institution, while the University of 
Toronto is a purely examining body. Under statutes of the senate 
women are admitted to University examinations in course, and also to 
the local examinations prescribed by the University. By resolution of 

474 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 237 

the Legislature passed in 1884, women are admitted with the men stu- 
dents to the lectures of University College.^ 

From the last Keport of University College the following interesting 
particulars are inserted : 

In the academic year 1882-'83, the number of students in attendance on the lect- 
Tires of senior years was : third year, fifty-nine ; fourth year, seventy-one ; in the year 
1883-84 it was : third year, sixty-six ; fourth year, fifty-three. 

Since the re-organization of the college and University on their present basis in 1853, 
the degrees conferred in the faculty of arts, law and medicine on students of Univer- 
sity College, as distinguished from graduates of the University who received their 
preparatory training in other colleges, are as follows : LL. D.,10; LL. B.,49; M. D., 
19 ; M. B. , 64 ; M. A., 237 ; B. A. , 856 ; making a total of 1,235 degrees conferred on un- 
dergraduates who have pursued their studies in University College, and have pro- 
ceeded to degrees in the various faculties of the University. 

The ofl&cers of University College are as follows : 

Yisitor: His Honor the Hon. John Beverley Eobinson, Lieutenant- 
Governor of Ontario. 
President: Daniel Wilson, LL.D., F. E. S. E. 

The following constitute the present teaching staff of University Col- 
lege, including the fellows appointed under a recent statute: 

Classical literature, embracing the Oreeic and Latin languages : Professor — 
Maurice Hutton, M.A., Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. 

Classical Tutor: William Dale, M. A. 

Fellow in classics : J. C. Eobertson, B. A. 

Oriental literature, including Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic : Lect- 
urer — Jacob M. Hirschfelder, Esq. 

German : Lecturer — W. H. VanderSmissen, M. A. 

French : Lecturer — John Squair, B. A. 

Fellow in French and German : Charles Whetham, B. A. 

English language and literature, and Italian : Lecturer — ^David E. Keys, 
B, A. 

Ancient and modern history and ethnology: Professor — ^Daniel Wilson, 
LL. D., F. E. S. E. 

Logic, metaphysics, and ethics: Professor — Gr. Paxton Young, M. A., 
LL. D.; Fellow-— A. S. Johnston, B. A. 

Physics and mathematics : Professor — James Loudon M.A. ; Mathemat- 
ical Tutor — Alfred Baker, M. A. ; Demonstrator in Physics — W. J. 
Loudon, B. A. ; Fellow in Mathematics— J. W. Eeid, B. A. ; Fellow 
in Physics — T. G. Campbell, B. A. . 

Mineralogy and geology: Professor — Edward J. Chapman, Ph. D., LL. D. : 
Fellow— H. E. Wood, B. A. 

Biology: Professor — E. Eamsay Wright, M. A., B. Sc. ; Fellow — T. Mac- 
kenzie, B.A. 

Chemistry: Professor— William H. Pike, M. A., Ph. D. ; Fellow— T. P. 
Hall, B. A. 

1 The question of co-education has occupied a good deal of public attention in Onta- 
rio. It was, so far as it related to university education, discussed at some length in 
the Legislature of the Province in 1884, and the following resolution on the subject 
was passed : 

"That inasmuch as the senate of the provincial University, having for several years 
admitted women to the University examinations and class lists, and inasmuch as a 
considerable number of women have availed themselves of the privilege, but labor 
under the disadvantage of not having access to any institution which aifords tuition 
necessary in the higher years in the course ; in the opinion of this House provision 
should be made for that purpose as earlv as practicable in connection with University 
College." 

475 



238 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

The other institutions under control of the senate of the University 
of Toronto are Upper Canada College and the School of Practical Science. 

UPPEE CANADA COLLEGE. 

Upper Canada College was founded in 1828 upon the model of the 
great public schools of England, and was endowed with a grant of 66,000 
acres of public lands, from which it now derives an annual income of 
$15,000, in addition to its building and grounds in the city of Toronto. 
Its pupils number about 300, and it aims at preparing them for matricu- 
lation in the provincial University, and for different professions and pur- 
suits. It is governed by a committee of the senate of the provincial 
University under statutes passed by it from time to time ; but such stat- 
utes are subject to the approval of the Lieutenant-Governor of the Prov- 
ince. The curriculum extends over a six j'^ears' course of study in the 
same number of forms, and embraces Greek, Latin, mathematics, French, 
German, English, grammar, literature and composition, history and 
geography (both ancient and modern), natural philosophy, experi- 
mental chemistry, physiology, biblical knowledge, the usual commercial 
branches, drawing, music, gymnastics, fencing and drill exercises. 

In other forms, known as the lower and upper modern, commercial 
and scientific training can be obtained. The examinations in each form 
are quarterly. Scholarships may be established by the different county 
councils, while four exhibitions have been founded out of the University 
funds, each exhibition being the result of a competitive examination^ 
and tenable for one year, in the fifth and sixth forms. Its staff of teach- 
ers comprises the following : One principal, two classical masters, two 
mathematical masters, five English masters, one French and German 
master, drawing master, gymnastics and drill. This school and the 
high schools already referred to constitute the principal feeders of the 
provincial University. The present Principal is I. M. Buchan, Esq.y 
M. A. of the University of Toronto. 

THE SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

'The School of Practical Science was opened in September, 1878, in a 
building near the University, and with appliances specially adapted to 
lectures of a practical character in the subjects of natural and physical 
science and of engineering, which are given by four professors of Uni- 
versity College, with a professor of engineering and assistant. 

The following constitute the present teaching staff' of the School ot 
Practical Science : 

J. Galbraith, M. A., Assoc. M. Inst. C. E., Professor of Engineering. 

W. H. Ellis, M. A., M. D., Professor of Applied Chemistry. 

W. H. Pike, M. A., Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry; T. P. Hare, B. A., 
Fellow. 

E. J. Chapman, Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of Mineralogy and Geology; 
H. E. Wood, B. A., Fellow. 

J. Loudon, M. A., Professor of MatliemaUcs and Physics ; Alfred Baker, 
M. A., Mathematical Tutor; J. W. Eeid, B. A., Fellow; W. J. Lou- 
don, 33. A., Demonstrator in Physics; T. Mulvey, B. A., Fellow. 

E. Eamsay Wright, M. A., B. So., Professor of Biology; A. B. McCallum, 
B. A., Felloio. 

D. Wilson, LL. D., F. E. S. E., Professor of Ethnology. 

Departments of Instruction. — (1) Engineering ; (2) mathematics and 
physics; (3) chemistry; (4) biology; (5) mineralogy and geology; (6) 
evening lectures in chemistry. 

476 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 239 
The following is a report of the work done in this department : 

1. Lectures have been given to the engineering students in the second and third 
years, on the subjects laid down in the curriculum, viz, the chemistry of fuel and 
combustion, explosives, building materials, and the metallurgy of iron. 

2. A course of evening lectures on chemistry was given last winter, the attendance 
on which was almost exclusively by students of the Ontario Veterinary College. 

3. Instruction has been given in the laboratory to the students pursuing the regular 
course of the school, and also to medical and other special students. 

In the last session there were seventy-six students working in the laboratory, 
classitied as follows : 

Engineering students 28 

Medical students - 43 

Special students - 5 

Total , 76 

ONTARIO ART SCHOOL. 

In addition, 1 may state that technical education also receives atten- 
tion in the Ontario School of Art, in connection with the Education 
Department, as the following extracts from a recent document published 
by the Dei^artment will show : • 

The Ontario School of Art was established by the Ontario Society of Artists in 1876. 
A council was appointed for the management of the school, consisting of the Minister 
of Education and six members of the Ontario Society of Artists. |1,000 per annum 
was voted by the Government for the school. 

In 1880 the grant was increased to $4,500, and it being found that the Society of 
Artists required that amount every year, it was considered desirable that the Govern- 
ment should have some control over the expenditure. It was finally arranged in 1882 
that the school be removed to the Education Department, so that the collection of 
sculpture, paintings, etc., could be fully utilized for art studies ; at the same time it 
was considered advisable to establish classes for teachers. Dr. May is the present 
superintendent of the school. 

The following is a programme of studies: 

Elementary course. — Free-hand outline, geometrical, perspective, model drawing. 

Advanced course. — Shading from flat, outline from the round, shading from the 
round, advanced perspective, drawing flowers and objects of natural history, black- 
board drawing. ^ 

Technical instruciion classes. — Plain and solid geometry, ornamental design, linear 
perspective, plan drawing, building construction. 

Painting classes. — Painting in oil and water colors. 

Modeling classes. — Modeling in clay. 

Other art schools — at Hamilton, Loudon, Kingston, etc. — are now 
being associated with the Ontario Art School for examination purposes. 
The normal-school teachers receive instruction in the art school, so that 
they may be enabled to teach drawing to the pupils in their schools. 

II. The University of Victoria College, Coburg. 

The Eev. Dr. Eyerson, who was the founder of this university, thus 
speaks of its early history, in an address to the students when he was 
appointed its first principal in 1841. He said : 

His late Most Gracious Majesty William IV, of jsrecious memory, first invested this 
institution, in 1836, with a corporate charter as the Upper Canada Academy — the first 
institution of the kind established by royal charter unconnected with the Church of 
England, throughout the British colonies. It is a cause of renewed satisfaction and 
congratulation that, after five years' operation as an academy, it has been incorpo- 
rated as a university and financially assisted by the unanimous vote of both branches 
of the Provincial Legislature, — sanctioned by more than an official cordiality, in Her 
Majesty's name, by the late lamented Lord Sydenham, Governor-General, one of 
whose last messages to the legislative Assembly was a recommendation to grant £500 
as an aid to the Victoria College. * * * We have buoyant hopes for our country 
when our rulers and legislators direct their earliest and most liberal attention to its 

477 



240 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

literary institutions and educational interests. A foundation for a common school 
system in this Province has been laid by the Legislature, which 1 believe will, at no 
distant day, exceed in efficiency any yet'established on the American continent ;i and 
I have reason to believe that the attention of Government is earnestly directed to 
make permanent provision for the support of colleges also,' that they may be ren- 
dered efficient in their operation and accessible to as large a number of the enter- 
prising youth of our country as possible. 

This institution originated with the Wesleyan Methodists in 1828-'30. 
The conference in the latter year agreed to establish it as an academy, 
and in the following year, when mattershad been arranged to this end, Dr. 
Ryerson, in the Christian Guardian newsjJaper, of which he was then 
editor, issued a strong appeal in behalf of the proposed institution on 
the 21st April, 1831. On the 7th June, 1832, the foundation stone of 
the academy was laid; and on the 18th June, 1836, it was formally 
opened under the designation of "Upper Canada Academy." In the 
previous year Dr. Eyerson was deputed to go to England to collect 
subscriptions on behalf of the institution. The duty was a most oner- 
ous and harassing one. He not only succeeded very satisfactorily, but, 
after a good deal of difficulty — there being no precedent to guide in the 
case — was enabled to obtain a royal charter for the academy and a grant 
of $16,400 from the local Legislature, the payment of which was resisted 
by the then Lieutenant Governor, Sir F. B. Head, until he received orders 
from England to have the grant paid without further delay. 

For eight years the institution was open to male and female students 
alike, but after its incorporation in August, 1841, the female stu- 
dents were transferred to ladies' academies which had been opened in 
Coburgby twoof the professors of the college. In October, 1841, Rev. Dr. 
Ryerson was appointed the first president of the university, a position 
which he held until he was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education 
for Upper Canada in 1844. He was succeeded by the Rev. Dr. Macnab, 
now rector of Darlington. In 1850 the present accomplished president 
(Rev. S. S. IsTelles, D. D., LL. D.) was appointed. He had been a pupil 
under Dr. Ryerson, but finished his university education at the Wesley an 
University, Middletown, Conn., and graduated there. He received the 
tlegree of D. D. from the Queen's University, Kingston, and that of LL. D. 
from his own university. His career has been an unusually long and pros- 
perous one ; and under his administration the university has taken high 
rank amongst the sister universities of Ontario.^ 

In the original appeal made by Dr. Ryerson in England on behalf of 
the academy (in 1835], he stated the " specific objects of the institution " 
to be as follows : 

1. To educate, upon terms equally moderate with similar institutions in the neigh- 
boring republic of the United States, and with strict attention to their morals, the 
youth of Canada generally. 

2. To educate for common-school masters, free of charge, poor young men of Chris- 
tian principles and character, and of promiising talents, who haVe an ardent thirst for 
knowledge. 

3. To educate the most promising youth of the recently converted Indian tribes of 
Canada as teachers to their aboriginal countrymen.' 

' This memorable prophecy, made by Dr. Eyerson in 1841, was abundantly verified 
in after years, chiefly as the result of his own labors in maturing the school system, 
of which he was the founder. 

^ It is a gratifying fact that Victoria College was the first university in Upper Can- 
ada whose doors were opened to receive students. The first session commenced in Oc- 
tober, 1841 ; that of Queen's College University in March, 1842, and King's College 
University in June, 1843. The first graduate in arts who received a diploma in Ujpper 
Canada was sent out from Victoria College in 1845-46. 

2 Several promising Indian youth were educated at Victoria College, and some of 
them became useful teachers and missionaries. 
478 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 241 

These extracts are highly interesting, as showing the noble and com- 
prehensive aims, in these early days of educational eii'ort, which Dr. Ry- 
€rson had in view in founding this valuable institution of learning. He 
goes on then (apart from these objects) to show the grave necessity 
which existed for the early establishment of such an institution. He 
said : 

For want of such an institution upwards of sixty of the youth of Canada are now 
attending seminaries of learning, imder a similar management, in the United States, 
where nearly twohundred Canadian youth have been taught the elementary branches 
of a professional education during the last eight years. There is good reason to be- 
lieve that nearly, if not quite, all the Canadian youth now being taught in the United 
States seminaries of learning, will return to Canada as soon as this institution shall 
have been brought into operation. * * * 

In behalf, therefore, of this institution — most important to the best interests of a 
healthy, fertile, and rapidly improving British colonial possession, the inhabitants of 
which have in this, as in other instances, shown the strongest desire to help them- 
selves to the utmost of their very limited means — a respectful and earnest appeal is 
made to British liberality, an appeal which it is devoutly hoped will be responded to in 
a manner that will contribute to draw still closer the bonds by which the loyal Prov- 
ince of Upper and the British population of Lower Canada are united to the Mother 
Country. 

This appeal was indorsed by the Governor of the Province, Sir John 
Colborne (afterwards Lord Seaton), in the following terms : 

The Eev. Egertou Eyerson proceeds to England * * * to solicit subscriptions 
* * * to enable [the conference here] to bring into operation a seminary estab- 
lished at Coburg, in Upper Canada. * * * As I am persuaded this colony will 
clerive the greatest advantage from the institution and from the exertions of the con- 
ference to diifuse religious instruction, I cannot bat strongly recommend that it may 
receive encouragement and support from all persons interested in the welfare of 
Upper Canada. 

The '' appeal " was also heartily indorsed by the Hon. Peter McG-ill, 
founder of McGill College University, Montreal, and by other dis- 
tinguished gentlemen and merchants in Montreal. In his letter Mr. 
McGill referred to Dr. Eyerson as " a gentleman who has distinguished 
himself in Upper Canada by his writings in defense of religion, order, 
and good government." 

After much delay and great discouragements Dr. Eyerson succeeded 
in the objects of his mission — money and a royal charter ; but at its 
close he writes to the Canadian committee of the academy as follows : 

Thus terminated this protracted [business], * * * though I had to encounter suc- 
cessive, discouraging, and almost insurmountable diflSculties [in obtaining the charterj, 
Nothavingbeenabletoeffect any loan * * * on account of the agitated state of the 
Canadas, and being in suspense as to the result of my application to the Government, 
I was several months pressed down with anxiety and fear, by this suspense and by 
reason of the failure of my efforts to obtain relief. In this anxiety and fear my own 
unassisted resolution and fortitude could not sustain me. I had to rely upon the un- 
failing support of the Lord'mjr God. 

I have given these particulars somewhat in detail so as to afford a 
striking narrative illustration of the almost insurmountable difficulties 
which the early pioneers of education in this Province encountered in 
endeavoring to found these noble institutions which have been so in- 
valuable to this country, and which have shed such luster upon their 
founders' names. It is also due to Victoria University, and (as I shall 
show) to Queen's University also to state these particulars, from the 
fact that the first practical, yet entirely abortive, attempt to make King's 
College a provincial university, was made in 1843, two years after the 
Methodists and Presbyterians had in self-defense been compelled to 
found universities of their own. This they did at a great sacrifice. 
7950 COT, PT. 2 16 479 



242 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

By the time that the liberation of this institution from its sectarian 
trammels took place, in 1849-'53, the really provincial universities at 
Coburg and Kingston had become recognized as most important factors 
in our educational system ; and from them alone, up to that time, could 
students of all denominations obtain a university education. 

The faculty of Victoria University is as follows : 

President and Ghancellorj 
Eev. Samuel S. N^elles, D. D., LL. D. 

Eev. S. S. liiTelles, Professor of Mental Philosophy, Logic, Uthics, and the 

Evidences of Religion. 
John Wilson, LL. D., Professor of Latin and Greek. 
Eev. Alfred H. Eeynar, M. A., Professor of Modern Languages and 

English Literature. 
A. E. Bain, M. A., Professor of Mathematics. 
Eugene Haanel, Ph. D. (BresL), F. E. 0. S., Dennis Moore Professor of 

Chemistry and Physics. 
Arthur P. Coleman, Ph. D. (Bresl.), Professor of Natural History and 

Geology. 
A. J. Bell, B. A., Adjunct Professor of Classics and Modern Languages. 
Eev. G. 0. Workman, M. A., Adjunct Professor of Mental Philosophy 

and Logic. 
Professor Bain, Lecturer on Astronomy. 
Professor Haanel, Lecturer on Mineralogy. 
Eev. N. Burwash, S. T. D., Lean, and Edward Jackson, Professor, of 

Biblical and Systematic Theology and of the Exegesis and Literature 

of the Old Testament. 
William Kerr, M. A., Q. 0., Lean of the Faculty of Law. 
William T. Aikins, M. D., LL. T>., President of the Faculty of Medicine, 

Toronto School of Medicine fin affiliation). 
Thomas E. D. D'Orsonnens, M. D., O. M,, LL. D., President of the Fac- 
ulty of Medicine, Montreal School of Medicine (in affiliation). 

In connection with the university, Faraday Hall, or School of Prac- 
tical Science, was erected in 1877. It is a handsome and spacious build- 
ing, and is admirably fitted up for the purpose of science teaching 
under the direction of its able i)rofessor, Eugene Haanel, Ph. D. of the 
University of Breslau. Its apparatus and cabinets are very complete. 

ALBERT nOLLEaE (BELLEVLLLB). 

The following is extracted from the Calendar : 

This iustitution, founded in 1854, was the product of the zeal and wise policy of the 
Methodism of that early day, and grew out of the conviction that schools for the Chris- 
tian education of the youth of the Church should be maintained and cherished by'the 
Church. The location is exceedingly favorable. The city of Belleville is one of the 
most important and enterprising cities between Toronto and Montreal. It has a popu- 
lation of about 10,000, and is situated on the historic Bay Quints, in the direct line 
of the Grand Trunk Railway, and is the southern terminus of the Midland Division 
of the G. T. Railway. Its advantages as a location for a neat of learning had long 
been noticed before steps were taken for forming one in its vicinity. Accordingly, 
when the prosperity of Canada began to make the multiplication of facilities for 
higher education a necessity, the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, in 1854, adopted a scheme — initiated in the Bay Quint6 Conference in the 
preceding year — for the erection and maintenance of an educational institution of 
high grade in Belleville. Having been chartered by Parliament in 1857 as " Belleville 
Seminary," it was opened in July of the same year, and entered upon its work under 
very favorable auspices, with a superior staJT of instructors and a large number of 
480 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 243 

students. In the year 1866, by Act of Parliament, the name was changed to "Albert 
College", and a senate created with ample powers. By the terms of the union of the 
Methodist Churches of Canada, Albert College was retained in Belleville, and adopted 
by the General Conference of the united Church as a Church school. The charter 
was amended and the college was affiliated to the Victoria University, Coburg. The 
college, as now constituted, has an ample teaching staff for imparting instruction to 
ladies and gentlemen in the advanced branches of a liberal education, and a senate 
with full powers to examine, grant prizes, scholarships, medals, honor certificates, and 
diplomas in music, fine arts, commercial science, collegiate courses, etc. 

The faculty is tis follows : 

The Rev. Jabez R. Jaques, D. D., Ph. D., President. 

Thomas P. Holgate, B. A., Secretary. 

The Rev. Jabez R. Jaques, D. D., Ph. D., Professor of Classics and Instructor in Ger- 
man. 

John Macoun, M. A., F. L. S., Emeritus Professor of Botany. 

James Thompson Bell, D. Sci., Hastings Professor of Mining and Agriculture, and Lect- 
urer in Zoology. 

The Rev. William P. Dyer, M. A., Professor of Chemistry and Geology, and Lecturer in 
Philosophy. 

John A. Stan i street, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Music. 

T. O. Bolger, P. L. S., Professor of Civil Engineering. 

Thomas F. Holgate, B. A., Professor of Mathematics. 

George A. Swayze, Professor of Commercial Science and Penmanship. 

Fred Richardson, Professor of Oil Painting and Drawing. 

Annie E. Abrahams, M. L. A., Professor of Modern Literature and Modern History. 

The courses of study in the institution are — 

I. Collegiate Course, embodying elective undergraduate studies. 

II. Junior or Senior Matriculation, in arts, civil engineering, law, medicine, and 
theology. ' 

III. Teachers' Courses, to prepare for teachers' examinations. 

IV. Course in Agriculture. 

V. Musical Course in Musical Academy. 

VI. Commercial College Course, and course in ornamental penmanship. 
VII. Course in Fine Arts, embracing painting, drawing, etc. 
VIII. Alexandra Ladies' College Course, leading to the M. L. A. and M. M. L. 

It is the aim of Alexandra College to provide for young ladies an opportunity not 
only for thorough mental discipline, but for intellectual, social, and Christian culture 
as well ; and to discover and direct the varied abilities so as to insure their best use 
and broadest influence in the future. A good foundation for this general culture is 
laid in the earlier requirements of any course, while the later elective studies permit 
the choice of work suited to the taste, talent, or special purpose of the student. 

All students meet in general exercises, and the ladies of Alexandra College attend 
the same lectures and receive instruction in the same classes as the students of Albert 
College. They enjoy the same privileges, subject to like conditions of entrance, and 
receive like rewards or honors. 

III. Queen's College University, Kingston.^ 

As early as 1835 it was felt among the members of the Church of 
Scotland in Canada that a seminary or college for the training of their 
ministers was highly desirable. As the management of the proposed 
King's College University at Toronto was in the hands of the adhe- 
rents of the Church of England, it was felt that such an institution 
could not be made available for Presbyterian theological instruction. 
A committee of the British House of Commons, to which had been re- 
ferred petitions from Canada in 1828 and 1830 against the exclusive 
character of the charter of King's College, Toronto, were disposed to 
solve the difficulty by suggesting that two theological chairs be estab- 
lished in King's College (and did so recommend) — one for students of 
the Churches of England and Scotland, respectively. ISTo thing, how- 
ever, of the kind was done; nor was there any arts college then open 

' The information here given of Queen's University is largely taken from a revised 
printed statement. 

481 



244 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

on equal terms to all the youth of the country. The Presbyterians, 
like the Methodists, had, therefore, to found an institution of their own. 
Steps were taken by the synod of the Church in 1839 to found such an 
institution. At a meeting in St. Andrew's Church, Hamilton, in liJ^To- 
vember, 1839, the commission appointed for that purpose prepared the 
draft of a charter for the proposed college. Kingston was selected by 
the synod as the site for the new institution. 

An Act embodying the charter was passed by the Provincial Legisla- 
ture in February, 1840, incorporating the " IJniversitj'^ of Kingston." 
The Act was, however, disallowed by the imperial authorities, on "the 
ground that it conflicted with the royal prerogative of granting charters. 
A royal chariter was, however, issued in 1841, incorporating the institu- 
tion under '^e name of Queen's College, with " the style and privileges 
of a university." 

The opening of Queen's took j^lace on the 7th of March, 1842. Rev. 
Thomas Liddell, D. D., of Edinburgh, was the Principal and Professor 
of Divinity, and Rev. P. C. Campbell, of Brockville, was appointed to 
the Chair of Classics. There were eleven regular students, and a few 
others were allowed to attend the classes in the classics and mathemat- 
ics who were not sufficiently advanced to matriculate. Rev. James 
Williamson, D. D., LL. D., arrived in the autumn of 1842, and entered 
at once on his work as Professor of Mathematics and Natural Phi- 
losophy. He is still in active work, being now Professor of Astronomy 
and Curator of the Observatory. His connection has, therefore, been 
continuous during nearly the whole existence of the college, and he is, 
therefore, the oldest college professor in Ontario. Dr. Williamson is a 
brother-in law to Sir John A. Macdonald. 

After the opening of King's College, Toronto, in 1843, an agitation 
commenced with the view to unite the three universities then in opera- 
tion into a single provincial institution. Many plans were i^roposed, 
and* several measures tending to that end were introduced into Parlia- 
ment and fully discussed. In 1843 the Hon. Robert Baldwin introduced 
a university bill, which, though it presented many popular features, 
was strongly objected to by the churches named and others also, because 
it was deficient in providing for religious instruction. 

A bill was introduced by Hon. W. H. Draper, in 1845, to amend the 
law so as to make it more generally acceptable to the religious bodies 
of the country, and in 1847 the late Hon. John Hillyard Cameron intro- 
duced a measure in which it was proposed to devote a large part of the 
endowment to increased support of high schools and also to largely sub- 
sidize the denominational colleges. The measure failed to carry, in 
Parliament, however, and this practically ended the agitation for the 
union of colleges for many years. 

In the year 1844, a serious division took place in the Presbyterian 
Church, which tended much to add to its embarrassment, and the num- 
ber of students was greatly reduced. In 1846 Dr. Liddell resigned his 
position as Principal and returned to Scotland. Rev. J. Machar, D. D., 
was next appointed Principal, and under his administration there was 
slow but real improvement. The number of students increased and the 
financial position was improved by an annual provincial grant of $2,000, 
which was afterwards increased to $5,000. These annual grants were 
continued until 1868, when they were entirely withdrawn by the Sand- 
fi.eld-Macdonald Government. 

Rev. Dr. Cook, of Quebec, occupied the position of Principal for a 
time, with great acceptance, but he refused to accept the position per- 
manently. Rev. Dr. Leitch was next appointed, but his early death 

482 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 245 

deprived the iDstitution of his services. He was followed by the Kev. 
Dr. Snodgrass, and on his retirement the Eev. George Monro Grant, 
D. D., of Halifax, was apj^ointed. Dr. Grant entered on his arduous 
duties with his accustomed energy, and occupies that position with great 
acceptance. He is an able speaker and a wise administrator. During 
the past few years there has been a large increase in the number of 
students, and also in the teaching staff. Queen's College to-day com- 
pares favorably in all respects with any similar institution in the Do- 
minion. It has now faculties of arts, theology, and law, and there are 
affiliated with it the Eoyal College of Physicians and Surgeons, also in 
a prosperous condition, and the Kingston Women's Medical College. 

In 1869 the financial condition of the university was such that a 
special meeting of synod was called to consider the matter, and it was 
resolved to make an appeal to the country for aid. The people of 
Kingston came forward and raised about |25,000, and the summer of 
that year was spent by Principal Snod grass and the late Professor 
Mackerras in raising an endowment. The result of the whole effort 
was that about $103,000 was raised for the equipment of the college. 

In 1878 Principal Grant made the j^roposition to raise $150,000, in 
order to provide new buildings, additional professors, and apparatus. 
Many thought the proposition impracticable, but the doctor entered into 
the scheme with great energy, nobly backed by several well-tried friends. 
The inhabitants of the ''Lime- stone City" were asked to raise $40,000 
of this amount, and they enthusiastically responded by subscribing over 
that amount. All classes and denominations came to its aid in the last 
great effort. The appeal was successful; additional ground of about 
twenty acres was at once purchased — a site of rare beauty and conven- 
ience — and the present noble building was erected. 

At present there are 242 students in attendance in the arts and science 
classes, and 134 in the medical classes. Allowing for double registration 
there are 302 students in all at the university. 

The officers and professors of the university are as follows : Chancel- 
lor, Sauford Fleming, C. E., C. M. G. ; Vice-Chancellor, Very Rev. George 
Monro Grant, M. A., D. D. -, Vice-Principal, Eev. M. James Williamson, 
A., LL. D. ; Eegistrar, Eev. George Bell, LL. D. 

The Professors in Divinity are Dr. Grant, Eev. Dr. J. B. Mowat, Eev. 
Donald Eoss, Eev. James Carmichael, and Eev. H. G. Parker. 

Faculty in Arts. 

Eev. J. Williamson, M. A., LL. D., Professor of Astronomy. 

Eev. John B. Mowat, M. A., D. D., Professor of Hebrew. 

Nathan F. Dupuis, M. A., F. B. S., Edinburgh, Professor of Mathematics. 

Eev. George D. Ferguson, B. A., Professor of History and English Lan- 
guage and Literature. 

John Watson, M. A., LL. D., Professor of Logic, Mental and Moral Phil- 
osophy, and Political Economy. 

John Fletcher, M. A., Oxon, Professor of Classical Literature. 

David H. Marshall, M. A., Edinburgh, F. E. S. E., Professor of Physics. 

W. L. Goodwin, B. Sc, London, D. Sc, Edinburgh, Professor of Chemis- 
try and Mineralogy. 

Eev. A. Nicholson, B. A., Lecturer on Modern Languages and Assistant 
to Professor of Classics. 

Eev. J. Fowler, M. A., Lecturer on Natural Science. 

Eev. E. Campbell, D. Sc, Lecturer on Political Economy. 

483 



246 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Eev. H. G. Parker, Lecturer on Elocution. 

Messrs. Nicol, Robertson, and Gauclry, Tutors in Chemistry^ German^ 
and French. 
Fife Fowler, M. D., F. E. 0. S., is President of the Faculty of Medicine. 
The professors in this faculty are also lecturers in the Women's Medi- 
cal College, which is affiliated with the university. There are six lect- 
urers in the faculty of law, 

ly. The University op Trinity College, Toronto. 

The following statement was kindly prepared by Eev. William Jones, 
M. A., Registrar : 

The University of Trinity College is a university in connection with the Church 
of England, created by royal charter in 1852. Previously to that time the Univer- 
sity of King's College, of which the first Bishop of Toronto was President, had ex- 
isted in connection with the Church of England ; but under the provisions of an Act of 
the Provincial Legislature which came into operation on January 1. 1850, the faculty 
of divinity in that university was suppressed, and other important changes in its 
constitution were made which appeared to necessitate the erection of a new college 
and , university in which secular instruction should not be dissociated from religious 
teaching. 

The Bishop succeeded in raising a large endowment from voluntary subscriptions 
from churchmen in Canada, England, and the United States, so that on April 30, 1851, 
the foundation stone of the college building was laid, and on January 15, 1852, the 
work of instruction was begun, the staff consisting of four professors in arts, besides 
those in the. faculties of law and medicine. During the last thirty years the endow- 
ment has been largely increased by liberal contributions made from time to time, so 
that the original amount is now about trebled. In 1878 a large and handsome con- 
vocation hall was erected, and in 1884 a long felt want was supplied by the erection 
of a finely proportioned and beautiful chapel. 

The University of Trinity College at present consists of the faculty of arts and 
divinity, of an affiliated Medical School with a commodious building and a large 
staff of professors, and an affiliated Women's Medical College. Provision is also made 
for the higher education of women in connection with the Bishop Strachan School in 
Toronto, and connected with the university is a large school for boys at Port Hope, 
containing about 150 boarders. 

The following is the number of graduates in the several faculties in the university : 
in divinity, 17; in arts, 282; in law, 16; in medicine, 351. The number of under- 
graduates is as follows: in arts, 41 ; in law, 19; in medicine, 172; in music, 6. 

The government of the university is by the royal charter vested in the Corporation 
of Trinity College, which body by an Act of the Legislature of the Province of Canada 
(15 Vic. ch. 32) is composed of the Bishops of the five dioceses into which the original 
Diocese of Toronto has been divided, of the Trustees of Trinity College, and of the 
members of the Council of Trinity College. The College Council consists of three 
classss of members : ex officio, nominated, and elected members. The ex officio mem- 
bers are the Chancellor of the University of Trinity College, the ex-Chancellors, the 
Provost, and Professors in Divinity and Arts of Trinity College. The following mem- 
bers are nominated, four by each of the Bishops of Toronto, Huron, Ontario, and 
Niagara, from their respective dioceses, and one by each medical school or college 
affiliated with the university. Fifteen members are elected, eight by the same elect- 
ors as the Chancellor, to hold office for four years, two being elected in each year, and 
the remaining seven by the whole corporation. 

Faculty in Arts. 

Provost: Rev. C. W. E. Body, D. C. L,, late Fellow of St. John's Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Dean and Professor of Mathematics : Rev. William Jones, M. A., St. 
John's College, Cambridge. 

Professor of Classics: Rev. A. Boys, M, A., Jesus College, Cambridge. 

Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy: Rev. William Clark, M. A., 
Hertford College, Oxford. 

Kehle Professor of -Divinity : Eev. G. A. S. Schneider, M. A., Caius 
College, Cambridge. 
484 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 247 

Lecturer in History : Rev. William Clark, M. A. 

Lecturer in Oriental Languages : The Provost. 

Lecturer in Physical Science : T. H. Smyth, M. A., B. Sc, Universities 
of Toronto and Edinburgh. 

Fellow and Lecturer in Natural Science: Eev. G. E. Haslam, M. A., 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

Lecturer in Modern Languages : J. C. Dunlop, University of Edinburgh. 

Lecturer in Elocution : Rev. H. G. Parker, Philadelphia School of Ora- 
tory. 

Lecturer in Apologetics and Pastoral Theology : Rev. W. Clark, M. A. 

Lecturer in Homiletics : Rev. J. P. Lewis. 
Walter B. Geikie, M. D., C. M., F. R. C. S. E., L. R. C. P., Lond., is 

Dean of the Faculty of Medicine of the Trinity Medical School. With 

the university is also affiliated the Women's Medical College of Toronto, 

M. Barrett, M. A., M. D., Dean. 

A course of study for -vromen was established in the year 1883. Candidates who 
pass any of the examinations will be entitled to receive a certificate to that efifect 
from the registrar, but candidates will not be admitted to degrees. Attendance at 
lectures will not be required. 

Women may present themselves for each of the three examinations for the degree 
of bachelor of music, and upon passing any one of these, will be furnished with a cer- 
tificate to that efifect. 

Want of space compels the omission of the curriculum of the univer- 
sity. In regard to it Rev. Professor Jones, Registrar, says : 

It may be remarked that the principal distinguishing features of the curriculum are : 

(a) The place assigned to theology as an art subject, including an honor course in 
that department. 

(6) The admission of optional subjects in increasing ratio in the latter part of the 
course, the candidate in the final examination being allowed to concentrate his ener- 
gies in a large degree on one division. In these respects, as also in a three years' 
course, the procedure of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge has been followed. 

In the arts course for women the place assigned throughout the course as an alter- 
native for mathematics maybe noted. The courses provided for degrees in the facul- 
ties of divinity and music are a specialty of this university among the Canadian 
universities. 

Trinity College School, Port Hope, is connected with the university. 
It is designed for the education of youths and as a feeder to the uni- 
versity with which It is connected. It is modeled on the plan of the 
public schools in England, and has all the appliances for giving a su- 
perior classical, mathematical, and English education to boys previous 
to their matriculation in the university, or their admission to the Law 
Society as " Students of the laws." Its officers are as follows : 

Visitor. 

The Right Rev. The Lord Bishop of Toronto. 

Governing body. 

Ex-officio Members. — Hon. G. W. Allan, D. C. L., Ghaiicellor of the 
University of Trinity College ; Rev. The Provost of Trinity College; 
Rev. W.Jones, M. A., Professor of Mathematics, Trinity College; Rev. 
Algernon Boys, M. A., Professor of Classics, Trinity College ; Rev. W. 
Clark, M. A., Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy, Trinity College; 
Rev. C. J. S. Bethune, M. A., D. C. L., Head Master of the School. 

Elected Member s.—Rm. J. G. Geddes, M. A., D. C.L., Lean of Niagara; 
Charles J. Campbell, Esq., Rev. John Pearson, John R. Cartwright, 
Esq., B. A., Rev. Henry Wilson, D. D., Arthur T. H. Williams, Esq., M. P. 

485 



248 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

The present head master is the Rev. C. J. S. Bethune, M. A., D. C. L.^ 
Trinity College, Toronto. 

Note. — I may here state in this connection that the collegiate institute at Coburg, 
under the principalship of D. C.McHenry, Esq., M.A., is affiliated to Victoria Univer- 
sity as a preparatory institution, while it is also the county grammar or high school. 
The collegiate institute at Kingston, under the principalship of A. P. Knight, Esq., 
M. A., is affiliated to Queen's University in the same way. There is also a supe- 
rior college for hoys at Pickering (near Toronto). The other feeders to the univer- 
sity colleges of Ontario are fifteen other collegiate institutes and eighty-seven high 
schools scattered all over the Province. For particulars on this subject, see the 
accorhpanying Paper on " Secondary Education in Ontario," byD. C. McHenrj^, M. A. 
(p. 185). 

V. University College of Ottawa. 

The College (or University) of Ottawa is under the direction of the 
Eoman Catholic Church. It was founded in 1848 by the Right Eever- 
end Joseph Eugene Guigues, O. M.I., D. D., first R, C. Bishop of Ottawa. 
In 1856, the Bishop confided the direction of the college to the " Soci- 
ety of the Oblate Fathers of Mary Immaculate." The total value of 
the college building and grounds is about $75,000. It has also a good 
library and cabinet of natural philosophy (or physics), and of chemis- 
try and natural history. The college obtained university j^owers in 
1866. It confers degrees in arts, science, and literature — B. A., B. Sc, 
B. L., as well as M. A. The number of students at present attending 
the collegiate course is 140; in the commercial course 160; total 300. 
The officers and faculty are as follows : 

Very Rev. J. H. Tabaret, O. M. I., D. D., President, Lecturer on Political 

Economy. 
Rev. J. Mangin, O. M. I., D. D., Director of Theologians, Professor of 

Moral Theology, Canon Laic, and Sacred Eloquence. 
Rev. M. Froc, O. M. I., D. D., Professor of Dogmatic Theology and Holy 

Scripture, 
Rev. A. Pallier, O. M. I., Professor of Church History. 
Rev. P. E. Gendreau, O. M. I., Bursar. 
Rev. J. B. Balland, O. M. I., D. D., Prefect of Studies, Professor of 

Physics and Mechanics. 
Rev. J. J. Fillatre, O. M. I., D. D., Professor of Moral Philosophy, Geology^ 

and French. 
Rev. W. M. Bennett, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of English Literature. 
Rev. R. M. Barrett, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Latin. 
Rev. Z. Yaillaucourt, O. M. I., Professor of Latin and French. 
Rev. L. A. Nolin, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Greelc, Latin, and French, 
Rev. A. Duhaut, O. M. I., Professor of Greek and Latin. 
Rev. G. J. Yan Laar, O. M. I., Prof essor of History and Geography. 
Rev. A. Leyden, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Mathematics. 
Rev. C. Marson, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Mathematics. 
Rev. A. Bontenville, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Natural Sciences and 

Drawing. 
Rev. R. S. Dozois, Professor of French, History, and Geography. 
Rev. P. Gladu, O. M. I., Professor of Vocal Music. 

In the commercial course there are eleven professors and instructors. 
In regard to the government of the college, the Very Reverend th& 
President sends the following information : 

The college is directed by a Superior, appointed for an undeterminate length of 
time by the Senior Superiors of the Congregation of the Oblates. A Council, consist- 
ing of three members, is associated with him for the management of the pecuniary 
486 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 249 

affairs of the house. He is by right president of the council hoards of studies and of 
the council of discipline, which have for objects respectively to see that the studies 
are well and properly pursued, and that due regularity is maintained. The prefect 
of studies sees that the programme is strictly carried out. In the more advanced 
classes the system of teaching by lecture is followed. The classical course lasts seven 
years. The matriculation examination takes place at the end of the third year of the 
classical course; the intermediate at the end of the fifth year. The commercial 
course lasts four years. 

Note. — Regiopolis College was founded at Kingston in the year 1846 by the Very 
Reverend Angus Macdonnell, Vicar-General. It maintained a highly respectable 
position for many years, and especially during the episcopate of the Right Reverend 
E. J. Horan, the' second Bishop of Kingston. After his death it was closed and has 
not yet been re-opened. Bishop Horan had been Principal of one of the normal 
schools in the Province of Quebec, and was noted for his educational zeal. On his ar- 
rival at Kingston he sought to make Regiopolis College even more efficient than it 
had been, and to take rank among the first colleges of the country. It had about one 
hundred students. 

YI. The Western University, London. 

The Western University of London, Ontario, was incorporated by 
Act of the Legislature of Ontario, 41 Vic, chap. 70 (7th March, 1878), 
in connection with the Church of England in Canada, with power to 
affiliate with Huron College, a similar Church of England institution, 
and to confer degrees in arts, divinity, medicine, and law, subject to the 
conditions contained in Sections 7 and 10 of the Act. Section 10 pro- 
vides that any university powers granted for conferring degrees shall 
not be exercised until it has been made to appear to the satisfaction 
of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council that the sum of one hundred 
thousand dollars, at the least, has been raised ih property, securities, or 
money, including Huron College when affiliated thereto, and is held for 
the purposes of the university, and it was declared that such powers might 
be withdrawn at any time when the Legislature deems it expedient to re- 
quire such university to become affiliated in the whole, as in respect of any 
particular laculty or department, with the Provincial University, and 
that the college thereby incorporated might, on its own motion, become 
so affiliated in respect of any of its faculties, other than divinity. Sec- 
tion 7 provides that the senate shall not confer any degrees in the fac- 
ulty of arts until such time as four professorships, at least, have been 
established therein, and four professors appointed to discharge the re- 
spective duties thereof, and until this has been made to appear to the 
satisfaction of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council. 

Huron College, on the 24th of June, 1881, became affiliated with the 
Western University, and constituted its faculty of divinity, by agree- 
ment between the two corporations, and all the property and securities 
of Huron College, amounting in value to the sum of $95,000, also became 
vested in trust for the purposes of the Western University. 

The university was opened in October, 1881, and at the first meeting 
of convocation in April, 1882, the several faculties reported 10 students 
in theology, 16 in medicine, and 7 in arts. 

WOODSTOCK college. 

The annual announcement, or calendar, of this institution for 1884-'85 
says : 

Woodstock College, formerly "The Canadian Literary Institute", was founded in 
1867, principally through the exertions of the late R. A. Fyie, D. D. Under his wise 
presidency, ably assisted for eighteen years by Prof. J.E.Wells, M. A., the school con- 
stantly increased in efficiency and power, until from a small beginning it has attained 
its present large proportions and wide influence. 

487 



250 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Its friends have donated in all nearly $100,000 tor grounds and buildings. * * » 
The latter now consist of three large and separate structures. * » » 

During the presidency of the late Dr. Fyfe, the school consisted of two departments, 
a theological and a literary. Into the latter both sexes were admitted. The theo- 
logical department having been removed to Toronto, the literary, now Woodstock 
College, enlarged by the addition of a commercial college, remains. 

The constant aim of the management is to provide a thorough Christian education. 
Though it was founded and is maintained principally by the Baptist denomination, 
yet it has never been sectarian. None of the peculiar tenets of that denomination 
are taught. 

The college embraces the following departments of work: 

1. The collegiate department. 

2. The ladies' department — a separate building. 

3. The commercial department. 

4. The preparatory department, or boys' school. 
Principal, Eev. N. Woolverton, B. A., with fifteen assistants. 
The College is affiliated with the University of Toronto. 



HOW TO INOEEASE THE PEOPOETIOlf OF LIBEEALLY 
EDUCATED MEN. 

By 0. H. Payne, D. D., LL. D., 

PreaiStent Ohio Wesley an University, Delaware, Ohio. 



By liberally educated men is meant persons who have been graduated 
from some respectable college, after having pursued a wisely selected 
and somewhat extensive course of study. The question implies that it 
is desirable to have the number of persons who are thus educated, 
women as well as men, increased. It implies also that it is possible, 
and even probable, that the proportion of educated men may be in- 
creased, if means are wisely adapted to the desired end. 

We may properly inquire, What are the causes which now conspire 
to prevent a larger proportion of men from seeking a liberal education? 
Without attempting an accurate analysis, or an exhaustive treatment 
of these causes, we name the following as perhaps the principal ones : 

First, An undefined prejudice against colleges, as fostering a kind 
of literary Phariseeism, or intellectual aristocracy — a prejudice which is 
accompanied by serious charges against their spirit and management. 

Secondly, A still more wide-spread disbelief in the practical value of 
a college education. 

Thirdly, The time required to complete a college course. 

Fourthly, The expense incurred. 

These are the hinderances which must be removed, as far as is con- 
sistent with the end sought. In whatever degree they can be taken 
out of the way, or their influencediminished, to that degree will the 
proportion of educated men be increased. 

These causes deter from a collegiate training nearly all the business 
men of our country, and indeed, nearly all others who are not intending 
to enter one of the so-called learned professions, while by far the larger 
proportion, even of the candidates for these professions, rush into their 
vocation through some shorter and less expensive route than the col- 
lege or university. 

Probably the largest proportion of men with liberal culture will be 
found in the ministry, though there it is far too small; in the practice 
of medicine, and also of the law, probably not fifteen per cent., including 
the entire country, are graduates of colleges; in journalism there are 
only a few, and in the profession of teaching, outside of the coleges 
themelves, the number is lamentably small. 

If Socrates were among us to-day and should put his hand on the 
shoulder of every man proposing to enter public life and manage weighty 
concerns, and ply him, as he did the brilliant and ambitious Alcibiades, 
with caustic questions as to what outfit of knowledge or wisdom he had 
for his adventurous purpose, he would puncture many a bubble of con- 
ceited ambition, and cover with humiliating shame many an aspirant 
for high position and distinction. 

489 



252 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

There is an ample field for our American colleges to cultivate; and 
we are here to consider with all honesty how we can cause the field to 
yield a richer harvest of cultured and capable men. 

If it is desirable to increase the number of educated men, it is cer- 
tainly advisable to %dopt the means necessary to secure the desired end. 
We must seek light, and invite suggestions in the spirit of honest and 
earnest inquirers. We must be prepared to abandon traditions and 
uproot deep-seated prejudices. 

The educator, like his pupils, must take good heed to cultivate the 
teachable disposition, remembering, as Bacon suggests, that the king- 
dom of knowledge, like the kingdom of heaven, is optered only as one 
possesses the spirit and temper of a little child. We must especially 
avoid the common mistake of looking at any system or process of edu- 
cation too subjectively, as though it possessed any importance in itself. 
it is never anything but a mgans to an end; like a sermon, it is never 
to be criticised or judged as a work of art, independent of the supreme 
end sought. It is only an instrument of service, valuable as it produces 
good results. 

If we desire to multiply the number of men and women possessing 
genuine culture and qualification for life's work, we must think of col- 
leges and universities only as instruments to this high and worthy end. 
We must never sacrifice the end to defend the means. The man must 
ever be more than the means. 

In this spirit we proceed to answer, as best we can, the question under 
discussion — the great question. How? 

I. We must seek, in all legitimate ways, to bring the college nearer to 
the heart of the people. It cannot be denied that to-day the hearts of the 
American people are far from Deing touched with any special feeling 
of sympathy with our colleges, or interest in their work. It is the 
thousandth man that bestows upon them a kindly thought and the 
hundred-thousandth a generous gift. The people, even the better class, 
are far more interested in the missionary work of Kaffraria and Japan 
than they are in the educational work of the colleges which supply their 
pulpits with ministers, and should supply their schools with teachers for 
their children. How few homes are there, comparatively, in which the 
name of a college is a household word, and the children's faces are 
steadily turned toward it as the scene of their future mental exploits ? 
If higher education is to reach a larger number of persons in the future 
than it has in the past, there are three classes whose sympathy and 
service mast be especially enlisted, — parents, teachers, and clergymen. 
Give our colleges the cordial good-will and co-operation of these influ- 
ential parties, and they will not want for patronage. If we could place 
teachers with liberal culture in our public schools, the colleges would 
soon be crowded. Under favorable influences, out of nearly every 
family of medium size and in ordinary circumstances, one member might 
be induced to seek collegiate training. But if to-day there were only 
one out of ten families in the State of Ohio whose educational advan- 
tages are superior, the number in the colleges of this State would be in- 
creased thirty-fold. Now the number of students in the collegiate de- 
partments of Ohio colleges, according to the latest Eeport of the United 
States Commissioner of Education, is 1 to 1,224 of the population. This 
is the third State in the Union in respect to the proijortion of college 
students to the population, Connecticut being first with 1 student to 663 
of the population, and Massachusetts second with 1 to 924. 

In the total number of students in its colleges Ohio stands second, 
being outranked only by New York, which with a population of 5,082,871 
490 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 253 

has 3,G20 students in colleges, while Ohio with a population of 3,098,062 
has 2,611. These figures, it must be remembered, embrace all students 
reported as connected with the higher departments of the universities 
and colleges of the several States, and undoubtedly include many thou- 
sands who could hardly be classed with propriety among students of 
the standard collegiate courses. 

The entire number of students, including preparatory and irregular 
students, reported in 1882 in the United States, is 64,096, against 52,053 
in 1873. Thus it appears that while our population probably increased 
in the nine years preceding 1882 28 per cent., the increase of students 
in universities and colleges was only 23 per cent. 

Evidently the proportion of young men and women now seeking a 
liberal education, in any State and throughout the entire country, is not 
encouragingly large. One college student to nearly two thousand people 
does not indicate intense love for collegiate education. 

Kor must it be forgotten that not many more than one-half of those 
who enter college complete the full course. 

ISTow it is clear enough that by some means the college must become 
a more popular institution, using the term popular in its best sense, 
among the American people, if it is to win more of our promising young 
people to a cultured and well-equipped life. The very name of college 
must become more familiar in our American homes, and what it signi- 
fies and suggests must be made more desirable. The prejudice which 
has been referred to must be removed, and eveu indifference must give 
place to interest and sympathy. 

Here is the difficult task which confronts educators and lovers of 
genuine education. The heart of the people must be reached, the good- 
will of a larger constituency must be secured. 

It need hardly be added that the attitude and action of college men 
will materially affect the problem. There must be no dogmatic assump- 
tion of oracular wisdom, and no pretense that supreme excellence be- 
longs to the traditional education founded on the buried centuries. In- 
tellectual Phariseeism, if discovered in the slightest degree, is quite as 
offensive as religious Phariseeism, and neither is relished by the people 
of this free and progressive Eepublic. 

Greece and Ronie must not entirely exclude the voices and visions of 
the Nineteenth Century, nor the Middle Ages dictate the thought and 
control the life of to-day. The popular favor extended to colleges and 
the influence which they exert will also be largely determined by the 
quality of the men and women who pass out of their halls. They will 
be rigidly and rightly judged by their "fruits." One man is worth a 
thousand theories, and one living example will practically do more to 
establish or refute a theory with the majority of men, than all the fine- 
spun arguments of learned advocates. What the world wants to-day 
above all other wants is men — men and women of lofty type and genuine 
character and masterful power. And in proportion as the colleges send 
forth this type of symmetrical and stalwart men will the public feel 
their force and appreciate their value. 

II. This leads to the consideration of a second point in the attempted 
answer to the question under discussion. 

It must be made evident, beyond question, that a college education 
is of the greatest practical value to a vastly larger number of persons 
than now believe it. 

We cannot close our eyes to the fact that the multitude of even or- 
dinarily intelligent men are unable to see its great value, and thousands 
of sagacious business men will even question whether the education 

491 



254 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

which the colleges afford, with the time demanded, does not operate as 
a disqualification for business success. Xor do business men stand 
alone in this questioning attitude. In full agreement with them are 
not a few of the most eminent men of our times, men who have them- 
selves enjoyed the highest culture, and in many instances are dis- 
tinguished educators. 

It is not the object of this paper to enter upon an elaborate discus- 
sion of the fruitful question as to the merits of the "old education" and 
the "new education," the ancient classics and the modern sciences, and 
the place which each should have in our colleges. The subject, how- 
ever, relates directly to the question before us and deserves thoughtful 
consideration, particularly because of its bearing uijon this vital prob- 
lem of how to increase the proportion of educated men. 

There is certainly reason for a calm and dispassionate review of the 
whole subject of education, as to its scope and end, the studies em- 
braced and the methods employed. It were folly to claim such great 
excellence for our present system as to become blind to its imperfections 
and failures. We certainly are not so bound to the dead Past as to be 
deaf to the voices of the living Present. 

We all acknowledge that the (jolleges are not reaching with their 
beneficent influence so large a number as they should. If any change 
can be adopted that will not imperil the value of a liberal education 
and yet furnish its invaluable aid to a greater number, who of us has 
the hardihood to resist such a change? And since there is assuredly 
something to be said in favor of a change, and something is said by 
men as wise and as loyal as any of us, who of us has the temerity or 
the assured wisdom to affirm that no change is required? 

For myself I am free to acknowledge that I have a listening ear and a 
receptive mind for any word honestly spoken touching our whole system 
of education. I have no such supreme faith in anything human that I 
do not believe it can be greatly improved. While listening to all the 
voices and treasuring all the gifts of the Past, it would be the supremest 
folly to assume that the Past taught all the wisdom and furnished all 
the treasures of learning that the nineteenth century could hope to enjoy. 
JS^ay, more, there are few of us who would not be obliged to go further, 
and say that the results of our entire educational work are far from 
satisfactory. 

The present age demands thinJcers and workers; but the average pupil 
is rarely taught either to think or to work with conspicuous ability. 
How many students in high school or college can give an intelligent 
reason for any rule, or an original example of any principle which they 
repeat with parrot- like flippancy ? 

Must it not be acknowledged that while our colleges have rendered 
the country invaluable service, and educated men are and have been 
the leaders of society, yet the average college graduate is not specially 
remarkable for culture or character ? that he does not possess in marked 
degree mental power or symmetry or balance, and can hardly be pointed 
to as an illustrious example of whatever is true and beautiful and good 
in character? His wJiole nature has not been so fully and symmetrically 
developed as to warrant any strong assumption that we have reached 
supreme excellence in system and method. The probabilities, therefore, 
of fatal loss attending any change are not so great as to make us shudder 
at its contemplation. 

On the other hand, we cannot rashly venture upon any radical recon- 
struction of our educational system which seriously threatens to break 

492 



INTEKNATIONAL COJSGEESS OF EDUCATORS ^PAPERS. 255 

down what little scholarship we now have, and give us results still more 
unsatisfactory. 

The two ends of education may be broadly stated as enrichment and 
equipment — the ennobling of one's life, and the qualifying of one's self 
for a successful life-work. This twofold object of education must never 
be lost sight of 5 nor need the dual work ever be separated. One sided 
views of education are mischievous. 

Eichter says, "The end of education is to elevate above the spirit of 
the age." That is a great truth which, amid the clamor about an educa- 
tion for the times and of the times, we do well to heed. We must have 
a culture which ennobles, enlarges, and enriches the mind, and lifts it 
out of the materialistic atmosphere of the age. Hence the necessity of 
a judicious attention, to the classics, ancient and modern, to literature, 
to history and philosophy, and kindred studies. 

We cannot afford to strike at genuine culture nor at Christian faith, 
and become the abettors of a demoralizing materialism, in order to 
make our educational work conform to the demands of a false public 
sentiment. And yet we must meet the real wants of society and wisely 
adapt educational methods to those wants. 

It is not chough to tell men that education will give them broader 
views and richer thoughts and higher enjoyments 5 we must be able to 
add with unquestioning confidence that it will assuredly qualify them 
the better to perform their life-work, whatever that may be. And this 
I think should be true of higher education as well as of primary and 
secondary education. 

I can hardly accept the conclusion reached by some estimable men 
that colleges are necessarily exclusive, and doing a work that can only 
apply to a favored few, and that they need not attempt to reach a larger 
constituency. I cannot readily accept the theory which obtains among 
not a few college men, that higher education cannot be adapted to 
business men, and is not essential to men of affairs. It seems to me 
that hardly any class of men to day need the benefits of genuine edu- 
cation — mental breadth and grasp and power — more than the manu- 
facturer, the banker, the merchant, the manager of farms and mines, 
and of all the great enterprises connected with the material develop- 
ment and industrial interests of our country. To surrender this large, 
intelligent, and influential class of citizens, destined to grow still larger 
and more influential, as wholly or mostly beyond the reach or need of 
collegiate education, is in my judgment a grave mistake ; a mistake 
which neither the college nor the community can afford to make. It 
is doubtful whether colleges resting on such a basis can continue to 
hold even their present position of limited influence, much less advance 
to a more commanding position. 

If then, we grant that colleges ought not to be satisfied to educate a 
select few, a small proportion only even of those who are to enter the 
learned professions, but that they should seek to extend their ennobling 
influence to as many as possible, the question of adapting means to ends 
becomes of paramount importance. How can the college curriculum 
and the college work be best adjusted to the twofold object already 
stated? There is need of breadth and wisdom and charity here. Mr. 
Matthew Arnold's " sweetness and light," the high end of culture, will be 
essentially helpful to us. Neither the '' old education" nor the " new 
education," distinctively characterized, can be confidently claimed as 
absolutely best adapted to the ends sought. 

It is conceded by the wisest and most liberal advocates on both sides, 
that when right methods of study are employed, there is no essential 

493 



256 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

difference iu the mental discipline or culture furnished by either system. 
The claim that disciplinary results and culture are obtained only or 
largely through the ancient classics cannot be sustained, and is not now 
generally pressed by the adherents of the old regime. President Gar- 
field, himself a fine classical scholar and regaling himself by reading 
Horace and Homer during his busy public life, says, 

Iu general, it may be said that the purpose of all study is twofold, — to discipline 
our faculties and to acquire knowledge for the duties of life. It is happily provided 
in the constitution of the human mind, that the lahor by which knowledge is ac- 
quired is the only means of disciijlining the powers. It may be stated, as a general 
rule, that if we compel ourselves to learn what we ought to know, and use it when 
learned, our discipline will take care of itself. 

He then proceeds to enumerate and discuss the "kinds of knowledge 
which should be the objects of a liberal education," and makes some of 
the gravest charges against our system of education, in colleges espe- 
cially, that have ever been made, which every educator ought to read. 
He affirms, and it would be difficult to refute the charge, that the old 
aud still prevailing system of college education, with all its excellences, 
fails to give practical qualifications for the greater part of life's pursuits. 
In reference to this failure he makes use of the following strong lan- 
guage : 

Business colleges originated in this country as a protest against the failure, the ab- 
solute failure, of our American schools and colleges to fit young men and women for 
the business of life. Take the great classes graduated from the leading colleges of 
the country, and how many, or rather how few, of their members are fitted to go into 
the practical business of life and transact it like sensible men ? These business col- 
leges furnish their graduates with, a better education for practical purposes than 
Princeton, Harvard, or Yale. 

He continues, 

The people are making a grave charge against our system of higher education when 
they complain that it is disconnected from the active business of life. It is a charge 
to which our colleges cannot plead guilty and live. They must rectify their fault, or 
miserably fail of their great purpose. There is scarcely a more pitiable sight than to 
see, here and there, learned men, so-called, who have graduated in our own and the 
universities of Europe with high honors — men who know the whole gamut of classi- 
cal learning, who have sounded the depths of mathematical and speculative philoso- 
phy—and yet who could not harness a horse, or make out a bill of sale, if the world de- 
pended upon it. 

When such a man, himself a college graduate and college professor 
and life-long friend and supporter of colleges, publicly and repeatedly 
makes such utterances as these, and when a large number of the most 
thoughtful men in this country and in Europe join hand and voice with 
him, he must be a man of rare courage, or some other nameless quality 
of mind, who confidently stands by the old regime without an infinites- 
simal change, as certain that it is the educational summum honum as he 
is of his own existence, and looks down with contemptuous pity on the 
man who is so ignorant as to challenge its perfection. 

But while we thus acknowledge the defects and x)artial failure of the 
old system, we cannot but look with suspicion upon the radical changes 
proposed by the modern scientific school of educators. The undue pre- 
ponderance of scientific studies has too strong tendencies toward the 
materialistic, which is already dominant in our age and country. Notes 
of warning certainly come to us from the Italian universities, which 
failed in the higher ends of culture. 

Matthew Arnold says, "It shows how insufficient are the natural 
sciences alone to keep up in a people culture and life 5 that the Italians, 
at the end of a period with the natural sciences alone thriving in it, and 
letters and philosophy moribund, found themselves, by their own con- 

494 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 257 

fession, with a, poverty of general culture, aud in an atmosphere unpro- 
pitious to knowledge, which they sorrowfully contrast with the condi- 
tion of other and happier nations." If it is replied that scientific methods 
are far diflerent now from what they were centuries, or even decades, 
ago, the answer has been given by one of the most thoughtful and brill- 
iant men among modern educators. Professor Diman, as follows: "The 
method has been improved, but the subject matter remains the same." 
<'In its widest scope science aims simply at finding a theory of nature; 
its last word is impersonal, inexorable law. The more complete the 
absorption of the intellect in purely scientific methods, the more com- 
plete the severance from all spiritual intuitions." " Science discusses 
force and method, but says nothing of God, freedom, and immortality. 
She leads us to the tree of knowledge, not to the tree of life." When 
history is reduced to the rigid and inexorable laws of physical science, 
as it is by Buckle and Goldwin Smith, and moral philosophy is based 
on molecular movements, as it is in substance by Spencer and Bain ; 
when the data of ethics must be searched for only among the rubbish 
of matter, with its necessitarian laws, — these studies lose their inspir- 
ing and ennobling power. It would be perilous to turn our American 
youth out into these sterile pastures to herd with the cattle, and to feed 
on that which perishes alike with themselves. 

InTo! The '-new education" that commends itself to our acceptance 
cannot be of this materialistic quality. The subject is environed with 
difficulties, but a wise combination of the two sj'stems, the "old" and 
the "new," uniting the best features of both, the classical and the sci- 
entific, the literary and the practical, will doubtless be best for enrich- 
ing the mind and equipping the man for his life-work. 

We cannot discuss at greater length this most vital aspect of our 
subject. Enough to add that, recognizing the desirableness of reach- 
ing a larger proportion of American youths than we now do, and the 
necessity of correcting the mistakes of the past and adjusting our 
system of higher education to the broader ends sought, it becomes a 
question of wise adajitation and earnest endeavor. The public must 
be made to see that true education does not consist alone in giving one 
the power to transact business and to accumulate wealth, but that it 
aims at the ennobling of one's nature and the enriching of his life, at 
the same time that it does bring to its possessor increased ability for 
greater achievements. 

While educators must recognize the importance of looking at the 
practical side of their educational work, remembering that however 
much they may disdain the bread-and butter aspect of life, nevertheless 
its dire necessities press with relentless rigor on the scholar as well as- 
the hod-carrier, and that the world's great industries are too closely con- 
nected with the higher interests of man to be overlooked in any broad 
and worthy scheme of education. 

Three courses of procedure are open to the colleges of our country; 

First, To confess their inability to meet the demands upon them, and 
permit the multitude of even conspicuous actors on the stage of our 
American life to live and die without the aid of higher education ; or, 
secondly, To assign the work to another class of schools, such as business 
colleges, scientific and industrial schools, etc.; or, thirdly; To under- 
take the work themselves, and adjust machinery and metho<ls to the 
end proposed. 

The latter course would seem to be the wisest and best for several 
reasons, which time will permit me only to mention. 

7950 COT. pt. 2 17 495 



258 EDUCATIONAL CO^TVENnONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

(1) The colleges cannot justify themselves before the public, whose 
confidence and support they need, in pursuing an exclusive policy which 
does not seek "the greatest good of the greatest number," but compla- 
cently permits ignorance where knowledge is needed and possible. 

(2) Other schools are not likely to do the Avork as well as the colleges 
might do it. The history of agricultural colleges is not assuring; hardly 
one has proven a success except in connection with a regular college. 
Business colleges, exclusively such, are largely of a very superficial 
character, often giving their pupils a cheap substitute for a sound and 
solid education; yet they teach what all business men niust know, and 
if the colleges will not combine the practical with their higher culture, 
the business colleges will take the young men by platoons, and geuuine 
culture must ever be wanting among the most worthy and important 
classes in society. 

Schools of technology and of special science are of a specific and lim- 
ited character, and they are probably most serviceable when connected 
with the college. The same is true of normal schools, which, if they 
could be lifted above their present status, and out of their present at- 
mosphere, and connected with well equipped colleges, with all their cult- 
ure and inspiration, would prove a benediction to the whole American 
people. And this great work can be accomplished by the colleges 
without deterioration in genuine scholarship, and with vast increase of 
influence and usefulness. The general can be combined with the spe- 
cific, the literary with the practical, by a wise adjustment, and with 
great benefit to all concerned. 

The chief obstacle to be overcome — let me name it without ottense — 
is the prejudice and the pride, nurtured by traditions which, to many 
of us, have come to possess almost the sacredness of inspired wisdom. 
We are in trepidation lest our cherished institutions should become 
something other than the college of the illustrious Past, as though that 
must be protected and preserved, whether men were educated and 
Society lifted upward and propelled forward in its high mission or not. 

But institutions are nothing; men are everything. The former are 
the scaffolding, the latter the glorious temple rising in beauty and per- 
fection. Traditions should be used as helps, never permitted to become 
hinderances. "The meek shall inherit the earth," is a profound prin- 
ciple, eminently applicable to the entire work of education. If the col- 
lege wishes to share more largely in this great inheritance, it must 
clothe itself with this rarest grace of meekness. 

III. The time required to secure a collegiate education, since it ex- 
cludes so large a number who but for this would seek college culture, 
is worthy of careful consideration. 

The proposal to establish a j)artial course of wisely selected studies, 
limited to a somewhat narrower range than that usuallj' covered, and 
yet sufl8.ciently full to furnish a generous culture, seems not to have 
met with favor among college officers. It is, however, worth while to 
consider whether such a course, leading to an appropriate degree, might 
not profitably be connected with a first-class college, along with its more 
extensive courses. 

But granting, as we all believe, that the present standard course is 
none too full for those who can possibly compass it, there is a serious 
question whether some other adjustment of time and methods might not 
accomplish equally good results with considerable saving of valuable 
time. 

At the risk ef introducing startling and unpopular theories I venture 
to make two or three suggestions. 
496 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 259 

First, is it uot possible that some new arrangemeut of terms aiul 
hours of actual work might be wisely adopted, at least for such students 
as might prefer it? Meeting recently a young clergyman of clever 
parts, and falling into conversation with him, I learned that he had at- 
tended a school with which he had no special affiliation. Finding him 
both bright and frank, I inquired why he attended that school rather 
than some other college. The answer was promptly given; he could 
accomplish an equal amount of work there in materially less time than 
at the standard college. Incredulous, of course, I asked if he could do 
his work as thoroughly. The answer was, "Yes, with an honest, earnest 
purpose." "How?"' There were four terms a year of twelve weeks 
each, and six days work in each week, I began to apply my mathe- 
matics. The ordinary college has about thirty-seven weeks of actual 
study, with five days per week. One hundred and eighty-five days a 
year, while my economical and talented young friend had given two hun- 
dred and eighty-eight days of honest study to each year. By this ar- 
rangement the ordinary four years college course can be fully com- 
])leted in just ttco and fifty-seven hundredths years. Of course there 
are college professors and college students whose ideas of the eternal 
fitness of things would be fearfully shocked at the mere mention of such 
continuous work as this. 

But why should we be startled at such a suggestion? Does not the 
merchant work forty-eight, and oftener fifty-two, weeks in a year to pick 
up gold, and the minister to benefit his brother, and the manufacturer 
to keep the wheels of industry buzzing ? Earnest men with a great 
purpose are anxious to achieve the greatest possible good in their lives, 
and are more eager for labor than for holiday rest. 

What class of men are, or should be, more in earnest than students 
and teachers in our colleges ? It is doubtful whether for the majority 
of students the arrangement suggested might not be quite as favorable 
for health, scholarship, and morals. Young children in the primary 
schools may be, and perhaps sometimes are, overpressed with study; 
but few college students with correct habits are injured by hard study. 
College work is not more exhausting than that of most men outside of 
college halls. Holidays and vacations are by no means always profit- 
able, in any sense. Of course such a plan would call for a larger teach- 
ing corps. 

If it is said that the English colleges have shorter collegiate years 
than our own, two facts may be stated in reply; hrst, the English col- 
leges graduate a large number of very superficially educated men; 
secondly, the real scholars do a large part of their icorh outside of col- 
lege walls and college terms. 

The German realschulen and gymnasien, which correspond most nearly 
to the American colleges, accomplish almost twice the work in a given 
time that our colleges do. 

I do not propose this i)lan of more work in a year as the absolutely 
best plan that can be adopted, but 1 suggest it as a tiint, and a possible 
alternative between a collegiate education thus secured, or not secured 
at all, by many earnest and worthy youths. 

It would not be impossible to combine this plan with that ordinarily 
pursued, carrying forward two classes of students, according to choice, 
and thus test the merits of both. At any rate our thought will not be 
squandered on a suggestion that has such ijossibilities in it, and which 
bears so directly upon the subject in question. 

Another suggestion as to the time problem. Is uot much time often 
wasted by methods which are susceptible of great improvement I 

497 



260 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION 
James Freeman Clarke says : 

In my youth, both in school and in college, much time was lost hy the recitations. 
In college we had three recitatiocs each day of each division, each lasting one hour. 
Thus we spent three precious hours every day in hearing other young men recite, 
more or less badly, what we had already spent some hours In studying ourselves. If 
we had learned the lesson properly, we conld learn nothing more by hearing it recited, 
by others. If the teacher had explained or illustrated the difficult passages, that 
would have been an advantage ; but in those days he regarded it as his sole business 
to hear the recitation, and to mark on a paper by his side the degree of accuracy ob- 
tained by each scholar. This took his whole time. A better method has been intro- 
duced in some places. Teachers have learned that it is their business to teach. 

It is to be feared that this characterization of time wasted in the reci- 
tation room is not by any means wholly inapplicable to the colleges of 
to-day. 

Then, too, in adjusting our college machinery, ought there not to be 
a recognition of the great mental differences between students who start 
in the same class ? Ought the bright and capable students to be kept 
waiting, as they usually are, for the dullards ? A system wisely planned 
will give every man a fair chance to accomi:)lish the work required in as 
little time as he can do it thoroughly. It will not, of course, encourage 
haste and superficiality, nor will it discourage honest desire to econo- 
mize time when consistent with sound scholarship. The question whether 
much time is not wasted by the traditional college method of studying 
foreign languages iy a vital one, and is challenging the attention of edu- 
cators. It is claimed that there is too much grammar and lexicon, and 
too little actual knowledge of the language studied. The claim is 
not new. Great names have supported it, such as Milton, Locke, Mon- 
taigne, and a multitude of others of the best writers on education. 
"Wise men of to day whose opinions deserve consideration af&rm and 
lament the needless expenditure of precious time by an unwise adher- 
ence to lalse methods. President Garfield said, 

Our colleges should require a student to understand thoroughly the structure, 
idioms, and spirit of these Janguages, and to be able by the aid of a lexicon to analyze 
and translate them wilh readiness and elegance. They should give him the key to 
the storehouse of ancient literature, that ho may explore its treasures for himself in 
after life. This can bo done in two years less than the usual time, and nearly as well 
as it is now done. 

Language like this, and from such a source, deserves respectful atten- 
tion. One thing is certain, the results of our ordinary methods are far 
from satisfactory, and the peril from an honest testing of some other 
method is not alarming. The average graduate, after all his toilsome 
years of thumbing his lexicon and grammar, may well be characterized 
as knowing " little Latin and less Greek," while with ancient classical 
literature he has but the slightest acquaintance. Probably not one col- 
lege graduate in one hundred could speak intelligently for one minute 
in either of the dead languages, nor hardly in the modern languages ; 
not one in twenty- five can read the ancient classics in the original with 
ease, and not one in fifty does read them to any considerable extent 
after graduation, unless he teaches them as a x^rofession. Surely if 
there is any method that will save nearly half of the five or seven years 
devoted to Greek and Latin, and at the same time furnish the student 
with equal culture and with a far better knowledge of classical litera- 
ture, the flavor and enchanting influence of which will accompany him 
through life, by all means let us give the method an honest and faith- 
ful trial, and not pronounce judgment against it on the slightest exam- 
ination. But these are mere hints. 

The practical question relevant to our subject is, whether by the 
498 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 2GI 

adoption of any or all of these suggestions, and of other means which 
want of time forbids the mentioning, the colleges may not, in part, 
overcome the hinderance which excludes from their halls so many 
thousands of young people, viz, the length of time required to complete 
a college course. But little time remains for the consideration of other 
points of equal, and perhaps of greater, importance. 

IV. A full hour might profitably be given to the subject of the ex- 
pensiveness of a college education. A few moments must suffice. There 
is probably no college president in the land who is not painfully aware 
of the fact that there are thousands of worthy young people who are 
intensely anxious to secure a collegiate education, but are prevented by 
reason of the expense involved. Is there any remedy? 

Two things can and should be done. 

First, our colleges should be so amply endowed and supplied with 
resources that, as nearly as possible, tuition may be made free. The 
student should not be made to feel that he is an object of charity, but 
the college, as far as it can, should stand in this refspect on a par with 
the free, public school. 

There is hardly an object in this country that calls so imperatively 
for the gifts of benevolent men, and promises such splendid returns for 
the money thus invested, as does the well-conducted college. Philan- 
thropy never looked upon a more inviting field, and while much wealth 
is being thus devoted to highest uses, the marvel is, that far-seeing 
men do not in greater numbers see and seize their opportunity, and 
lift our colleges into a position in which they can invite the youth of 
our country to their literary feast " without money and without price." 
It is sincerely hoped that a brighter day will soon dawn upon all our 
embarrassed institutions of learning, and that the clouds which now so 
darkly overshadow them may speedily reveal a silver or a golden lining. 

But, secondly, the college authorities should seek to keep the ex- 
penses of college life down to the lowest point consistent with health 
and scholarship. The task is a difficult one, as any one who has at- 
temi^ted it can attest. The citizens of the town in which the college 
is located will not be likely to render any assistance in this direction; 
many of the students will resist every attempt to limit their right to 
spend their parents' money with lavish hand. Nevertheless, nothing 
that has been said in this paper, or can be said, has more to do with the 
number of educated men than this question of expense. The necessary 
expenses of a student are often slight in proportion to his needless ex- 
penditures. And, as a general rule, all unnecessary expense among col- 
lege students militates against the real ends of education. Take out 
of the average student's accounts all that does not help him to health 
or manhood or scholarship, and you have subtracted a large proportion 
of his expenses. The amount put into fraternities, clubs, late suppers, 
class follies, regalia, etc., is what startles the hard-pressed parent, and 
makes him resolve to let the next son try his hand at 'the world's work 
without a college training. The aristocracy of clothes and of society is 
an impertinence in college. 

The mischief does not stop with the party immediately' involved, but 
effects the whole body of students, and operates to keep away from 
colleges thousands who would otherwise enjoy their advantages. The 
prevailing habits of life in all our colleges should be such that no young 
man or woman living on crackers and cheese, and wearing garments of 
homespun material, would ever have occasion to feel the slightest mor- 
tification, or ever be reminded 'of any sacrifice of social recognition or 
honorable distinction. 

499 



262 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Tliero certainly are institutions in which this is the case; it ought 
to be universal in college society. When Mr. Thwing, or any other man, 
writes another hook on American colleges, it he can truthfully inform 
the anxious thousands seeking higher education that the expenses have 
been greatly reduced, the proportion of educated men and women will 
soon be increased. 

V. I have time barely to allude to the fact that the disciplinary regime^ 
the moral order, and the religious spirit of our institutions of learning 
will largely affect the number of their patrons. Nothing gives such 
confidence in colleges and in the value of their work as an eminently 
moral and religious tone jjervading them. ISothing destroys confidence 
and reduces patronage like the absence of this pre-eminent quality. 

It must be admitted that the faith of the public in college culture has 
been subjected to rather severe strains by the moral status of not a few 
institutions. Reports of college rowdyism, of hazing, and of matched 
games of foot-ball or base-ball, which in spirit and results are not unlike 
the prize fighters' brutal sport, spread before the readers of the daily 
press with sickening detail and editorial spice, are not particularly fa- 
vorable to the highest degree of confidence in the system and its fruits. 
There is but one way of counteracting this unfaA^orable influence, and 
that is to make the colleges such centers of moral power and Christian 
influence as to command the respect and confidence of the best classes 
throughout the country. And this leads to another remark. If our 
higher institutions are to hold their place and increase their patronage, 
they must be kept free from the influence of materialism, agnosticism, 
and all other forms of anti-Ohristian philosophy. 

Whatever may be true of other countries, the colleges of this country 
have nearly all been founded on the principle expressed in Harvard's 
motto, Christo et JEcclesiw, and "to Christ and his Church" must they' 
remain true, or be content with waning rather than increasinu influence. 
Not until this Republic has made a nearer approach to its "decline and 
fall" — a doom which we all pray and hope may never befall us — will 
infidel schools, or schools antagonistic to Christianity, rise to command- 
ing influence. 

On the contrary, the more of the teachings and spirit of the Great 
Teacher all our educational institutions inculcate and stamp upon the 
characters of tlieir students, the wider will be the sphere of their influ- 
ence and the larger will be the numbers who flock to their halls. 

VI. Finally, perhaps the most essential and all-inclusive means of in- 
creasing the number of educated men, is to employ as educators only 
those persons who possess the loftiest type of character and the highest 
qualifications of mind and heart. More than anj^ and every other con- 
sideration in the work of education, more than ample grounds and ex- 
pensive buildings and costly museums and extensive libraries and sci- 
entific appliances, and elaborate gymnasia and ostentatious curricula, 
is the true and regal teacher. 

Garfield was quite right when he said, "It has long been my opinion 
that we are all educated, whether children, men, or women, far more 
by personal iutiuence than by books and the apparatus of schools. If 
I could be taken 'back into boyhood to-day and had all the libraries and 
apparatus of a university, with ordinary routine professors, ofi'ered me 
on the on^ hand, and on the other a great, luminous, rich-souled man, 
such as Dr. Hopkins was twenty-five years ago, in a tent, in the woods 
alone, I should say, 'Give me Dr. Hopkins for my college course, rather 
than any university with only routine professors.'" The teacher of 
marked character and genuine power and enthusiasm will act as a mag- 
500 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 263 

uet, drawing' youth toward hiin as a center of potent influence, kindling 
within them the fires of his own enthusiasm, and imparting to them 
something of his own superior nature. Put into all our schools teachers 
of such a quality, and we shall thereby crowd them with enthusiastic 
pupils, eager to rise to the topmost round of the educational ladder. 

When that unique character, " Father Taylor," the famous sailor 
preacher of Boston, was once consulted about i^lacing a bell on his new 
church, he promptly replied, "I will put the bell in the pulpit." He 
was true to his promise, and his ringing notes from the pulpit crowded 
the church with interested listeners, so that no bell in the belfry was 
needed to secure an audience. 

Ijs'o word of application is required. 

Fellow teachers : I have used plain speech, void of the rhetorical arts 
of concealment or conciliation. Ifl had aimed to utter sentiments of 
a popular character, in perfect accord with the opinions of all my breth- 
ren, and certain to receive your approval, the task would not have been 
a difficult one. Assuming that my audience would consist mostly of 
honest, thoughtful educators, eager to know if any new or but partially 
tested means might be used to secure the end we all deem desirable, I 
have ventured in good spirit and temper of mind, 1 hope, to make some 
suggestions. Whether these suggestions would be popular or unpopular 
has not been permitted to occupy my thought, and I leave them with 
you for what they are worth. They have not all of them been given as 
settled convictions of what was surely best, but as hints with more or 
less of possible or probable value in them. 

Our common work is a great one, and difficult as great. It requires 
men of high culture and pure character and supreme devotion to God 
and humanity, such as we all aim and hope to be. The Nation and the 
Church need wise and strong leaders, and we in the colleges must sup- 
ply the urgent need. All vocations in life and all classes in society 
greatly need men and women with genuine culture and the truest type 
of manhood and womanhood. We must do our best to meet this great 
demand. 

501 



THEOLOGICAL EDUOATIOIS^ IN ONTARIO. 
By Prof. Albeet H. Newman, LL. D., 

Toronto Baptist College. 



I. General Observations. 

In no department of education has progress been so marked within 
the last twenty years, in Ontario, as in the theological. Most of 'the 
progress really falls within the last six years.' Of tlie six leading Prot- 
estant theological institutions, two of the most flourishing have been 
founded within the latter period, one having been fully equii)[)ed and 
virtually endowed, and the other already taking rank alongside of the 
older institutions. Of the four older institutions, all have added largely 
to their resources, and we may supj)ose that their efliciency has corre- 
spondingly increased. There is every reason to expect that the next 
twenty years will be a period of even greater progress than the last. 
A generous rivalry i^revails among the denominations in this, as in 
other departments of Christian work, and each can rejoice in the pros- 
perity of the theological institutions of the rest, if for no higher reason, 
because of the stimulus which is imparted thereby to its own institutions. 

1. Conservative Character of Theological Education in Ontario. — So far 
as I am aware, no new system of theology or ecclesiology has been de- 
veloped on Canadian soil. Whatever of unorthodox teaching and 
practice has appeared has come from without, and the spirit of con- 
servatism has been so dominant from the first that little encouragement 
has been given to innovators. Naturally, the theological colleges re- 
flect this spirit of conservatism, and are themselves bulwarks of ortho- 
doxy, each according to the standard of the denomination it, represents. 
If there has been any shortcoming, it has been in failure to take suffi- 
cient cognizance of the current of modern thought. 

'2'. Faculties. — The theological faculties of Ontario are none of them 
large as compared with those of some of the wealthier institutions of 
the United States, or in proportion to the actual need. The various 
theological faculties have each from three to five members, and in some 
of the institutions even these are able to devote only a portion of their 
time to theological teaching. Only one institution has a faculty of five, 
all of whom give their entire time to the work. In this particular there 
is abundant opportunity for progress, and there are indications that 
some of the faculties will soon be re enforced by the et^tablishment of 
new chairs. The fact is becoming more and more widely recognized 
that two or three men, however able, cannot satisfactorily master or 
teach the whole circle of the theological sciences, and that the necessity 
of distributing one's energies among several departments and of devot- 
ing an excessive number of hours to class-room work forbids the highest 
attainment in any department. The fact that the professors in our 
institutions have from the beginning been thus overburdened, along 
502 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 265 

with that of the want of adequate libraries, accounts, in large measure, 
for the literary sterility of Canadian theologians. Leisure and libraries 
are the indispensable conditions of useful literary production, in thi-s as 
in all other departments of research. Many able and noble men bave 
labored and are laboring under the disadvantages named above, and 
their labors have not been in vain ; but it is becoming everv year more 
and more difficult to labor successfully without concentration, in pro- 
portion as theology is coming to be studied more and more scientifically 
and the literature of each department is becoming even more extensive. 
The great need of theological education in Ontario is, therefore, a doub- 
ling of the faculties of most of the institutions, and this means a doubling 
of the funds for the support of professors. 

3. Endoicments. — Hitherto all of the theological institutions have been 
supported almost entirely by annual contributions of the churches and 
of generous individuals. Of the six institutions referred to before, one 
is supposed to be, virtually, well endowed, another has an endowment 
of about $150,000, and the rest have each less than $75,000. The time 
has not yet arrived in Canada when it is safe to say that $1,000,000 is 
the smallest sum for which a theological college can be properly equipped, 
as many leading educators in the United States are saying; but one or 
two notable examples of broad-minded and far-sighted generosity in 
providing for theological education cannot fail to raise the standard to 
a far higher point than it has yet reached. 

4. Libraries. — In scarcely any other particular are the theological in- 
stitutions of Ontario more deficient than in libraries. These range 
from 3,000 volumes or less to 10,000 volumes. No one of them is en- 
dowed to any considerable extent, and the growth of most of them has 
been slow and precarious. The fact that the professors have been over- 
worked and have had little leisure for research, has doubtless prevented 
them in some instances from x>utting forth the exertion necessary tt) the 
collection of libraries. So far as I am aware, there is not in Ontario or 
in the Dominion of Canada a theological library where one could be 
sure of finding even the most essential works in any given department. 
Yet the libraries all contain many useful books, and are most of them 
fairly adequate to the wantsof students. Herealso there lias been marked 
progress within the last few years, one of the largest and best libraries 
having been entirely collected since the beginning of the year 1881. 
The fact is coming to be recognized that books are as essential as bricks 
and brains, and that for the collection and maintenance of a library 
adequate to the needs of a theological college a liberal expenditure of 
time and money is indispensable. 

5. IStudents. — The number of students in these six ijistitutions ranges 
from 15 to 50, the latter being j)robably the largest number of strictly 
theological students ever present at the same time in any of these in- 
stitutions. The degree of preparation required varies, one institution 
insisting upon the completion of a university course, one upon univer- 
sity matriculation, and others, while urging upon all the importance of 
completing a university course if practicable, receive students for special 
courses of study who have only a common-school education. T^e ten- 
dency throughout seems to be toward gradually raising the standard of 
admission. 

6. Courses of Study. — The three years' curriculam prevails in most of 
the colleges, with special advanced courses of reading for the degree of 
B. D. Tiie degree of D. D. is likewise conferred on examination by 
several of the colleges, and some of them have the power of conferring 
the honorary degree of D. D. Little has been attempted as yet in the 

503 



266 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

way of resident graduate courses of study. The tendency among stu- 
dents is to remain in residence the shortest time practicable. This is 
doubtless fostered by the regulations of the Provincial University, 
which require only one year of residence for the four years' course. 

7. Affiliations of the Theological Colleges. — The theological colleges of 
Ontario may be divided into two classes, as regards their connection 
with literary institutions : First, those that are affiliated more or less 
closely with the Provincial University, or with the college maintained 
by the University (University College, Toronto) ; and, Second, those 
that form departments of denominational Universities. To the former 
class belong Knox College (Presbyterian), the Protestant Episcopal 
Divinity School (Wyclifre College), and Toronto Baptist College 
(McMaster Hall), all of Toronto. To the latter class belong the theo- 
logical department of the University of Trinity College, Toronto (An- 
glican), Queen's College and University, Kingston (Presbyterian), and 
Victoria University, Coburg (Methodist). The institutions thus con- 
nected with the Provincial Universitj", besides making use of the arts 
course for fitting their students for theology, avail themselves of the 
lectureship in Oriental languages maintained by the University, and 
are thus able to dispense, either wholly or in part, with instruction in 
Hebrew and Aramaic as languages. Moreover, theological students 
who have not enjoyed the advantages of University training have the 
privilege of attending any ot the courses of lectures ]jrovided by the 
University, while pursuing their theological studies. The large Univer- 
sity library is also accessible to the students of the affiliated theological 
colleges. The theological departments of the denominational univer- 
sities are, of course, much more intimately related to the arts depart- 
ment, the same professors lecturing in theology and in arts. 

II. The Institutions in Detail. 

It will be most convenient to take up the institutions according to 
denominations. 

I. CHURCH OF ENGrLAND THEOLOGICAL COLLEGES. 

(1.) Theological Department of Trinity College. 

The secularization of King's College, which up to 1850 had been con- 
trolled by the Church of England and had embraced a faculty in 
divinity, led to the establishment of Trinity College as a denomina- 
tional institution in 1851. The training of candidates for the ministry 
was doubtless a prime consideration, and from the beginning theologi- 
cal instruction was provided. The college has been maintained largely 
by contributions from England, and latterly in Canada. There are at 
present two professors in divinity whose chairs are endowed, and two 
lecturers. Candidates for the degree of B. D. must be graduates in 
arts of three years' standiug,aud must pass examinations onaprescribed 
course of reading. The degree of D. D. is conferred on bachelors of 
divinitj' of five years' standing on examination. A special course of 
reading is set for this degree. 

The library of the college numbers altogether 6,300 volumes, but the 
theological is not distinguished from the general collection. 

Students are aided chiefly by means of scholarships (two of which 
yield $160 each), and by means of exhibitions provided by yearly col- 
504 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 2G7 

lectious under the authority of the synods of the Dioceses of Toronto, 
]Sriag'ara, and Ontario, 

At present tbere are thirteen students in divinity classes, besides two 
who are reading for honors, making a total of fifteen. 

FACULTY. 

First Professor— The Provosf, Rev. C. W. E. Body, M. A., D. C. L. 
Second Professor — Rev. G. A. S. Schneidek, M. A. 
Lecturer in Apolofjetics and Pastoral Theolo(jj — Rev. W. Claek, M. A. 
Lecturer in Homiktics — Rev. J. P. Lewis. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

The course of study in the divinity class extends over two years. 
Instruction is given by the professors and lecturers in the following 
subjects : 

I. Old Testament: Biblical History, with special reference to tlie theology of the 
Old Testameat ; Selected Books of the Old Testament iu English ; Hebrew Grammar : 
Selected Portions of the Old Testament in Hebrew. 

II. New Testament : New Testament Grammar and Synonyms; Hisfory of New Tes- 
tament Times ; the Gospel of S. John in Greek ; Selected Portions of the Epistles in 
Greek, with full comments ; cursory reading of other Epistles in Greek. 

III. Church Historfi : (a) Early Church History down to 451 A. D.; {h) the outlines 
of English Church History. 

IV. Pairistics : One selected Greek, and one selected Latin, patristic writing. 

V. Doctrinal Theology : The Articles of the Church of England ; Pearson on the 
Creed ; Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Book V. 

VI. LHurr/iolofjii : The Book of Common Prayer, and its relation to earlier liturgies. 

VII. Apolooeiics : Paley's Evidences of Christianity; Blunt's Undesigned Coiuci- 
dences ; IButler's Analogy ; a New Analogy by Cellarius ; Rowe's Bampton Lectures ; 
Christlieb's Modern Donbti and Christian Belief; Barry's Boyle Lectures; Bishop 
Cotterillon Science and Religion. 

VIII. Practical Theology : (a) Pastoral Theology — Van Oosterzee's Practical Theol- 
ogy, Blunt's Directorium Pastorale, Shedd's Pastoral Theology ; (&) Homiletics. 

LICENTIATE IN SACRED THEOLOGY. 

The candidate for this degree must have kept nine complete terms. 
He must (1) have passed thfe primary examination for the degree of 
B. A., and two June examinations of the divinity class; or (2) have ob- 
tained honors in theology, and have passed at a Christmas or June 
examination of the divinity class in the year's work of the class in doc 
trine, apologetics, pastoral theology, and homiletics, having attended 
at least one term's lectures in these subjects. 

BACHELOR OF DIVINITY. 

The candidate for this degree must be a graduate in arts of the Uni- 
versity of three years' standing, or in the case of a graduate admitted " adi 
eundem statum,''^ of at least three years' standing from his first degree. 
The requirement that the candidate shall be a graduate in arts may, 
however, be dispensed with by the corporation, on special application 
having been made to them in the case of clergymen who have been in 
priest's orders for at least six years, but such candidates shall be re- 
quired to pass the matriculation examination in Trinity College. 

Except in the case hereinafter provided for, rhe candidate must pass 
two examinations, to be called the First and Second Examinations for 
the degree of B. D, 

Graduates who have completed the two years' divinity course in Trin- 
ity College and have passed the two June examinations of the divinity 

505 



268 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

class, obtainiDg at least a second class in eacli examination, shall be 
exempted from the first examination for the degree of B. D. 

The examinations in divinity will begin October 1st, and candidates 
for any examination must send notice to the Provost not later than 
July 1st, specifying, where necessary, the part of the examination for 
which they intend to present themselves. 

First Examination for the Degree of B. D. 

The subjects for this examination shall be as follows : 

(1) Selected portions from tbe historical, poetical, and iirophetical parts of the Old 
Testameot (questious in Hebrew will be set, but are not obligatory for the degree). 
(2) A selected Gospel and Epistle or Epistles from the New Testament in Greek. (3) 
One selected Greek, and one selected Latin ecclesiastical writing. (4) The outlines 
of the history (a) of the- Christian Church to A. D. 451 ; (b) of the English Church. 

(5) A selected work on dogmafic theology. (6) A selected work on apologetic theol- 
ogy. (7) A selected work on Chris Lian ethics. (8) A selected work on pastoral the- 
ology. 

The selected works for the years 1885-87, inclusive, are ! 

(1) Joshua and Judges ; Psalms, Book III. ; Isaiah ch. i-xxv. (2) The Gospel accord- 
ing to S. Luke; the Epistle of S. .Jan\es. (')) The Ejiistle of S. Clement of Eome to 
the Corinthians; S. Augustine's Confessious. (r->) Martensen's Christian Dogmatics. 

(6) Cbristlieb's Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. (7) Martensen's Christian Ethics, 
Vol. I. (8) Brooks (Rev. P.), Lectures on Preaching. 

The selected works for the year 1888 are : 

(1) Exodus and Numbers; Psalms, Book I.; Isaiah ch. xl-lxvi. (2) The Gospel 
according to S. Mark; the Epistle to the Romans. (3) The Apostolic Constitutions, 
Book VII, and the Aidax'JJj Irenseus, Book V. (5) Martensen's Christian Dogmatics. 
(()) Cbristlieb's Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. (7) Martensen's Christian Ethics, 
Vol. I. (8) Farrar's Christian Ministry. 

Second Examination for the Degree of Bi D. 

The candidate may select for examination one of the five following 
::jroups of subjects : 

I. Old Testament. — The Hebrew Scriptures, with special reference to selected books ; 
also selected books from the Septuagint version. The history and development of the 
Kingdo;u of God during the Old Testament period, with special regard to its relation 
to the Christian ministry and sacraments. 

II. New Testament. — The New Testament in Greek, with special reference to selected 
books; the history and constitution of the Christian Church during the Apostolic 
period ; the history of the canon of the New Testament, and of its text — its inspiration 
and contents. 

III. Patristics and Ecclesiastical History . — The history and constitution of the Chris- 
tian Church during the Apostolic period, and to the death of Leo the Great, with 
selected Christian writings of this period; the history of the English Church, special 
regard being had to the history and doctrinal position of th« various bodies which 
have separated from her. 

IV. Liturgies and Dogmatic Theology. — The ancient liturgies and their relation to the 
various eucharistic offices of the Anglican Church ; the creeds and illustrative docu- 
ments; the history of some selected doctrine. 

V. Apologetics. — Positive grounds of faith, embracing the several lines of thought 
by which the mind is led (a) to the conviction of the existence of God ; (&) to the con- 
viction of the truih of Christianity ; selected ancient Christian Apologies ; relation 
of Christianity to other philosophical and ethical systems. 

The selected works of the various groups for the years 1S85-'S8, in- 
clusive, are: 

I. Old Testament. — In Hebrew — 1 Samuel, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah; in the Septuagint 
Version — 1 Samuel, Wisdom; Hengstenberg's Kingdom of God under the Old Testa- 
ment; Oehlei's Theology of the Old Testament; Eiehm's Messianic Prophecy; Perowne's 
Psalms (Introduction). 

II. I\'ew Testament. — The Gospel according to S. John ; the Epistle to tlm Romans ; 
the Epistles of S. John ; the Eipistle of S. jude ; the Apocalypse ; Neauder's History 

506 ' 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 2G9 

of tbo Planting of Christianity ; Essays in Liglitfoot's Commentaries ; Westcott's In- 
troduction to the Study of the Gospels; Westcott's History ( f the Canon ; Sanday's 
Gospel in the Second Century ; Westcott and Hort's Introduction (Vol. II of the New 
Testament): Row on Inspiration. 

III. Patristics avd Ecclesiastical History. — The seven Greek Epistles of S. Ignatius; 
S. Irenaeus c. Haereses, Book III; S. Cyprian de Unitate Ecclesise and de Oratione; 
S. Cyril of Jerusalem, Catecheses III, IV, V; S. Chrysostom, Homilies on the Stat- 
utes V, XX; Socrates, Hist. Eccl., Books V, VI; S. Augustine de Civitate Dei, Books 
V, XXII. 

IV. TAturgies and Dogmaiic Theology.— Socrates Hist. Eccl. i. 8; Definition of the 
Faith by the Council ofChalcedon (Canons of the first four General Councils, p. :M); 
Hammond's Ancient Liturgies; Palmer's Origines Liturgicse: Comber's Companion 
to the Temple, Parts I, II ; The Doctrine of Justificataon. 

V. Apologetics.— Oui:^en c. Celsnm, Book II; Tertullian, Apology; article *' Philos- 
ophy" in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Sketch of Ancient Philosophy, J. B. Mayor 
(Cainbridge Press) ; History of Scholasticism, in Neander's Church History, Vol. VIII 
(pp. 1-23'J in Bohn's Edition); Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics; Christlieb's Modern 
Doubt and Christian Belief ; Barry, What is Natural Religion ? Brownlow Maitlaud's 
Argument from Prophecy ; Liddon's Bampton Lectures, III, V, VIII ; Wordsworth, 

■ The One Religion (Bampton Lectures) ; Martensen's Christian Ethics, Vols. I, II. 

The selected works for the year 1889 are the same as for the years 
1885-'88 in Sections I, III, IV, V. In Section II the Epistle to the Phi- 
lippians and the pastoral Epistles will be substituted for the Epistle to 
the Romans, and the first Epistle of S. Peter for the Epistle of S. Jude. 

DOCTOR OF DIVINITY. 

The candidate for this degree must be a bachelor of divinity of five 
years' standing. 

Examination for the Degree of B. D. 

The candidate may select for examination one of the five following- 
groups of subjects, and will be required to write a thesis on the corre- 
sponding subject specified below: 

I. Old Testament . — The Old Testament in Hebrew. For Thesis: Some selected sub- 
ject connected with the relation of the Old Testament Scriptures to contemporary 
ethnic faiths, or with the authenticity, doctrinal position, or other kindred question 
of selected portions of the Old Testament. 

II. New Testament. — The New Testament in Greek. Patristic and other schools of 
interpretation, with selected commentaries. For Thesis: The anthenticity, doctrinal 
position, or other kindred question of selected books or portions of the New Testa- 
ment. 

IIL Patristics and Ecclesiastical History. — Selected historical periods from ancient, 
mediaeval, and post-Reformation ecclesiastical history, with selected writings ©f the 
period. For Thesis: Some selected historical subject. 

IV. Liturgies arid Dogmatic Theology. — The Book of Common Prayer in relation to 
its original sources. The history of doctrine in the sixteenth century, with special 
reference to the doctrinal position of the English Church. For Thesis: Some selected 
doctrinal subject. 

V. Apologetics. — (a) The bearing upon the Christian Revelation of recent investi- 
gations in the various physical sciences and in history. (&) The relation of Christi- 
anity to the various non-Christian Faiths. For Thesis: Some selected subject from {b). 

The selected works for the various groups for the years 1885-'88 in- 
clusive are: 

I. Old Testament. — Thesis: The Miracles of the Old Testament, considered with re- 
gard to the law of their distribution in the history of Israel, their ]iurpose and signifi- 
cance, in contrast with those of contemporary ethnic faiths. 

II. Nexii TeMament. — Origen on the Gospel of S. John, Books X, XIII ; S. Chrysostom 
on S. Matthew, Homilies 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15-24, 28, 32, 36-39, 43, 54, 59, 69, 82, 87-89 
(all inclusive); S. Augustine on First Epistle of S. John; Tholuck's Sermon on the 
Mount (T. and T. Clark) ; Baui's Paul (Theological Translation Fund Library — Wil- 
liams and Norgate) ; Ligbtfoot's Epistle to the Galatians ; Godet on S. John's Gospel. 
Thesis : The nature and circumstances of the contemporary Roman Church in relation 
to the argument of the Epistle to the Romans, and the doctrine of Justification con- 
tained therein. 

507 



270 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

III. Pairisiics and Ecdemasfical Hisiory. — Selected periods : {a) The Life and Times 
of Gregory the Great, including the IKsiory of Wes'eru Monasticism. Books recom- 
mended — Neauder, History of the Cliristian Church (passim); Mihnau, History of 
Latin Christianity, Vol. II, Cap. VI, VII; Bede, Hist. Eccl., Books I, 11; ariiele 
"Gregory I", in Dictionary of Christian Biography; Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire, Cap. XXXVII, XLI-XLVI; Montalembeit's Monks of the West. (6) 
The Life and Times of Archbishop Auselm. Books recommended — Life of Auselm 
(Dean Church) ; Neander's History of i he Christian Church, Vol. VIII (passim) ; Hook's 
Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, Vol. II, cap. 3; Cur Deus Homo, (c) The 
Life and Times of Richard Hooker. Books recommended — Strype's Lives of Arch- 
bishops Parker, Grindall, and Whitgift; Hook's Lives of the Arclibishops of Canter- 
bury, Vols. IV, V, new series; Hooker's Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, Books VII, VIII ; 
Biison's Perpetual Government of Christ's Chnrch. Thesis : The influence of the pecu- 
liar social and political characterisMcs of the i)eriod uj)ou the cbaracier of the English. 
Reformation. 

IV. Liturgies and Dogmatic Theolog"/. — Breviarium ad Usum Sarum (Cambridge 
Press) ; Liturgies of King Edward VI (Parker Sociery) ; Freeman's Principles of Divine 
Service; Maskell's Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England; The Sarum Missal 
(Procter's History of the Book of Common Prayer) ; Card well's Conferences ; Institu- 
tion of a Christian Man; Homilies, Vol. I, 4, 5; Vol. II, 1, 7, 9; Dean Nowell's Cate- 
chism; Jewell's Apology; Cranmer's True and Catholic Doctrine of the Holy Eu- 
charist; Ussher's Answer to a Jesuit; Winer's Confessions of Christendom (forrefer- 
ence) ; Masters in English Theology (Murray). Thesis: The doctrine of human free- 
dom in its relation to original sin and divine grace. 

V. Jpologefics. — Plato's Phaedo; Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, Book II; Euse- 
bius, Demonstratio Evangelica. Book I ; Rhys Davis on Buddhism, S. P. C. K. ; Monier 
Williams on Hinduism, S. P. C. K. ; Douglas on Confucianism, S. P. C. K. ; Max Miil- 
ler's Essays on the Science of Religion (Vol. I of "Chips from a German Workshop"); 
Chapters on "Religion "in Rawliusor's Ancient Monarchies; Ancient History from 
the Monuments, S. P. C. K.; Rawlinson's Historical Illustrations of the Old Testa- 
ment; The Emperor Julian : Paganism and Christianity' (Rendall); Duke of Argyll's 
Reign of Law; P^re Didon's Science without God; The Supernatural in Nature; The 
Unseen Universe (Balfour & Tait) ; A New Analogy by Cellarius ; Liddon's Some Ele- 
ments of Religion; Bishop Littlejohn's Individualism. Thesis: The needs of Man to 
which Buddhism bears witness, and the way in which Christianity meets them. 

M. B. — Candidates are at liberty to send in theses upon other subjects in each 
group, to be approved of by the examiners. 

Tl)e selected works for 1889 are the same as above, with the substitu- 
tion in Section Y of the Duke of Argyll's " Unity of Nature" for " The 
iSuper natural in l^ature." 

Oandidates for the degrees of B. D. or D. I), are required to preach a 
sermon before the University. 

Any graduate of the University, holding the office of bishoj) or dean 
in the Church of England, is eligible for the degree of doctor of divinity, 
jure dignitatis, upon payment of the accustomed fee for that degree. 

(2.) WycUffe College, Toronto. 

This institution was incorporated in 1879, and grew out of dissatisfac- 
tion with the alleged High Church tendencies of Trinity College. Its 
thoroughly evangelical position is well expressed by the following ex- 
tract from the Calendar: 

I. Its chief aim and ijurpose is to provide sound and comprehensive theological 
training, in accordance with the distinctive principles of evangelical truth, as em- 
bodied in the Thirty -nine Articles ; and to send forth men trained in these principles — 
men who, renewed by the Spirit of Christ and constrained by the love of Christ, are 
determined, with S. Paul, to preach nothing but Christ, and Him crucilied. 

II. Its close proximity to and connection with University College secure for the 
students all the advantages to be derived from its ample resources, in the attainment 
.of a sound and comprehensive liberal education. By no other arrangement could this 
^ntellect^ual training be so effectively and completely provided. And even in those 
cases where a complete university course cannot be taken, the student can avail him- , 
self of the advantages furnished by this well equipped University in the departments 
of Oriental languages, philosophy, Tnental science, and classics. 

508 " ■ ' I 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 271 

It is sustained by the sympathy and liberality of some of the most 
proiiiiueut laymen in Ontario. From the first it has utilized University 
College for instruction in all extra-theological sul)jects and in Oriental 
languages, and it has now entered formally into affihation with the Uni- 
versity. The cost of the buildings already completed and in course of 
erection is upwards of §54,000. The endowment fund now reaches 
$62,000. The annual income from endowment, annual subscriptions, 
etc., is upwards of $8,000. The staff of instruction consists of four i)ro- 
fessors, three lecturers, and a tutor in patristics. A third professor is 
to be added this year. The library is still small, but extensive additions 
are to be made in the near future. The present number of students is 
25. Beneficiary aid is furnished in the form of exhibitions, whose max- 
imum value is $120. 

The college is now in afi&liation with the University of Toronto, 



Professor of Dogmatic Theology and of the Exegesis and Literature of the Neiv Testament — 

Rev. J. P. Sheraton, D.D., Principal. 
Professor of the Exegesis and Literature of the Old Testament and of A2)ologetics — Rev. E. 

Daniel, B. A. 
Proftusor of Ecclesiastical History and Litnrgics — Rev. G. M. Wrong, B. A. 
Professor of Ethics and Practical Theology — Rev. F. H. Du Veenet. 
Lecturer in Homiletics — Ven. Archdeacon Boddy, M. A. 
Lecturer in Apologetics — Rev. Sept. Jones, M. A. 
Tutor in Classics and Patristics — P. H. Langton, Esq., B. A. 
Lecturer in Elocution — 

COURSE OF STUDY 

embraces the following subjects: 

I. Exegetical Theology: Biblical criticism, including the history and determination 
of the text; the history of ihe canon; the history of version ; and the principles of 
interpretation.! The literature and exegesis of the Old Testament, including general 
aud special introduction, and the reading of selected books and portions. The litera- 
ture and exegesis of the New Testament, including general and special introduction, 
and the critical reading of selected books and portions. 

II. Dogmatic Theology, including courses of lectures upon the nature and extent of 
the canon ; the rule of Faith ; the nature and character of God ; the nature and siu 
of man ; the person of Christ ; the way of salvation ; the Church and sacraments ; the 
Last Things. Standard works upon the Thirty-nine Articles and the creeds are read 
criiically. 

III. Ecclesiastical History and Liturgies; especially the history of the first three cen- 
turies, tberRefoi-mation, and the Church of England. Also, the history and interpre- 
tation of the Book of Common Prayer. 

IV. Apologetic Theology, including natural theology ; the theistic argument ; the 
historical evidences; with the critical reading of standard works on apologetics. 

V. Practical Theology, including homiletics, the preparation and delivery of ser- 
mons, and pastoral theology, the nature and work of the ministry. (In connection 
with this subject, special attention is given to practical work and to elocution. All 
the students engage in mission work in country districts, and in Sunday school work, 
Bible classes, etc., in the city.) 

VI. Ethics, theoretical and practical. 

The course of study extends over three full years. It is possible for 
arts students to take in options duiisug the third and fourth years of 
their arts course the equivalent of one year's theological study, and 
thus make the entire period occupied in the arts and theological curric- 
ula six years. All students who are not graduates in arts must ma- 
triculate in the University of Toronto, and must spend ibur years in 
their course, which in that case includes, in addition to the theological 

'The study of Hebrew is pursued^in University College. 

509 



272 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

curriculum, the equivalent of oue year's work in arts, cbiefly devoted to 
classics, metaphysics, and logic. Kon- matriculated students can be 
admitted to a partial course, but cannot have the standing of graduates 
of Wycliffe College. 

II. METHODIST THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE. 

With the union of the Methodist Churches of Canada, a union in 
theological education was also effected. The theological department of 
Victoria University will henceforth, it is supposed, enjoy the undivided 
patronage of the denomination in Ontario. 

Theological Department of Victoria University, Cohurg. 

This institution was primarily designed for the education of males 
and females, and of candidates for the ministry. The building was 
erected in 1832 at a cost of $40,000 — a large sum for that time; the 
institution was as yet unincorporated. It was incorporated as the 
"Upper Canada Academy" in 1836, and was reorganized as a univer- 
sity by an amended charter in 1841, the theological department being 
always i>rominent. The theological endowment now amounts to about 
858,000. Four professors of the university devote a portion of their 
time to theological instruction, and the Dean of the Faculty of Theology 
devotes his eotire time to this work. The theological library numbers 
about 5,000 volumes. To enter the theological department at all, stu- 
dents must have matricnlated in arts, and candidates for the degree 
ot B. D. must be graduates in arts. The entire number of theological 
students last year (including 2 non-resident candidates for the degree 
of E. D. and 11 probationers) was 36. This year there are 42 in attend- 
ance, besides several non-residents who are reading for the degree of 
B. D. Beneficiary aid is bestowed in the form of loans, repayable in 
ten years without interest. 

It is expected that the Methodists of Ontario, who are one of the 
largest, wealthiest, and most aggressive bodies in the Province, will, 
now that union has been consummated, bring their facilities for theo- 
logical education into accord with their commanding position. 

FACULTY. 

« 

Professor of Ethics, A])ologetics, and Homileiics — Eev. S. S. Nelles, D. D., LL. D., Presi- 

deDt. 
Edward Jackson Professor of Biblical and Systematic Theology — Rev. N. Burwash, S. 

T. D., Dean. 
Exegesis and Literature of the Nexo Testament — JoHX WiLSOX, LL. D, 
Bihlical and Ecclesiastical History — Rev, A. H. Reynar, M. A. 
Adjunct Professor in Theology — Rev. G-. C. Workman, M. A. 
Exegesis and Literature of the Old Teitament — Rev. N. Bltrwash, S. T. D. 

COURSE OP STUDY. 

The following course extends over two or three years, according to 
the previous preparation of the students: 

First Year.^ 

Systematic theology, soteriology, and practical doctrines of religion; Biblical in- 
trodnction; Biblicalhistory; New Testament, Greek; Hebrew language; metaphysics 
and logic. 

^The (irst year is usually taken in connection with arts work. 
510 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 273 

Second Year. 

Systematic Theology : General introduction ; principles of theism ; the nature and 
credentials of Revelation ; inspiration ; the canon ; the doctrine of God ; creation ; 
providence ; sin ; the person and office of Christ. 

Exegetlcal Theology : New Testament — the gospels Luke, John, and Matthew v, vi, 
vii ; Old Testament — the Pentateuch and the Psalms, selections. 

Bihlical Theologtj : Lectures on the Mosaic doctrines of creation ; the Fall of man ; the 
deluge; Egypt and the Exodus; the Sinaitic legislatiou; Musaism and ancient relig- 
ions and ancient law ; the development of Christian doctrine in the New Testament, 
especially prior to S. Paul. 

Historical Theology : History of the Christian'Church to the time of the Reformation. 

Third Tear. 

Systematic Theology: The' atonement ; the office and work of the Spirit; the proba- 
tional conditions of salvation ; justification ; regeneration and sauctification ; Chris- 
tian ethics ; the doctrine of the Church ; eschatology. 

History of Doctrine and Comparative Theology. 

Church Polity and Homiletics. 

Exegeiical Theology : The New Testament— Romans and Hebrews ; the Old Testa- 
ment — Isaiah, Zechariah, Job, and Proverbs. 

Biblical Theology: Lectures on prophecy — its nature, development, and function in 
the Old Testament; Messianic prophecy in relation to the historical and religious 
development of the chosen people ; the Pauline theology lectures accompanying the 
exegesis of Romans. 

Historical Theology: Modern Church history. 

III. PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGICAL COLLEGES. 

(1.) Theological Department of Queen- s College and University, Kingston. 

As in most denominational institutions, theological education has 
from the beginning held a very prominent place in Queen's College. 
Before the union of the various Presbyterian bodies (1861 and 1875), it 
was maintained by the Old Kirk. Tbere is no special endowment for the 
theological department, but part of the income of the general endow- 
ment fund of the university is appropriated to the theological work of 
the institution. Besides this, the theological department draws an in- 
come from the Temporalities Fund of the Old Kirk, and receives liberal 
collections from the churches. The entire income for this department 
is about $7,500 annually. The theological library contains about 0,000 
volumes. The faculty in divinity consists of three professors and two 
lecturers, l^o one is admitted as a student except graduates in arts 
and those who have given at least three years to university studies. 
The standard of admission is, therefore, unusually high. The degree 
of B. D. is conferred by special examination on a prescribed course of 
post-graduate reading. Beneficiary aid is given in the form of scholar- 
ships, which are open to competition, and bursaries i^rovided for those 
who do not gain scholarships. The present number of students is 34. 

Queen's University is one of the most enterprising of our institutions, 
.lud has made great progress in all of its departments within the last 
few years. 

FACULTY. 

Primarim Professor of Divinity — Rev. G. M. Grant, the Principal, D. D., LL. D. 
Professor of Hebrew , Chaldee, and Old Testament Exeqesis — Rev. John B. Mo watt, 
M.A.,D.D. ' 

Professor of Apologetics and Neio Testament Criticism — Rev. Donald Ross, M. A. , B. D. 
Lecturer on Church History — Rev. James Carmichael (King). 
Watkins Lecturer on Elocution — Rev. H.G.Parker. 

7950 COT, pt. 2 is 511 



274 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

I. — Divinity. 

Lectures on the canonicity, authenticity, genuineness, and credibility of the Bibli- 
cal Records; the inspiration and authority of the Scriptures; systematic theology; 
the pastoral office; and homiletics — with prelections and examinations on Hill's 
Lectures in Divinity. 

II. — Hebreio and Chaldee. 

First Year. — Wolfe's Hebrew Grammar. Gen. i, xxv, xxvi. Jos. ix, x. 1 Sam. i- 
iv. Ps. 1-lvii. Translations into Hebrew. 

Second Fear.— Gesenins' Hebrew Grammar. Lev. xix. Num. xvi, xvii. Jer. xvii, 
xviii. Ps. cxxsv-cxliv. Isaiah iii-v. Prov. ii, iii. Translations into Hebrew. 

Third Year. — Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. Winer's Chaldee Grammar. Ps. Iviii- 
Ixxi. Isaiah li-lx. Dan. ii, iii. Ezra iv, v. 

III. — Apologetics. 

Lectures on fundamental apologetics. 

IV. — Biblical Criticism. , 

1. Old Testament exegesis — Joel and Amos in LXX. Lectures. 

2. New Testament exegesis — Acts of the Apostles ; Romans; 1 and 2 Corinthians; 
lectures on N. T. canon ; introduction ; criticism. 

V. — Church History. 

TO THE COUNCIL OF NICEA. 

The Church requires the following discourses to be delivered during the course : 
Homily ; lecture and Greek exercise ; sermon and Hebrew exercise. 

Matriculation. 

18?<3-'84: Westminster Confession; Hill's Lectures, Book I; Gospel by Mark in 
Greek and English ; examination in Hebrew on regular verb and pronouns, and 
Genesis, ch. i, with analysis of the regular verbs and pronouns contained in it. 

Pass Examinations. 
On the work of the session. 

DEGREE OP BACHELOR OF DIVINITY. 

Regulations. 

I. Candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Divinity (B. D.) must be 
graduates in arts of this university, or of a university whose degrees 
are recognized by the senate. 

II. The degree shall not be conferred until the candidate has com- 
pleted his theological curriculum, with a view to the ministry in the 
Church to which he belongs, and has passed a satisfactory examination 
in the branches of theology taught in the university. 

III. The subjects of examinatiou shall be in two departments, the 
first embracing (1) Church history, (2) Biblical criticism, and (3) sys- 
tematic theology. 

IV. Candidates who have completed the theological course may be 
examined in either of these departments, and may defer their examina- 
tiou in the other department, provided there be not a greater interval 
than two years between their two examinations. 

512 



INTERNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 275 

V. Students who have completed all the sesisions but one of their 
theological course, may be admitted to examination in the first depart- 
ment. 

VI. A candidate may, subject to the preceding regulations, appear at 
any university examination in theology, provided he gives tv\70 weeks' 
notice of his intention to the registrar. 

VII. When a student, who is a candidate for the degree, shall obtain 
at a pass examination on any subject two-thirds of the marks allotted 
to the subject, he may, on recommendation of the examiner, be exempted 
from further examination on that subject. 

SUBJECTS OF EXAMINATION. 

Department I. 

1. Evidences of religion, Biblical introduction, and inspiration of Scripture. 

2. Hebrew, Isaiah xl-lxvi. Chaldee, Daniel ii, iii. 

Department II. 

1. Church history — centuries i-iii; the Eeformation ; the Church in Scotland. 

2. Biblical criticism — Epistle to Eomans in Greek; Biblical hermeneutics ; Ham- 
mond's Textual Criticism of New Testament ; Introduction to Pentateuch and Gospel 
of John. 

3. Systematic theology — person of Christ, doctrine of sin, doctrine of the atone- 
ment, justification, work of the Holy Spirit. . 

The following books may be consulted : Paley's Evidences, Butler's Analogy, Tul- 
loch's Burnett Prize on Theism, Mozley Bampton Lectures on Miracles, Trench on the 
Miracles (preliminary essay), VVestcott on the Canon of the New Testament, Lee on 
Inspiration, Dorner on the Person of Christ, Liddon's Bampton Lectures on our 
Lord's Divinity, Tulloch on the Christian Doctrine of Sin, (Crawford on the Atone- 
ment. Grotius de Satisfactione Christi, Hill's Lectures in Divinity, Christian Dog- 
matics (Van Oosterzee's and Martensen's), Keil on the Old Testament and Bleek on 
the New Testament, Killen's Old Catholic Church, Fisher's History of the Eeforma- 
tion, Biblical Hermeneutics (Elliott and Harsha). 

(2.) Knox College. Toronto. 

This institution was established in 1845 as a theological school of the 
Presbyterian Church in Canada (Free Church). Since the union (1861 
and 1875) it has common relations to the whole Presbyterian body. 
The college building, including site and furnishing, cost $120,000. The 
endowment fund amounts to $125,000. About ^70,000 additional has 
been subscribed, and a canvass is being made which is likely soon to 
increase the paid up endowment to $200,000. The library contains 
about 10,000 volumes. The faculty consists of three professors and two 
lecturers. The lectureship in Oriental languages sustained by the Uni- 
versity of Toronto is utilized by Knox College, as it is by Wycliffe 
College and the Baptist College. To secure admission students must 
be graduates in arts or present a certificate of having satisfactorily 
passed the final examination in the preparatory course of Knox College. 
This preparatory course is provided for those whose circumstances do 
not permit them to take a full university course. Students support 
themselves chiefly by doing mission work during the six months' vaca- 
tion, and by scholarships which are open to competition. The present 
number of students is fifty. There are about the same number under 
the care of the college authorities, studying in the preparatory course 
and in University College. An additional professor will doubtless be 
appointed within the next year or two. 

513 



276 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



Professor of Excgeiics and Biblical Crilicism — Eev. Principal Caven, D. D. 
Professor of Apologetics and Church History — Rev. William Gregg, D. D. 
Profes.-ior of Si/stematic Theology— Rev. William MacLarkn, D. D. 
Lecturer on Homiletics, Church Government, and Pastoral Theology — Rev. J. J. A. Proud- 
foot, D. D. 
Hebrew is tauglit by Professor Hirschfelder, iu University College. 
Elocution is taught by Prof. J. W. Taverner and R. Lewis, Esq. 
Messrs. J. C. Smith, B.A., and W. FaRQUHarson, B.A., Classical Tutors. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

First Year. Second Year. 

Exegetics — Principal Caven. Exegetics — Principal Caven. 

BiHlical Criticism — Principal Caven. Apologetics — Professor Gregg. 

Apologetics — Professor Gregg. Church History — Professor Gregg. 

Church History — Professor Gregg. Systematic Theology — Professor MacLaren. 

Systematic Theology — Professor MacLaren. Homiletics, etc. — Dr. Proudfoot. 

Third Year. 
Exegetics — Professor Caven. 
Church History — Professor Gregg. 
Systematic Theology — Professor MacLaren. 
Homiletics, etc. — Dr. Proudfoot. 

The Elocution Glass is attended by the students of all the theological 
years, and is open to all who have the ministry in view. 

Students of the first year are required to prepare a homily; of the 
second year, a lecture and a Greek critical exercise; and of the third 
year, a sermon and a Hebrew critical exercise. 

BOOKS TO BE CONSULTED. 

The following works are named as a guide to students in their read- 
ing, in connection with the several subjects of their course. Those 
printed In italics are used as text-books : 

Apologetics: Butler's Analogy, Blunt' s Scripture Coincidences, Raiolinson's Evidences, 
McCosh's Christianity and Positivism, Paley's Natural Theology and Evidences, Bolton's 
Evidences, Clarke, Lardner, Leslie, Watson's Apologies and Tracts, Newton on the 
Prophecies, Farrar's Critical History of Free Thought, Christlieb's Modern Doubt and 
Christian Belief, Luthardt, Flint's Theism and Anti-Theistic Theories. 

Church History : Smith's Neio Testament History, Kurtz's Church History, Smith's 
Ecclesiastical History, Killeu's Ancient Church, and Old Catholic Church, Eusebius, 
Mosheim, Neander, Giesler, Milman, Robertson, D'Aubigue, Fisher, Schatf, Pressens6. 

Systematic Theology: Calvin, Turrettini, Pictet, Maestricht, Owen, Edwards, 
Witsius on the Covenants, Goode's Divine Rule of Faith and Practice, Thoruwell, C. 
Hodge, A. A. Hodge, Dorner on the Person of Christ, Martensen, Miilleron Siu, Fair- 
bairn on the Revelation of Law in Scripture, Dods on the Incarnation, Liddon's 
Bampton Lectures, Banuerman on Inspiration, Crawford on the Atonement, Treffry 
on the Eternal Souship, Brown on the Second Advent; On the History of Doctrine, 
Cunningham, Shedd, Hagenbach. 

Homiletics, Pastoral Theology, and Church Government: Whately's Elements 
of Rhetoric, Shedd's Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, Dabney's Sacred Rhetoric, 
Vinet's Homiletics; Plumer, Pond; Van Oosterzee's Practical Theology, Bannerman's 
Church of Christ, Barnes' Apostolic Church, Punchard's View of Congregationalism, 
Archbishop Potter's Church Government. 

Exegetics: (a) Hermeneutics — Eroesti, Home, Davidson, Fairbairn; (&) Commen- 
tary— Cuivin, Beza, Poli Synopsis, Bengel, Alford, Ellicott, Wordsworth, Lightfoot, 
Brown,Eadie, Murphy, Alexander, Hackett, Hodge, Stuart, Bleek, Keil andDelitzsch, 
Hengstenberg, Lange, Stier, Meyer, Godet. 

Biblical Criticism and Canon: Home's hitroduction, Davidson, Scrivener, Tre- 
gelles ; Westcott on the N. T. Canon, Gaussen on the Canon. 

examinations for b. d. 

First Department. 

(1) Zaifiw— Augustiui, De Doctrina Christiana, Lib. I. 

(2) Greefc— Gospel of Luke and Epistle to Eomans. 
514 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 277 

(3) Hehreiv — Genesis, chs. i-v (iuclasive) ; Psalms 2, 8, 19, 45, 72, 110. 

(4) Apologetics — Rawlinsou's Historical Evidences; Farrar's Critical History of Free 
Thought; Flint's Auti-Theistic Theories. 

(5) Church History and Church Government— KWlen's Ancient Church. 

(6) Systematic Theology — Westminster Confession of Faith ; Bannerman on Inspira- 
tion ; or Lee on Inspiiation. 

(7) Textual Criticism and Canon — Scrivener's Introduction to the Criticism of the 
New Testament; Westcott's History of the New Testament Canon. 

Second Department. 

(1) Greelc — Justin Martyr, Apol. I. 

(2) Hebrew and Chaldee — Isaiah, chs. i-vi ; Daniel, chs. iii-v. 

(3) Church History — Fisher's Reformation. 

(4) Systematic Theology — Turrettini, Tom. II ; Locus, Decimus Quartus Quaest, I, II, 
X-XIV ; Cunningham's Historical Theology, Vol. I. 

(5) Exegetics — Fairbairn'g Hermeneutics; Ellicott on Galatians. 

(6) Homiletics and Pastoral Theology — Shedd's Homiletics and Van Oosterzee's Prac- 
tical Theology. 

IV. BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE. 

Toronto Baptist College, McMastev Hall. 

This is one of the very few theological institutions that have entered 
upon their career somewhat fully equipped. It was founded in 1881 
by Hon. William McMaster, who erected the elegant and commodious 
building known as McMaster Hall, at an expense of $100,000, and who 
has up to the present time contributed largely towards the expenses of 
the college. In 1883, by the closing of Prairie College, Manitoba, and 
of the theological department of Acadia College, S'ova Scotia, and by 
the votes of the Conventions of Manitoba and the Maritime Provinces, 
Toronto Baptist College became the theological institution for the Bap- 
tists of the entire Dominion of Canada. During the same year the fac- 
ulty of the college was increased from three to five. These professors de- 
vote themselves entirely to theological teaching. The college also avails 
itself partially of the lectureship in Oriental languages provided fly the 
University. The library of the college has been most carefully selected, 
and consists of nearly 7,250 volumes. It is particularly rich in sources, 
embracing the entire set of Migne's Greek and Latin Patrology, the 
works of the German, Swiss, English, Scotch, and Polish reformers, etc. 
It is well supplied also with the latest important works in all depart- 
ments of theological science. The reading room is well furnished with 
the best reviews and papers. The equipment of the college embraces 
a well-furnished gymnasium. Candidates for the degree of B. D. must 
be graduates in arts, and pass exaniinations on a prescribed course of 
reading at least one year after the completion of the college course. 
Those who have secured the degree of B. D. may after an interval of 
five years proceed to the degree of D. D. on examination. Students 
support themselves by missionary work performed under the direction 
of the faculty during vacation and in term time, the compensation re- 
ceived on their fields of labor being supplemented to a certain mini- 
mum amount. Those that do the full amount of mission work prescribed 
receive at present $200 per annum, clear of traveling expenses and 
board, while on the mission fields. Eoom rent, including fuel, light, 
and care of rooms, is free, the only charge being $3 per week for board, 
and ordinary rates for washing. 

The number of students pursuing theological studies during the pres- 
ent session is about forty. Besides these, a considerable number of stu- 
dents for the ministry who are pursuing university studies, are enrolled 
among the students of the college and are under the care of the faculty. 

515 



278 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

FACUIiTT. 

Professor of Systematic Theology — John H. Castle, D. D., President. 

Professor of Church Ristory and Comparative Religion — Albert H. Newman, LL. D. 

Professor of Apologetics, Didactics, and Biblical Interpretation {English) — Maxcolm 

MacVicar, Ph. D., LL. D. 
ProfessorofNew Testament Interpretation ( Greek), and Eomiletics — ^William: N. Clarke, 

D. D. 
Professor of Old Testament Interpretation {Rehrew and Chaldee), and Pastoral Theology — 

Daniel M. Welton, Ph. D. 
Professor of the Rebrew Langnage and Literature — J. M. Hirschfelder (in University 

College). 
A. H. Newman, Librarian. 



COtTRSK OF BTUDIE8. 

I. Exegetical Tlieology. 

This department of theological study includes all sciences that have an immediate 
bearing upon the interpretation of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. 

1. Biblical Introduction — Albert R. Newman : In this course instruction is given 
in Biblical history, Biblical geography, Biblical archaeology, and related topics. 

2. Biblical Interpretation, in English — Malcolm MacVicar: This course ex- 
tends through two years, and aims to give the student a comprehensive method of 
studying and explaining the English Bible. It includes a full discussion of principles 
and methods of interpretation, and constant practice on the part of the student in 
applying these principles and methods in the analysis and exposition of selected por- 
tions of the Old and New Testaments. 

3. Old Testament Interpretation, in Hebrew and Aramaic — (1) In Univer- 
sity College — J. M. Hirschfelder : A large proportion of the instruction in Hebrew and 
Aramaic is given by Prof. J, M. Hirschfelder, in University College, embracing in- 
struction in Hebrew and Chaldee grammar, together with the reading of extended 
portions of the Hebrew and Chaldee of the Old Testament ; (2) In Toronto Baptist 
College — Daniel M. Welton : This part of the course consists of a reviewing of the syn- 
tax of the Hebrew language ; the exegetical reading of selected portions of the He- 
brew Bible ; exercises in textual criticism with the aid of the Masora, the Septuagint, 
the Targums, and the Peshito; the study of the theology of the Old Testament in con- 
nection with a text-book. 

4. New Testament Interpretation, in Greek — William N. Clarke: This course 
extendi through two years. It is intended not merely for the impartation of the re- 
sults of study, but still more for the training of the student in power to study the 
New Testament on sound principles for himself. Hence the work consists mainly 
in actual interpretation, with constant practice in the application of grammatical 
principles and in analysis of the writer's thought. Thus by the experience of actual 
work the student is aided in learning the peculiarities of New Testament Greek, and 
the methods of sound interpretation. The course includes study of textual criticism, 
and Introduction to the books of the New Testament. 

II. Ristorical Theology— Albert R. Kewman. 

This course is divided into two sections, each of which is completed in a year. 

In section first, ancient Church history is taught, embracing such topics as intro- 
duction to Church history in general ; constitution of the apostolic Church ; relation 
of Christianity to the Roman Empire during the first three centuries; internal devel- 
opment of Christianity during the first three centuries — the consideration of heretical 
and reforming bodies ; Christian literature and doctrine during the first three cen- 
turies ; internal and external condition of the Church at the beginning of the fourth 
century ; union of Church and State, and eff'ects of this union on the Church ; con- 
troversies and councils during the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries ; 
development of the hierarchy, until the death of Gregory the Great ; heretical and 
reforming bodies ; extension of the Church through the Carlovingian rulers ; further 
development of the hierarchy, especially under Hildebrand and Innocent III ; papal 
captivity and schism ; reforming councils ; mediseval philosophy and theology ; re- 
action against papal absolutism, manifested in the various reforming movements of 
the Middle Ages ; the revival of learning ; with essays by members of the class. 

In the second section, modem Church history is taught, embracing such topics as 
preparation for the Reformation ; general characteristics of the Reformation ; separate 
consideration of the Erasmian, Lutheran, Zwinglian, Anabaptist, Calvinistic, and 
English reformations ; comparative view of the Protestant confessions of faith and 
catechisms ; Roman Catholic resistance to Protestantism — Jesuits, inquisition, and 
516 . 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 279 

Conncil of Trent; modem denominations, especially the Chnrch of England, the Con- 
gregation all 8ts, the Presbyterians, the Methodists, and the Baptists ; with essays by 
the members of the class. 

In connection with this course, a series of lectiires on comparative religion, and a 
series on Theological Encyclopaedia ave given. The professor of Church history con- 
ducts a class in theological German, which meets twice a week. 

in. Dogmatic Theology. 

This department of study is divided into two courses, and embraces a systematic 
setting forth of the doctrines of the Bible, and a refata.tion of anti-Christian and 
pseudo-Christian systems. 

1. Systematic Theologt — John H. Castle: This course embraces discussions of the 
Scriptural teachings as to the existence and attributes of God; the personal distinc- 
tions of the Godhead ; the relations of God to the universe and to men, as manifested 
in creation, preservation, and providence; the original acd actual state of man; the 
nature and eflects of sin; redemption wrought by Christ; the person of Christ and 
the nature of the atonement; election; calling; regeneration; conversion; union with 
Christ; justification, sanctification, and perseverance; and the future state; with 
essays by members of the class. 

2. Polemical and Apologetical Theology — Malcolm MacVicar : This course is 
divided into two sections: an elementary course designed for those students who 
have not had the advantages of thorough training in metaphysics and natural sci- 
ence, and which only such students are required to take ; and an advanced course in 
apologetics proper, including the discussion of atheism, pautheism, materialism, 
modern agnosticism, the Biblical view of the Being of God, revelation, inspiration, 
miracles, the resurrection, etc. 

lY. Practical Theology. 

1. Preparation ant> Delivery of Sermons— TFiZMam A"^. Clarice: In this course 
Dr. Broadus's "Preparation and Delivery of Sermons" is used as a text-book and 
guide, but it is iutended that the work shall include much more than the mastering 
of a text-hook. Sermons and plans of sermons are prepared and criticised by the 
class, and attention is given to the study of the literature of the pulpit. As much 
labor as the time allows is spent upon style, and the preacher's general literary prep- 
aration for his work. It is the aim to help the free, manly development of each stu- 
dent's personality, and to secure the utmost effect iveness in the work of preaching. 

2. !Pa8T0Ral Theology — Daniel M. Welton: This course considers such topics as 
the nature of the pastoral ofiBce; call to ttie ministry; qualifications of a minister; 
the pastor in the conduct of public worship ; the pastor and the administration of the 
ordinances; the pastor and social meetings; the pastor and the Sunday-school; the 
pastor and mission work; the pastor and administration of discipline ; pastoral visit- 
a.tion ; the pastor in relation to other Christian bodies. 

Ecclesiastical polity will a,lso form an important i)art of this course. 

3. Didactics — Malcolm MacVicar : This course is designed to give practical instruc- 
tion on religions training in the family and the Sunday-school. It will include the 
following topics: 

1. The philosophy of moral and spiritual development. Under this head wiU be 
discussed : 

(1.) The nature of a true moral and spiritual education. 

(2.) The principles and laws which underlie and regulate the methods and 
processes of moral and spiritual training. 

2. The family and the Sunday-school. Under this head will be discussed : 

(1.) The Scriptural organization of the family and the Sunday-school as factors 
of the Church of Christ. 

(2.) Methods of family and Sunday-school management. 

(3.) Methods of family and Sunday-school instruction and training. 

(4.) The organization and instruction of parents' and Sunday-school teachers' 
training classes. 

EXAMINATIONS FOR THE DEGREE OF B. D. 

Graduates in arts who have completed the course of theological study in Toronto 
Baptist College, in Woodstock College, or in any theological seminary of recognized 
standing, may secure the degree of B. D. by passing examinations as follows, such 
examinations to be hold at least one year after the completion of the regular course: 

1. Chaldee Grammar and the Chaldee ot the Old Testament. 2. Twenty-five pages 
of the Hebrew Bible, not to include the Pentateuch, the historical books, or the 
Psalms. 3. ffihler's Theology of the Old Testament. 4. Ewald's Syntax of the He- 
brew Language, or Driver's Tenses of the Hebrew Verb. 5. The entire Greek New 
Testament, twenty-tive pages of the Septuagint, and twenty-tive pages of patristic 

517 



280 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 



Greek. 6. Fifty pages of ecclesiastical Latin or German. 7. Hagenbach's History 
of Doctrine, or Doruer's History of Protestant Theology. 8. Van Oosterzee's Chris- 
tian Dogmatics, or Dorner's System of Christian Doctrine. 9. Christlieb's Modern 
Doubt and Christian Belief. 10. Van Oosterzee's Practical Theology. 

Fair equivalents will be accepted for any of these items, at the discretion of the 
faculty. 

EXAMESTATIONS FOR THE DEGREE OP D. D. 

The degree of doctor of divinity will be conferred on those who have been admitted 
to the degree of bachelor of divinity in Toronto Baptist College on the following con- 
ditions : 

1. The applicant must have been successfully engaged in the work of the ministry, 
whether as pastor, theological teacher, or religious editor, for at least five years just 
preceding the date of his application. 

2. He must have attained to distinguished proficiency in somb one department of 
theological science, and must demonstrate this proficiency by the following perform- 
ances: (1) He must submit to an examination on the subject-matter of his chosen 
department. (2) He must write impromptu a thesis on a subject connected with the 
department in which he presents himself for examination, proposed by the faculty. 
(3) He must submit to the faculty a treatise (equal to not less than 100 printed pages 
12mo) on some subject connected with the department chosen, which, to be accepted, 
must give evidence of extended research, thorough mastery of the subject, and ca- 
pacity to present the subject in an original and effective manner. 

V. THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION OP OTHER DENOMINATIONS. 

(1.) The Congregationalists of Ontario unite with those of Quebec in 
supporting a theological college in Montreal. 

(2.) The /Society of Friends has a somewhat elementary college at 
Pickering, where training is given to those who have the ministry in view. 

(3.) The Roman Catholics have colleges in Toronto and Ottawa, where 
something is done in theology ; but they probably depend chiefly on the 
larger institutions in Montreal and Quebec, and upon foreign institu- 
tions for their educated priests. 

Statistical table showing subjects taught in each college, and the number of hours given to 

each subject per iveek.^ 





n 




o 


.a 


.a 


.a 




d 


a 


Colleges. 


M 


o 

1 


s 

< 

a 

CSS 




1 


h 


.0 


It 

1 


o 

o 
§ . 

■aft 


















P< 
1 






I- 


3 




O 


1 

!2i 


^ 
^ 




H 


Trinity 


* 




4 


2f 


f 

9 

f 

6 




4 






Wyoli'fle 




12 

9 
12§ 
12 

9 






6 
4 
5 






Victoria 


ii 


2 


1 










1 

2 




...... 


...... 


5 
6 








i 


i 





Colleges. 


<D O 











"3 

g 






i 

'Ei 








5* 


1 


5o 

c5 


13 







,2 


1 


.a 




XJl 


< 


w 


^ 


M 


H 


Ph 


02 


3 . 


M 


Trinity 


2 


2 


1 


1 






2 


f 


9, 


3 


Wyoliift'e . . . ... 


10 


3 


5 


2 














11 

10 

14 

4 


"""'5' 
5 
3 


1 


1 






























4 
6 


4 

2 
















3 


2 





















' For convenience, the numbers are given as If each subject were finished in one year. B. g., six hours 
in church history means 3 hours per week for 2 years. These statistics are only approximately correct. 

' 518 



I?^TERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



281 



Statistical table showing the equipment, resources, <^c, of eological colleges of Ontario. 





o 


_|!, 


p 


a 


^ 


"o '^ 


p 
o 


















Colleges. 


°o 


OS 
SI n 


m 






1% 


5 a 




^ <o 


.= s 


rOrC 


c"-' 






s'*^ 


a 


a 




3 


a o 


g^.3 




J3 


p 


a 


ta 


3 a 






fzi 


!2i 


!z5 


< 


t> 


:2;§ 


kI 


Trinitv 


2 

4 


2 
3 


15 
25 






te, 300 

2,000 


7 


Wycli'ffe 


$62, 000 


$54, 000 


7 




*5 
*3 
3 


...... 

3 


42 
34 
50 


58, 000 




5,000 

6,000 

10, 000 


7 






6 


Knox : 


150, 000 


120, 000 


6 


Baptist 


5 


2 


50 




100, 000 


7,250 


7 







" Several 'of these give only a part of their time to theology, 
t Includes the entire university library. 



519 



SECTION D— INSTRUCTION OF THE DEFECTIVE, 
DEPENDENT, AND DELINQUENT CLASSES. 



Honorary Chairman. 

Prof. A. GRAHAM BELL, WasJiington, D. G. 

Honorary Secretary. 

Principal F. J. CAMPBELL, Royal School for the Blind, London. 

Chairman. 
Eev. F. S. Wli^ES, M. A., Springfield, III. 

Secretary. 
Prof. F. B. SAKBORl^, Concord, Mass. 

Assistant Secretary. 

SUPT. GEORG-B A. HOWE, State Reform School, Meriden, Conn, 

521 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF DEAF PUPILS WITH A VIEW TO 
IMPROVE THE FACILITIES FOR THEIR EDUCATIOK, 
BASED ON THE CAUSES OF THEIR DISABILITY. 

By Samuel Sexton, M. D., 

Aural Surgeon to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary. 



The existence of deafness is not discovered even by discerning i)ar- 
ents during the first few weeks of infancy, and what is frequently a 
mere suspicion in this regard at the sixth month may not become a 
painful reality before the child is expected to talk, and then the slow- 
ness of intellectual development may not be properly attributed to 
defective hearing. Partial, but disqualifying, deafness is thus liable to 
be overlooked until school education is attempted. 

The detection of the very existence of hearing defects, it may be pre- 
mised, is attended with difficulty, even by experts, during the earliest 
period of infancy, and even at the school age the exact degree of dis- 
qualification is not readily determined ; it is with the view of affording 
some aid to parents and teachers in this regard that this paper is writ- 
ten. In order to enhance the practical value of the views advanced, I 
have availed myself of notes that have been taken during an extended 
experience in the examination and treatment of the aurally defective. 

The 450 cases of children's deafness selected as illustrative, are from 
among children seen in private and Infirmary practice, and they repre- 
sent almost every variety of disqualifying deafness. The defective 
pupils among this number were brought to me from both hearing and 
deaf-mute schools. A considerable number of these constitutes a class 
not properly provided for in either, being too deaf for hearing schools 
and yet not deaf enough to be taught as deaf-mutes ; they were, there- 
fore, found to be oscillating, shuttlecock-like, between the two, liable 
to be cast forth into life with much less education than their intelligence 
entitled them to receive — usually wich scarcely intelligible articulate 
speech. 

On account of their instructiveness, I have included in the cases 
above selected a few not strictly of the school age. 

The cases may be divided into two groups based on their school status ; 
thus 371 were attempting to retain their position in hearing schools, 
whilst 79 were either so deaf as to be excluded or were not of the 
school age. 

The first group of 371 was constituted as follows : 74 were between 
five and seven j^ears of age ; 200 were between eight and twelve years 
of age ; 97 were thirteen years of age and upward. As to sex, 199 
were females and 172 were males. The causation in these cases could 
be traced to either purulentor non-purulent inflammation of theear-drum 
(tympanum). In 219 cases it was the former, and in 124 cases the 
latter. 

583 



286 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Usually both ears were similarly affected in each case, but where a 
purulent affection existed on one side and non-purulent on the other, 
the case was classed with the former. In the non-purulent cases both 
ears were almost without exception similarly affected, although the left 
ear was usually the worse of the two. 

Belonging to either one or the other of the above varieties were 10 
cases where the ear had been severely boxed or pulled, causing rupture 
or strain of the drum-head, and consequent deafness; 33 cases where 
cold sea- water had passed from the mouth up into the drum through the 
Eustachian tube, while the child was bathing in the ocean; 3 where 
water was introduced into the drum while sniffing it up into the nose, 
or in using the nasal douche. In 31 cases the cause was attributed to 
scarlet fever, in 17 to measles, in 5 to diphtheria, in 4 to whooping- 
cough, in 1 to mumps, and in 1 to syphilis. 

The external auditory canal was obstructed in a number of instances, 
thus interfering with the entrance of sound ; in 52 cases it was by wax, 
in 7 by foreign bodies, in 25 by narrowing of its walls by inflammation. 
Among the last named were eight cases where the canal was ulcerated. 

The drum-head gave evidence, on examination being made by reflected 
light, of defectiveness of the transmitting mechanism in a considerable 
number of cases. Thus, in 30 there was deformity of the membrana 
tympani from perverted development; in 27 cases there was greater or 
less destruction of the mechanism from suppurative inflammation; a 
polypoid growth sprung from the morbid tissues within the drum in 14 
cases, and the inflammation ex'«ended from the drum to the pneumatic 
cells of the mastoid in 8 cases. 

It is noteworthy that defective teeth were present in nearly every 
case, and 189 of them were specially bad. Head-catarrh and enlarged 
tonsils were present in the greater number, and in 13 cases either the 
nasal passages were so much obstructed, or the teeth so malformed, 
that mouth-breathing was habitual. 

The affections thus far mentioned are those which interfere with the 
passage of sound to the middle ear and its transmission to the inner 
ear, but the deeper parts containing the distribution of the auditory 
nerve may, in the more severe cases of ear disease occurring from scar- 
let fever, diphtheria, etc., be attacked at the same time. In 28 of these 
cases, it may be incidentally stated, either tumors, or abcesses, or 
wounds of the auricle from piercing for rings, were observed. Distress 
from the autophonia of ear-disease, the autophonous perception of 
voice and sounds arising from the performance of physiological functions 
of the circulation, respiration, and swallowing, were present in 41 cases, 
and dysacousma was present in 1. Pains in the ear (otalgia) were ex- 
perienced by 28, pains in the aural region (neuralgia) by 36, ear-cough 
by 10, epilepsy by 1, vertiginous symptoms by 18, chorea by 2, and 
various other reflex phenomena by 17. 

In respect to the degrees of deafness, 113 were almost totally deaf, 
while the remaining 258 were all of them incapacitated in some degree 
from receiving instruction at school along with good hearing scholars. 

The second group of 79 cases was composed mostly of so-called deaf 
mutes; 38 were under five years of a^e, 21 between five and seven, 11 
between eight and twelve, and 9 thirteen and upward. There were 41 
females and 38 males. Of this group 18 were recorded as congenital 
deaf-mutes, but the diagnosis was in some of them (jonsidered doubtful; 
in 26 cases the trouble was traced to cerebral meningitis, in 19 to puru- 
lent inflammation of the drum, and in 17 to non-purulent inflammation 
of the drum. 

524 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 287 

In regard to their aural defectiveness, 26 of them were found to hear 
well enough to be taught aurally by the aid of a conversation-tube, or 
by using the voice close to the child's ear in teaching; 2 of them, although 
totally deaf, attended school along with hearing pupils; 4 of them re- 
tained speech after losing their hearing, and this without the aid of a 
teacher, and one of this number continued to use the English cockney 
accent which he had acquired before becoming deaf; in 17 cases the 
children were losing the speech they had acquired before becoming 
deaf, or were very defective in this regard from neglect to teach them. 
The younger children composing this last-mentioned class were nearly 
all of them backward in learning to talk ; one of them did not acquire 
speech until his good-hearing brother became old enough to converse 
with him, and another did not talk until five years of age. Seventeen 
patients had never learned to talk, and a considerable number of these 
were considered mentally defective, solely on account ot this defect, by 
their parents or teachers. In one case it was noted that the impact of 
sounds was painful (dysacousma). 

It will be observed that in the greater number of all the cases above 
presented, the cause of aural defectiveness was attributable to some 
inflammatory aifection of the hearing orgarf. Thus cerieb'\.l meningitis, 
occurring in connection with children's diseases, contributed largely to 
this list; its invasion is alwa'ys sudden, and it generally causes bilateral 
deafness. It does not give rise to running from the ears. Meningeal 
inflammation is usually meant when pachymeningitis, cerebro spinal 
meningitis, brain fever, cerebral meningitis, convulsions, fits, and the 
like, are mentioned in this connection. Sometimes the symptoms of 
irritation of the stomach are so marked in meningitis that the case has 
been erroneously regarded as "gastric fever." Inflammation of the 
ear-drums, whether purulent or non-purulent, acute or chronic, leaves 
characteristic appearances which are easily recognizable. Among the 
smaller number there were some where the precise nature of the origin 
of the difl&culty was obscure; following the usual custom, the writer, 
tentatively, relegated these to the somewhat vague realm of the con- 
genitally deaf. Subsequent experience, and a more particular study of 
the subject, seem to show that in some of the instances of supposed deaf- 
born children, the disability should be assigned to extra-uterine caus- 
ation. 

Thus cerebral meningitis affecting the nerve of hearing, and suppu- 
rative inflammation of the drum of the ear affecting the transmitting 
mechanism, consecutive to children's diseases, as scarlet fever, measles, 
and diphtheria, are frequently met with at the period in life when chil 
dren are learning to talk, and the more carefully these patients are 
examined in this regard, the more frequently will it be found thafe deaf- 
ness was first discovered to exist subsequently to some attack of this 
kind. In eliciting from parents the history of these cases, one should 
not place too much value on alleged injury to the ears from falls and 
blows on the head, which are often advanced as causes. 

Acquired deafness. — Conditions favoring early deafness are not want- 
ing — indeed causation may antedate or be encountered at birth, since at 
this period the drum in a normal state contains no air, but is tilled with 
loose (Edematous connective tissue,which slowly disappears when aeration 
of the cavity takes place with the establishment of the respiratory act, the 
cries, and the performance of deglutition by the infant. When action 
of the upper respiratory tract is defective, as it may thus be at birth, or, 
soon after, by head catarrh or by aural catarrh, the necessary aerial 
equilibrium is not established, and oscillations of the transmitting ap- 

5t25 



288 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

paratus cannot tate place. Under these circumstances the perceptive 
function lies dormant because it cannot be aroused to normal action. 

Congenital deafness. — A tendency to propagate constitutional dyscra- 
sias doubtless exists in some persons, and when predisponents to ca- 
tarrh are active in such a case, hereditary catarrh may give rise to disease 
of the ear at the earliest period of life. This hypothesis is borne out by 
clinical experience. I have at the present time under treatment for 
aural catarrh a bright little lad three years of age, who cannot yet talk 
on account of this defectiveness. His mother informed me that she was 
exceedingly susceptible to head catarrhs, and the grandmother is so deaf 
that she has to carry about a conversation-tube. I was much imi)ressed 
by these cases, and was even surprised when informed that my patient's 
great-grandmother was very deaf. 

The possible effect of influences on the maternal progenitor are worthy 
of consideration. The following case in this connection is suggestive. 
The first-born child of a healthy, well-developed, and intelligent woman 
was, when six months of age, thought to be deaf, since she could only 
hear jarring of the floor and the like, and the sound of a high-pitched 
whistle which her father carried, and which seemed to become quite 
familiar to her ears. The mother had, however, during the first month 
of pregnancy an attack of rubeola, or German measles, and was, further- 
more, much worried during the entire period of gestation about her hus- 
band, who was very nervous and becoming deaf from aural catarrh. 
When I examined this child at the age of sixteen months, it was found 
to have catarrh of the head and ears, the origin of which may have 
been embryonic. No anatomical malformation of the ears was discov- 
ered in the infant, nor was there any apparent transmissible organic de- 
fect in the parents. 

Deafness due to congenital anomalies of the auditory apparatus. — These 
are supposed to be traceable to some perversion of development during 
the morphological state. The hearing organ in man has both an intrai- 
cranial and extracranial origin, one centric and the other peripheric. 
From the auditory vesicle which constitutes the centric is evolved the 
nervous, or perceptive tract of the ear, while the first visceral cleft 
evolves the peripheric, or outer structures comprising the transmitting 
apparatus, namely, the Eustachian tube, the drum, and the external 
auditory canal and auricle. l!^ow during the embryonic or fetal states, 
any interference with the development in either of these regions would 
produce defects in the hearing organ. Evidence of develoi)mental de- 
fects is not always obtainable, and where the trouble is centric a diagno- 
sis cannot be made in the very young, for obvious reasons. Evidences 
of peripheric defects, however, are by no means rare ; these consist, for 
the most part, in either defective or excessive development in the closure 
of the first branchial cleft, the most common form of which is fistula auris 
congenita. The presence of these anomalies is very likely to be over- 
looked. In the following typical exami)le they were not observed until 
several examinations of the ear had been made, their existence not being 
suspected at first : The case was that of a child of eight years of age. 
She was thought to be defective in intelligence until she was two years 
of age, since she did not learu to talk ; but she grew more intelligent 
in appearance, and it was then found that she was deaf. When four 
years old some person undertook the task of instructing her during a 
long sea voyage, and she learned to spell and pronounce a few words. 
When five years old she was sent to the public schools in New York, 
and had made considerable progress up to the time when she was 
brought to me. Examination of the hearing showed that she could not 

526 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 289 

understand conversation in any tone at the distance of a few feet ; but 
when her name was spoken in a smart tone she would promptly look at 
the speaker. She can hear the voice quite distinctly when the speaker 
is only a few inches distant. The teacher, for some reason, requires her 
to sit in the farthest seat from her desk. A minute fistulous opening 
is to be seen ou the front part of both auricles, from which a small 
quantity of offensive fluid issues spontaneously at times, and usually on 
the right side, when the iDarts are pressed by the fingers. The external 
auditory canals are of the normal size, but the drum-heads are some- 
what defective in apijearance, the membrane being puckered at its an- 
terior superior quadrant. 

I have seen a very considerable number of these cases in adults, 
always where hearing was defective, and, although generally unilateral, 
it is probable that in nearly all cascs some degree of defectiveness exists 
on both sides. It seems probable that, where centric malformation 
exists, co-existent mental defects are liable to obtain, and we should, 
therefore, expect to find imbecility as well as deafness. 

In the treatment or education of deaf children it is well to keep in 
mind the fact that defectiveness is not always absolute, and may, there- 
fore, be amenable to treatment ou the one hand, while not constituting 
an insuperable barrier to aural instruction on the other. 

It would seem that the neglect of deaf- born children, in the lower 
order of social life, much more frequently results in dumbness than 
would occur if more pains were taken in their education; indeed, where 
the offspring of deaf-mutes are constantly surrounded by deaf-mutes 
holding converse with each other by signs only, it would be strange if 
they should learn to talk unless possessed of good hearing and allowed 
to associate with speaking persons. If children with defective hearing- 
organs have but little, if any, opportunity' to employ them, it is prob- 
able that continuous disuse 9f the sensory tract would finally lead to 
its deterioration. A child brought up under unfav^orable conditions in 
this respect would acquire the use of the voice with difficulty, if at all, 
since even where normal hearing exists and favorable opportunities are 
afforded for learning, it is only after long and i^atient practice that in- 
telligible speech is acquired. 

The difficulties that beset partially deaf children where the defective- 
ness interferes with school instruction, admit of much easier interpreta- 
tion than those of very young children. As regards the latter, inquiries 
as to causation are liable to be met by vague, unreliable, and even mis- 
leading statements, and the truth can only be reached by painstaking, 
eliminative analysis. Parents thus offer some entirely irrelevant acci- 
dent, as an injury from a fall or blow, or an inconsequent trouble, as 
vaccination, or illness not afl'ectiug the ears, as causal, where examina- 
tion often shows, after all obscurities have been put aside, that aural 
catarrh is the sole cause of the trouble, or that the case is congenital. 
It seems to offer the ignorant much more satisfaction, in many instances 
at least, to regard deafness as a calamitous visitation, to account for 
which a striking catastrophe is required, rather than any natural, though 
much more simple, cause. 

The dumbness of deaf children by no means always bears a constant 
relation to their aural defectiveness ; a child intellectually bright, with 
favorable opportunities for learning, v>all make much more rapid ad- 
vances than a child mentally dull and neglected. The writer has met 
with numerous examples where totally deaf persons obtained an excel- 
lent education in x>rivate hearing schools; they had been, of course, 
attentive and quick to learn, and special attention had been given them 
7950COT, pt. 2 19 . 527 



290 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

by teachers. This courageous achievement has been limited to the 
gentler sex, so far as my own observations have gone. 

Dysacousma. — The painfulness of sounds to the perception of some 
deaf people is extreme. This is probably due to the sudden and unusual 
trt^nsmission of sounds which are felt at the perceptive center as a shock. 
Th^ low rumble of thunder, or the deep tones of an organ, are unbear- 
able to some deaf persons, while others cannot endure a whispered sound 
when made directly into the ear. 

If a medical writer might venture to oft'er a suggestion in pedagogics, 
I would urge early attention to home instruction for deaf children. 
Hearing children naturally pick up their earlier education without effort 
from parents or by themselves, but deaf children must be unremittingly 
taught at close range 5 words must be uttered directly into the ear, not 
loudly, but distinctly. Tubes are of value in conducting sound to the 
child's ear, where close contact of the mouth is inconvenient, and the 
child should be encouraged to repeat its own words through the tube 
to its ears, so as to compare its own voice with the instructor's. If this 
course be pursued early enough, I am convinced that but few children 
would be found without any hearing sense, and many who have consid- 
erable hearing likely to be lost from disuse would gradually be im- 
proved. 

The greatest difficulty encountered at first is in overcoming inatten- 
tion on the part of deaf children, who are disposed to rely on the sense 
of vision, since it offers so much easier a method of conversing. Much 
time is lost, I am convinced, from neglect to insist on this matter. 

Where it is possible to avoid doing so, a deaf child should not be 
taught alone, but placed in company with hearing children. Instruc- 
tion at school could with advantage be commenced much earlier than 
is done at present; some children are as capable of attending school 
when only three or four years old as are others at a much more ad- 
vanced age. Deaf children might, indeed, be made an exception of in 
regard to school age, since their training should begin so much earlier 
tht>n hearing pupils. Where deafness has occurred after the pupil has 
learned to talk, unsparing efforts should be made to aid him in retain- 
ing this faculty; otherwise dumbness may result. 
52? 



ON THE NECESSITY OF PEOVIDINO FOE THE BETTER EDU- 
CATION OF CHILDREN WITH DEFECTIVE HEARING IN 
THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

By Samuel Sexton, M. D., 

Aural Surgepn to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary. 



The purpose of this paper is to enlist an interest in our public school 
systems in so far as concerns the needs of pupils whose hearing disa- 
bilities prevent their advancement along with good hearing scholars, 
since it is believed that this matter does not receive the attention its 
importance demands. 

The varieties of deafness. — The defective children believed to be greatly 
neglected in regard to their education may, for convenience in this con- 
nection, be arranged into three classes, namely : 

1. Children defective in one or both ears, and requiring close prox- 
imity and distinct utterance when taught. Of these, deafness in both 
ears requires seating on front row of benches, but when only one ear is 
affected the normal ear must be toward the teacher's desk. 

2. Children very deaf, who cannot distinguish ordinary conversation 
in either ear when more than a few inches from the speaker, or unless 
the conversation tube, otacoustic fan, or other aid to hearing be em- 
ployed. 

3. The totally deaf, in whom the auditory apparatus of the middle 
ear cannot be made available. This class admits of division into two 
subdivisions, viz : a, those having learned to talk previous to losing 
their hearing; and 6, those born too deaf to ever have naturally acquired 
speech, commonly known as congenital deaf-mutes. 

Deafness in the schools from a physiciati's point of view. — In considering 
the relations of all classes of deaf pupils with both the public day- 
schools and deaf-mute schools from the physician's point of view, it is 
believed that the extent and importance of the subject may be more 
fully realized than in any other way, since where professional advice is 
required opportunity is allowed for thorough examination of the hear- 
ing organs, both as regards their physical condition and acoustic func- 
tions. A very considerable experience, including observations on a 
large number of specially interesting cases among school children of 
the poorer class, seen in hospital practice, led the writer to believe that 
great injustice was being done in permitting children to struggle for 
an education under the disadvantages arising from deafness without 
the aid of methods which^experience had shown to be advantageous in 
such cases ; he therefore concluded to make some efforts in their behalf, 
and in 1877 the matter was brought to the notice of the Board of Edu- 
cation of New York. 

Its consideration by the New YorJc Board of Education in 1877. — The 
Board referred the matter to the Committee on Teachers, and in ex- 

529 



292 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

plaining the matter to them it was shown that some children continued 
on at school, for j^ears even, while scarcely any hearing remained, while 
there were many others who heard verj^ badly ; that in disregarding 
this matter deaf children were placed at a serious disadvantage, and 
that the time wasted in futile attempts to instruct them was a hinclerance 
to others. Instances of special injustice were cited where children de- 
fective in hearing had made great efforts both at school and at home 
to prepare themselves for promotion, only to be put back on examina 
tion because the principal was not aware of the child's imperfection, 
and therefore had not given his questions distinctly enough to be heard. 
Other deaf children, from neglect to classify them, were seated too far 
away from the teacher's desk to hear his voice, and in consequence of 
inability to reply correctly were frequently punished for inattention 
and dullness. The rudeness often practiced toward these unfortunate 
pupils by unthinking or unsympathetic teachers was discouraging, and 
some pupils in consequence had left school altogether. 

It was not recommended at this time that the partially deaf should 
be entirely separated from the hearing pupils, yet it was advised that 
pupils should always be examined in regard to their hearing, and that 
those found to be defective should be given every possible advantage, 
both in respect to seating and to distinctness of voice in teaching; the very 
deaf should have some instruction apart from others, since thej often 
could not understand words shouted into their ears. The writer did 
not expect that the long-established order of things could be rapidly 
changed, but it is believed that teachers have become more'iuterested 
in the subject than ever before, and that instances of "inattention" and 
"stupidity" are less j^uzzling since their true character is recognized. 
Complaints are now less frequently made by pupils who come for treat- 
ment of neglect in this regard, and, indeed, teachers very often recom- 
mend that deaf children be brought to our clinics for relief. 

Its consideration by the New York Board of Education in 1884. — Dar- 
ing the past few months the Board of Education has again taken this 
matter under consideration, a communication on the subject frooi the 
writer having been referred to the Committee on Course of Studies. 
The committee met on November 12, and on invitation the writer jne- 
sented some typical cases of aural disabilities in children, and gave the 
results of his experience concerning deafness in the schools. The com- 
mittee has not, as yet, so far as 1 know, made any recommendations 
to the Board, but it is to be hoped that some steps will be taken in the 
matter soon. 

Its consideration hy the United States Government in 1881. — In the 
meantime the subject of deafness among school children has attracted 
the attention of the Educational Department of the United States Gov- 
ernment, and the matter being considered important enough to justify 
a special investigation of its causes, the writer was requested to prepare 
a i)aper on the subject,, which was printed by the Bureau of Education 
for distribution in 1881. An examination of five hundred and seventy- 
five pupils made at that time showed that there were numerous instan- 
ces of deafness where neither teacher nor pupil were aware of its exist- 
ence, and that fully thirteen per cent, of the whole number examined 
had greater or less diminished hearing in one or both ears. Of these, 
only three per cent, were themselves aware of any defect existing, and 
only one of them was known to be deaf by the teachers. 

Advantages of the study of deafness from a clinical point of view. — A 
consideration of the subject of aural disabilities should not be confined 
to observations on children in the school-room, where the detection of 
530 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 293 

deafuess in many cases must be attended with difficulties, but investi- 
gations should also be made at leisure with favorable surroundings and 
apparatus for obtaining precise results. Hence the more valuable con- 
clusions are to be drawn from examinations in practice, ample oppor- 
tunities for which may be found in private and hospital experience. 
Thus from the clinicarstandpoint it may be premised that a large num- 
ber of persons come throngh the ordeal of children's maladies and other 
ailments affecting the ears, either directly or remotely, with impaired 
hearing organs. In some the hardness of hearing is very manifest, in 
others it is unrecognized, even when considerable. Some apathetic 
persons disregard deafuess, while the mor<^. sensitive endeavor to con- 
ceal their misfortune. 

Estimate of the extent of aural disabilities in the United States. — Care- 
ful estimates have been made, indicating that no greater number than 
live per cent, of the entire population have normal hearing, but this of 
course does not show the number of persons defective enough to ex- 
clude them from the benefits of the ordinary common-school curriculum. 
The tenth census computes that there are about thirty-four thousand 
deaf-mutes in the United States, or 1 out of every 1,500. One-half of 
these are illiterate. 

Estimate of the extent of aural disabilities in the schools of New Torlt 
City. — Nearly four thousand deaf-mutes reside in the State of New York, 
and over one thousand in this city. Of the latter, 575 are in asylums. 
The number of totally deaf persons of the school age in this city, but outside 
of asylums, is stated to be 163 ; but this estimate is much too low, since 
the enumeration of the census-takers is yery unreliable in respect to this 
class. Parents are slow to acknowledge their deaf-mute progeny, and 
often the census-takers make no efforts to get at the facts. The writer 
has met with a considerable number of these children who were not 
enumerated, and he doubts not that there are no less than 500 of them 
in this city of the school age, unprovided with educational facilities. 

Before the census of 1880 was taken, the question of ascertaining 
the number of very deaf people was considered by the special agent, 
Mr. Wines, but the scheme was abandoned, as it was thought that any 
returns of this kind would be wholly unreliable unless obtained by the 
aid of expert examiners. It is, thej^efore, impossible to give a very 
close estimate of their, number; but if one may form an opinion from 
experiences in practice, the number having more or less disqualifying 
aural defects may be put down at no less than ten per cent, of the en- 
tire school population of New York City. Thus out of about one hun- 
dred and forty thousand pupils in attendance at the public schools at 
the present time, some fourteen thousand of them would be the better 
for classification in respect to seating and instruction at close range, or 
by means of some aid to hearing. These figures show that we have to 
deal with, a vast number of defectives, in respect to hearing, and although 
this avenue to illiteracy, and consequently to pauperism, was not of 
much significance when the country was new, it surely demands our at- 
tention now, when vagrancy and kindred evils are attracting so much 
attention from the vastness of their proportions. 

The education of the very deaf and deaf-mutes in the day-schools. — While 
attention has thus been drawn to the wants of the partially deaf, stren- 
uous efforts have been made in behalf of the deaf-mute with a view to 
improving his educational facilities. The labors of Prof. Alexander 
Graham Bell in .this field have been notable, and besides giving much 
personal attention to the work, his contributions to the literature of the 
subject have been numerous and valuable. But while the writer himself 

531 



294 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

bas mainly had in view the needs of the partially deaf, yet in pursuing 
this interesting subject from his own point of view, it is to be plainly 
seen that from a pedagogical standpoint a very considerable number of 
deaf mutes, so called, may be more advantageously provided for in the 
public day-schools than otherwise. 

Day-schools for deaf-mutes have thus been established in the United 
States as follows: Horace Mann Day school, Boston, in 1869 ; Erie Day- 
school, in 1874; Chicago Day-school, in 1875; Cincinnati Day school, 
in 1875; Portland (Me.) Day-school, in 1876; Khode Island Day-school, 
in 1877 ; St. Louis Day-school, in 1878 ; Oral Branch Pennsylvania 
Institution, Philadelphia, in 1881; Scranton Oral School, in 1883 ; Pho- 
nological School, Milwaukee, in 1878 ; A. Graham Bell's School, Wash- 
ington, D. C, 1883. It would seem that the systems of deaf-mute educa- 
tion were undergoing a transformation at the present time, since hearing 
defects are beginning to be regarded as constituting a factor of varying 
importance, no longer offering an insurmountable barrier, in a great num- 
ber of instances, to an education which shall enable them to hold con- 
verse after the manner of hearing persons. 

This leads us to express the opinion that very considerable numbers 
who are at present beiug educated as deaf mutes could be cared for in the 
public day-schools along with the very deaf who are at present unpro- 
vided for, since ihey both require similar methods of instruction. 

Totally and very deaf children, moreover, require taking in hand at 
a much earlier age than is feasible in deaf and dumb iustitutions; their 
education should, in fact, begin much earlier than it is commenced at 
present ; they should be placed in school when four or five years old. 
Children who have lost their hearing soon after acquiring speech soon 
forget to talk unless means are promptly taken to keep them in prac- 
tice. The same rule would apply with equal force to the congenitally 
deaf, since valuable time is lost when instruction is ni glected during 
tbe impressible period of early childhood. It becomes a necessity in 
respect to the education of children at such a tender age that they should 
be provided for in schools near their homes, an entirely practicable 
matter, fortunately, in large cities and towns, and even in sparsely 
populated districts, according to the reasoning of Bell in his "Memoir 
upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race." 

As to disassociating very young children from home influences, the 
humane impulses of parents are altogether opposed to this ; the writer 
has often witnessed the dismay and grief of parents when informed 
that their deaf children could obtain an education only in a deaf and 
dumb institution. There are, perhaps, a few families who ];)refer to 
place their chihlren away from home, where the responsibilities of sup- 
port and training will be assumed by others, but it is otherwise with 
our better citizens, who desire to have them brought up more as other 
children. 

The education of the deaf in deaf-mute institutions. — In certain institu- 
tions an increased interest has shown itself of late in respect to the very 
considerable number of pupils who have heretofore been treated as totally 
deaf, but who are, in point of fact, conscious of more or less perception 
of sound, which may be made available in education. The results al- 
leged to have been attained by means of aural teaching are very grati- 
fying. During the year 1877 the writer visited some deaf-mute institu- 
tions with a view to discover what number of these pupils could hear 
the voice by means of a conversation- tube placed in the mouth or ear, 
and he was surprised to find a number being educated as deaf-mutes 
with whom conversation could be carried on orally by the employment 
532 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 295 

of this aid to hearing. Repeated observations subsequently made by 
teachers have confirmed the above, and it is now believed that of ail 
the pupils in deaf and dumb institutions, a large number could be edu- 
cated through the hearing sense by the aid of speaking tubes and ota- 
coustic fans, and that a small number hear well enough to be taught 
by the unaided voice. In the Minnesota institution it has been found 
that from 15 to 25 per cent, of all the pupils received can be taught by 
the aural method, and that after being instructed for a time many could 
hear well enough at the distance of ten or fifteen feet to converse when 
elevated voice was used. 

The confusion and consequent injustice to deaf pupils arising from neg- 
lect to classify them properly. — It will be admitted, if the figures above 
given concerning the deaf be approximately correct even, and it is be- 
lieved that as further examinations are made they will be found not to 
be in excess of the correct number, that in so far as educational objects 
are concerned we cannot separate pupils into two great classes, one of 
which can hear well and the other not at all, by an arbitrary or sudden 
line of demarkation, inasmuch as the hearing disabilities of children 
consist in all degrees of deafness, ranging between slight defects and 
absolute incapacity. 

It would seem necessary, therefore, that some practical scheme for 
the classification of the deaf should be made which would not exclude 
any from the schools. Under the present arrangement the only class 
of defectives provided for has been the so-called deaf-mute class, which 
leaves out of consideration entirely a large number of partially and very 
deaf pupils, occupying, so to speak, intermediate ground between totally 
deaf and normal-hearing persons. This arrangement absolutely places 
a certain number of pupils in a worse condition than if entirely deprived 
of their hearing sense, and in consequence a great many of them find 
their way into deaf-mute schools. Thus it will be seen that the classi- 
fication in both the day and deaf-mute schools is defective, and that in 
any attempt to improve matters we are at once met by a most perplex- 
ing dilemma; thus, owing to the long-continued practice of forcing all 
deaf pupils into either a totally deaf or good-hearing class, we find that 
some of the former and all of the very deaf and partially deaf have been 
relegated to the hearing schools, while other very deaf persons are clas- 
sified with the totally deaf and taught as deaf-mutes. 

The disadvantages arising in deaf-mute institutions from the want of 
classification show themselves in many ways ; thus, where no useful 
perception of sound has ever been experienced by a pupil, as in most 
congenitally deaf persons, there is probably an entire inaptitude for the 
development of the perceptive function, and while efforts to arouse this 
dormant function must not be too early abandoned in doubtful cases, 
yet it is well to consider bow much labor can be profitably devoted to 
the task of teaching such pupils to converse orally. The discouraging 
results in such cases has doubtless been the means of establishing a 
preference for teaching the sign language, since in overcrowded deaf- 
mute institutions this method has the advantage of being inexpensive 
— an important item where the corps of instructors is small. It has 
been estimated that about 10 per cent, of deaf-mute pupils belonging 
to this class cannot learn to speak intelligibly unless much more atten- 
tion is given to their instruction than is practicable in any public school. 

The mediocrity of results attained is further increased by the mental 
inertness of deaf-mute pupils either admitted when too old to adapt 
themselves successfully to study, or retained too long after reaching 
adolescence. 

633 



296 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

The duty oftJie State in respect to the education of the deaf. — The op- 
ponents of the proposed reform for teaching' these defectives in the 
public day-schools assert that the policy of the State is to exclude all 
who cannot be regarded as having average mental and physical qualifi- 
cations; but no one has ventured to define this standard. Indeed, it 
would be difficult to do so ; and were all of the average pupils selected, 
what should be done with the remaining pupils ? This question has 
thus far been only tentatively met by the attempt to separate all pupils 
into good hearing and totally deaf classes. 

By many it is held that our public-school system has for its principal 
object the prevention of illiteracy among' the poor, and if this view be 
correct it can scarcely be regarded as consistent on the part of the ad- 
vocates of educating the average child only, to oppose a scheme for the 
promotion of the interests of a needy but uninfluential class, while fos- 
tering expensive institutions for the free education of the better-to-do, 
and going so far even as to expend large sums of money in giving special 
instruction in German, French, music, etc. 

This was certainly never contemplated by those who founded the com- 
mon-school system. Nor is it humane to leave the care of this defective 
class to the uncertainties of philanthropic aid. The State already has 
amj)le facilities for the care of all the deaf-mutes who cannot be educated 
in connection with the day system of public schools, and inasmuch as 
these institutions will soon be overcrowded by the natural increase of 
this class, it would seem that facilities should be provided for them in 
the day-schools without delay. There are already 17,000 deaf and dumb 
persons of the school age in the United States, according to the census 
of 1880, only 5,000 of whom were in institutions. As has been stated, 
there are already in operation in various sections of the country eleven 
day-schools for the deaf, nine of which, at least, are under control of 
the local boards, and a bill is now before the Wisconsin legislature to 
authorize boards of education to take charge of deaf-mutes and place 
them in the day-schools. 

The expense of educating the deaf in day-schools as compared with their 
education in institutions, — The question of reform in the education of the 
defective in hearing is to a certain extent a question of expense; that 
they must receive educational facilities will not be denied. 

Let us consider the result in this regard of transferring to the day- 
schools what may be regarded as their legitimate share of work. The 
outlay by the State would probably be lessened, so far as the deaf-mutes 
are concerned, and, on the other hand, it would be slightly increased 
were proper methods introduced for the instruction of the very deaf and 
partially deaf. 

At the present time it costs the State to support and instruct deaf- 
mutes in its seven asylums $250 per capita annually. It will thus be 
seen that were classes of ten formed in the public schools, which is a 
smaller number, I believe, than in asylum classes, and a teacher se- 
cured at the rate of $800 per annum, there would be a saving of $170 
per pupil. Where smaller classes of children were formed, as might be 
done in the country, the saving would be less. I have no exact figures 
upon which an estimate of the number of partially deaf can be based. 
I know of but one extensive examination in this direction, besides ray 
own ; this was made by Weil, of Stuttgart, and published in the Archives 
of Otology for 1882. It embraced the results of an examination of the 
ears and the hearing of school children of different social grades. In 
some schools the percentage of those who heard badly was as high as 
30 per cent. My own examinations, embracing 570 pupils, were made in 
5:m 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 297 

the iutermediate and primary grades and included some in the Eoman 
Catholic parochial and in the colored schools of this city. It has already 
been stated that abont 13 per cent, of these had greatly diminished 
hearing, bat it would be impossible to estimate the number whose hear- 
ing required teaching by special methods without a careful and exten- 
sive examination being made. From the large n amber met with in 
practice, however, I believe the number to be considerable. These, 
however, could be taught in classes of twenty, and the increased expense 
would not be great; snch pupils are at present taught, if they attend 
school, in classes with hearing children, and the increased expense in 
reducing the size of classes to accommodate them may be easily com puted. 

There need be no expense for new buildings, the structures at present 
in use for school purposes being sufficient, since it is thought best not 
to separate one class from another entirely any more than the different 
grades are now taught apart. Some instruction would be common to 
all. 

Teachers of deaf jnipils. — Many teachers have already fitted them- 
selves for this work, and it is a significant fact that the growing demand 
for better instruction of the deaf has enabled them to find ready em- 
ployment eitlier in families or in conducting small private day-schools, 
since parents are willing to incur this extra expense rather than place 
their children in deaf-mate institutions. Where this expense cannot be 
borne, and parents are unwilling to send their children away from home, 
it seems that to exclude them from the advantages of day-schools is to 
disregard their rights. 

The examination of pupils in the public schools with a view of determin- 
ing their hearing potcer. — It will not be denied that these disabilities 
among pupils should be known to teachers in order that instruction may 
be made more successful, and it therefore becomes important to adopt 
some plan for correctly determining the hearing power of all school 
children, so that where any defect exists pupils may be placed under 
the best possible advantages. While teachers are known often to fail 
to discern marked departures from the normal standard, and children 
themselves cannot always give reliable information, yet much could be 
accomplished by principals and teachers were they assisted at the start 
by an expert in such matters, especially so far as the majority of pupils 
are concerned ; but where it becomes important to ascertain the exact 
state of the transmitting apparatus of the ear, and the condition of the 
nerve-tract connected with audition, an expert examination would be 
required. 

The importance of early training for deaf children. — Too much stress 
can scarcely be laid on the value of results obtainable in this way if 
early made, since the perceptive power may be much quickened by 
training in many instances, even where the middle ear apparatus is de- 
fective. It would appear to be on the development of the perceptive 
tract, rather than on any change in the transmitting mechanism, that 
miental improvement depends in the very deaf who are taught aurally. 
The expert himself finds it no easy task to get at the facts in certain 
cases, especially in young children who have already been instructed as 
totally deaf, since they soon come to disregard' the hearing sense en- 
tirely, and it remains to be determined in such cases how much the 
auditory nerve has deteriorated from disuse. The professed indifference 
to hearing should never prevent some attempts being made at instruc- 
tion through the hearing organs, since a surprising amount of hearing 
may thus be found to exist. How many children one meets with who 
are backward in learning to talk, but finally on getting to be three or 

535 



298 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

four years old gain their speech! Such children would get on much 
faster in many instances, it is believed, if regarded as partially deaf. 
While treating such children professionally I have seen beneficial re- 
sults from the use of conversation-tubes, or the employment of the voice 
at close range. This practice cannot be too early commenced. I have 
observed good results in children as young as eighteen months. In ob- 
serving these cases one cannot but be impressed with the importance 
of normal hearing in the ready acquirement of speech, and that however 
imperfect the hearing may be, it has its uses in acquiring language. 

The hearing that remains after injury of the ear-drum. — Often after 
great impairment or destruction of the transmitting apparatus of the 
ear-drums, a very efficient passage of sound to the auditory nerve re- 
mains ; but as this becomes more and more difficult, it deteriorates in 
quality, especially for long distances, until finally its rendition in the 
very hard-of hearing becomes so crude and indefinite that interpretation 
by the perceptive tract is difficult or even impossible. Eow, when 
sound ceases to be transmitted in this manner, hearing may take place 
by means of the passage of sound up through the tissues of the head to 
the perceptive tract as propagated by means of the otacoustic fan placed 
on the teeth, or the conversation-tube placed in the mouth. In the 
former instance sound passes more directly along bone structure from 
the teeth, while in the latter it ascends to the vault of the resonating 
chamber at the top of the pharynx and thence up through the tissues 
of the head. Voice-sounds imparted to a pupil in the manner just meu- 
tioned are of very great value in certain cases, because of their tones 
being natural, and the pupil's own voice is even more effective in this 
respect since it is propagated upward with much energy by his own 
vocal efforts against the moist and highly receptive {pharyngeal vault. 

The classification of the future. — No time should be lost in taking steps 
in this direction ; a little classification must necessarily pave the way 
to improvement in the education of the deaf of every degree. It should 
be kept in mind, however, that in a certain proportion of the partially 
deaf the defectiveness is transient and variable ; and that in some of 
the more difficult cases among the very or totally deaf repeated exam- 
ination will have to be made when any doubt as to the diagnosis 
remains. 

Before quitting this subject I desire to mention Bell's useful device 
for testing the hearing. 

The audiometer arranged hy Professor Bell. — This instrument, for all 
practical purposes in testing the hearing power of the different classes 
of deaf persons, answers almost every i^quirement, and its introduction 
will very much facilitate the work of classification when used by an in- 
telligent and trained examiner. 
536 



EDUCATION OF THE BLIND IN THE PEOVINCE OF 

ONTAEIO. 

By Alfred H. Dymond, 

Principal of the Ontario Institution for the Blind, Brantford, Ont. 



A description of the educational system of the Province of Ontario 
would be incomplete without some reference to the means provided for 
the education and instruction of the blind. 

In a liberal, but just and necessary application of that term, are in- 
cluded, not only those young persons between seven and twenty-one 
years of age who are sightless, but all who, within those limits, by rea- 
son of blindness or defective vision, are unable to receive an education 
by the ordinary methods at the public schools.. Nor does the duty of 
an institution for the education of the blind end when it has secured 
for the blind pupil a more or less thorough knowledge of the subjects 
covered by the public school curriculum. His moral and religious train- 
ing, the. ground- work of character and of success in life, must engage 
the constant and careful attention of his teacher. Where the intellect- 
ual capacity of the pupil will admit of it, accomplishments, such as 
music and the higher branches of literature, must be added to the 
studies of the public school. And for pupils whose circumstances re- 
quire it, an industrial training, suited to the case of those who are en- 
tirely dependent on the senses of touch and hearing to guide their oper- 
ations, has to be j^rovided. 

An institution for the education of the blind, then, must be a public 
school, and something more than a public school, — a home, and some- 
thing more than most homes, — a workshop with appliances which no 
ordinary workshop can supply. But, with all this, let it never be for- 
gotten, when we come to ascertain results, that no teaching, however 
skillful or devoted, can absolutely compensate for the loss of sight. No 
instruction, however ingenious, can ever fully atone for the absence of 
the educating ]wwer and functions of the eye. The eye is, to a large 
extent, an involuntary teacher, but it is an ever present and ever active 
one nevertheless. It may be wonderful that the blind can be taught 
so much, but it should be an ever active stimulant to eftbrts to teach 
them all they can acquire, to know how little with the best help they 
can, as compared with the seeing, know and do after all. 

It is not easy to ascertain the precise number of young persons in 
this Province eligible for admission to the Ontario Institution for the 
Blind. The census returns have been found almost useless in this re- 
spect, and very misleading. For the gross number of sightless persons 
enumerated will, on the one hand, include many who from mental and 
physical defects are necessarily excluded, while, on the other, they will 
not represent some whose sight is partially defective, but who are never- 
theless admissible under our rules. 

537 



300 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Somewhat diligent inquiry, however, leads me to believe that the 
number of those who might properly claim admission, but have failed 
to do so, is not large. 1 doubt if, at the present time, there are thirty 
young persons between seven and twenty-one years of age in the Prov- 
ince, eligible as pupils, who are, without some reasonable cause, de- 
prived of the privileges this Institution offers them. There are now 135 
(71 males, 64 females) on our register, but these include several over 
twenty-one years of age, whose attendance is a matter of special favor 
and who could be excluded if accommodation were demanded for juniors. 
It may therefore be safely alleged that, in a building capable of accom- 
modating 150 without crowding, and which has accommodated 180 at 
one time, the Province has fully provided for the education and instruc- 
tion of its youthful blind population. 

The leading idea of the Institution is to create a spirit of independ- 
ence and self-helpfulness in its pupils, and thus to enable them to face 
the world with a resolute spirit and reasonable prospects of success in 
competition with the seeing. It must be admitted, however, that even 
in the effort to accomplish this praiseworthy object, good and evil forces 
come into very close juxtaposition. Those who know by what a slow 
process, by what patient, continuous effort the blind pupil is taught, 
will readily understand that, to educate the blind child from his first 
alphabet card or "reader" in embossed type until he finally graduates 
with a well-informed mind and accomplished in any single profession or 
branch of industry, must occupy a period of many years. During all 
that time his every want is supplied, his every reasonable wish is grati- 
fied. A building with wide and lofty corridors, three hundred feet in 
length, warmed by steam throughout; large and airy dormitories and 
class rooms; workshops equally comfortable; well-spread tables fur 
nished to a minute three times a day, with all needful attendance; warm 
baths; every appliance for studies accessible to the blind; oflicers 
always at hand to whom the idea of repelling or resenting a request for 
help from a pupil never occurs ; grounds eighty-five acres in extent, 
with broad walks for recreation; a hall (or chapel) with its grand pipe- 
organ for divine service at such times, or under such circumstances, as 
may make it more suitable than the city churches, — all these become 
so familiar, are so much a part of the blind pupil's every-day existence, 
are so closely associated with his habits and pursuits, that it is not sur- 
prising if many cling to what has been so long their home, even when 
they should remain no longer, or are ready to succumb to the trials and 
discouragements they are called upon to face on leaving it to make a 
start in life. Nor is it easy to see how the difficulty, thus unavoidably 
created, is to be altogether overcome. 

One point always enforced here is, that the pupils are in no sense 
objects of charity. Gratitude to the good and gracious Father of All is 
a sentiment that, of course, cannot be too zealously fostered ; but, as 
entitled in common with the whole youth of the State to its paternal 
care in the matter of education, the blind claim their education not as 
a benevolence but as a right. That they are admitted. without fee to an 
institution supported by the public revenue does not place them on a 
different footing, so far as their claims are concerned, from seeing youths 
who attend public schools also maintained by taxation. Originally a 
charge was contemplated in the case of those who could afford to pay, 
but the difficulty of discriminating was too great, and the exceptions 
were too numerous, to make a continuance of the attempt advisable, 
and, for several years, board and education have been free. With the 
further view of inducing the blind as far as possible to forget that any 

538 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 301 

distinction exists between themselves and the seeing, blindness with us 
is never spoken of as an affliction^ but rather as a defect^ for which we 
are endeavoring to provide a substitute or compensation. 

Again, when not under instruction, pupils are left, as a rule, depend- 
ent on their own resources. The Institution lies about a mile distant 
from the business portion of the city of Brantford. Male pupils, in 
couples, are allowed to resort thither as often as weather permits, and 
thus not only mingle with the outer world, but transact little matters 
of business on their own account. They are also familiarized with cur- 
rent events and human experience generally by hearing read the most 
interesting portions of the daily newspapers. Kot a few are keen pol- 
iticians and take a deep interest in public affairs. Then, again, spare 
moments in the three months summer vacation are profitably utilized 
by oar willow-worker's, who make up bundles of willow granted them 
into baskets, for which they usually find a ready market, to be expanded 
when they finally graduate. A piano-forte tuner, too, during the holi 
days will often borrow one or two implements, that he may keep his 
hand in while absent from the Institution and perhaps make a few dol- 
lars among his neighbors who are willing to trust him to tune their 
instruments. By these and other means we seek to lessen the trial 
attendant on altogether new and unaided efforts. 

The literary course of instruction is that followed by all the larger 
institutions for the blind on this continent, attention being perhaps 
rather more prominently directed to British than American history and 
literature, as in the case of our friends to the south of the line. At the 
same time we are more than debtors to American literature, and to 
American public and private liberality and enterprise. We have no 
author dearer to our blind boys and girls than Whittier, and should be 
almost without a library if we had not the privilege of access to the 
productions of the great printing houses for the blind at Boston, Louis- 
ville (Ky.), and Philadelphia. The selections, too, compiled by these 
publishers, are usually made with rare judgment — a most imj)ortant cir- 
cumstance when the limited field it is possible to cover is taken into 
account. 

Let me appeal to all who rejoice in the priceless blessing of sight, to 
further this good work of providing literature for the sightless. Let me 
remind them that, while the Book of Books complete can be purchased 
at any of the society's agencies for a few cents, the Bible as a whole 
can only be enjoyed by a blind reader in the form of eight bulky vol- 
umes, costing in the aggregate twenty dollars. There is not a city of 
any proportions in Canada or the United States today without a free, 
or at all events a cheap, lending library of many thousands — in some in- 
stances hundreds of thousands — of books. The whole library accessible 
to the blind does not exceed one hundred and fifty books at the outside. 
For transcribing letter-press or music, or for communicating by letter 
with one another, our pupils use the "New York Point," brought to its 
present state of perfection by my friend Mr. W. B. Wait, the able su- 
perintendent of the IS&w York City Institution for the Blind. In this 
connection I may say that our point print guides are Al in point of 
quality and adaptability. They have been perfected by our engineer, 
Mr. Thos. Harrison, and inquiries from all parts of the continent re- 
specting the Harrison guide, as it is popularly called, are frequent. We 
claim, however, no exclusive right in their manufacture. 

Our music course is both theoretical and practical. It includes stud- 
ies in harmony and counterpoint, as well as instruction in vocal music, 
the x)ipe-organ, reed-organ, x)iauo-forte, and violin. 

539 



302 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

For our female pupils the industries taught consist chiefly of such 
light employment as bead-work and fancy work, in addition to thorough 
instruction in hand-sewing, hand-knitting, and the use of the sewing- 
machine, with all its attachments, and the knitting-machine. The lat- 
ter is an important factor in our pupils' calculations of future liveli- 
hood. 

Of the male pupils a limited number whose natural gifts mark them 
as suitable are instructed in piano-forte tuning, with most satisfactory 
results. 

Our industrial specialty, however, is the willow-work manufacture, 
carried on with the assistance of sectional blocks or models, or iron 
frames, invented by our Trades' Instructor, Mr. Thomas Truss. The 
patterns of the goods included in the willow-workers' course of instruc- 
tion are from forty to fifty in number. When a pupil can turn out the 
whole of these in a workmanlike manner he graduates, an outfit being 
presented to him of models, tools, and material, to the value of from $80 
to $100. Pupils receive no money for their labor in the shops, our ar- 
rangements being, in this as in all other branches, devised with an eye 
to educational results alone, and not to financial i"eturns. The willow 
industry is particularly well adapted for our pupils, who usually come 
from small centers or the rural districts. Land for the growth of a 
willow crop is easily procured, and the product of labor is easily mar- 
keted. Broom-making and mattress making, which are staple indus- 
tries in many institutions, are not suited to our needs. Chair making 
and basket-making oifer not only a greater variety of openings for trade, 
but a larger opportunity for the exercise of the puijils' ingenuity. 

The Ontario Institution for the Blind was erected by the Government 
of the Province in 1872, on a singularly beautiful and healthful site close 
to the city of Brantford and overlooking the Grand Eiver. No small 
recommendation to the situation was the abundant supply of the purest 
water from a natural spring which, in the whole twelve years or more 
that have elapsed since the choice was made, has never shown signs of 
failure or even diminution. The Institution is strictly undenominational 
in its arrangements, the only distinction being made in favor of the 
Eoman Catholic pupils, who attend morning and evening pra,yers con- 
ducted by an officer of their own persuasion, while the members of other 
churches unite collectively in their devotions in the hall. The staff of 
the Institution consists of a principal, bursar, physician (not resident), 
matron, seventeen teachers and instructors, and a number of other per- 
sons employed on the farm and in the mechanical departments as well 
as domestics. The expenditure on the grounds and buildings on capital 
account has, up to the present time, amounted to about $250,000. For 
its maintenance the Provincial Legislature votes about $32,000 annually. 
The authority of the Government over the Institution is represented by 
an inspector in charge of government institutions generally. Since the 
opening of the Institution in 1872, 375 pupils have been admitted to the 
enjoyment of its privileges. An annual examination of the literary classes 
is made by two educationists of high standing, and of the masic classes 
by a professor of eminence. I trust that these talented experts may ever 
be able to report that the Ontario Institution for the Blind is worthy to 
form a part of the noble educational system of our Province. 

540 



THE PEESENT CONDITION OF THE INDIANS. 
By Maj. J. M. Hawoeth, 

Late Superintendent of Indian Schools. 



The educational work among the Indians is at this time attracting 
more attention and promising better results than at any previous pe- 
riod, and this brings within the orbit of public interest the entire Indian 
question. 

For many years, during which this vexed question received bat little 
attention except in an official way from the Government, the importance 
of Indian elevation was almost overlooked or but indifferently provided 
for, even in a missionary point of view. 

. The great missionary zeal of our country has been largely extended 
to the heathen of other lands, while those of our own have received but 
limited attention. True, a few noble-hearted missionaries, Catholic and 
Protestant, have for many years been devoting their lives to mission 
work among the American Indians, and it is mainly due to their iniiu- 
ence that a willingness has been evinced by a part of the Indians to 
receive the white man's education as well as his religion. 

The practical as well as the sentimental interest in the Indian has 
rapidly increased. Men who a few years ago were of the number who 
regarded " the dead Indian as the only good one", are to-day among the 
most urgent in securing legislation in his behalf. Within the last two 
years a National Indian Aid Society, composed of many of the most 
gifted, intellectually and financially, of Philadelphia's best citizens, has 
been organized, and has established auxiliaries in most all the impor- 
tant cities of our country. This society has exercised an important in- 
fluence, not only in molding public opinion, but in framing legislation 
and providing means for advancing the cause of the Indian. Not less 
potent have been the industrial schools of Carlisle, Penn., and Hampton, 
Va., which have so forcibly attracted public attention to Indian possi- 
bilities, both intellectually and industrially. 

While these truths had in fact been demonstrated years ago, and the 
Indian's capabilities had ceased to be a matter of speculation among 
those who knew him best, the attention of the public at large had not 
been attracted in that direction until the establishment of the institu- 
tions above named. To them has been allotted the double duty of ed- 
ucating the Indian, and proclaiming to the white people that the Indian's 
abilities were on a par with their own. 

These schools have done and are doing a good work for Indian edu- 
cation, and I take pleasure in bearing testimony in favor of the able 
management of the Superintendents, Captain Pratt and General Arm- 
strong. 

Since the inauguration of the industrial schools at Hampton and Car- 
lisle, others have been started in different States; the first, at Forest 

541 



304 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Grove, Or., has been iu successful operation for three years, and has 
done for the Pacific coast what Carlisle and Hampton have done for 
the East. Within the last year three others have been organized, — one 
at Genoa, Neb., one near Arkansas City, Kan., designated as Chilocco, 
and one the Haskill Institute, at Lawrence, Kan. About seven hundred 
pupils are now attending the three last named. Another, independent 
of Agency control, is located at Albuquerque, IST. M. This school is d 
maaaged by the Presbyterian Church under contract. Another very " 
important industrial school is located near the Santee Agency, in Ne- 
braska. It is partly supported hy the Government, but the buildings 
belong to the American Missionary Board, and the school is managed 
by the Ecv. A. L. Riggs, than whom no more successful educator is 
found in the Indian Service. 

In addition to the schools named, we have placed at schools in various 
States about six hundred Indian children. These schools are also 
attended by white children, and the contact very materially assists the 
Indian child in obtaining a knowledge of the white i)eople's language 
and ways. This experiment has only been in operation about two years, 
and the result is very satisfactory. A few children have been placed 
out among white people, and are living as members of the family. 

At most all the Agencies boarding or day schools have been estab- 
lished, and in some cases both ; of the former there are 81, of the hitter 
76. This number does not include the schools of the IsTew York Indi- 
ans, which are conducted under State authority and without expense 
to the Government, nor those of the five civilized Nations of the Indian 
Territory, who control their own educational interests under their own 
laws, without expense to the Government. They are very liberal in 
their educational provisions, and have colleges, academies, and district 
schools comparing very favorably with those of the neighl oring States. 
The New York Indians have two boarding and thirty day schools. Over 
twenty schools besides those named are conducted by missionary labor, 
without expense to the Government. 

The capacity of the various schools denominated Government schools 
is, boarding and industrial schools (),635, and day schools 3,330, a total 
0(f 9,965 ; to which, if we add the New York schools wi*h capacity for 
2,456 and 23 missionary schools with capacity for 993, we have, outside 
of the five civilized tribes, facilities for 13,414. 

Additional facilities are being added the present year. Tiae enroll- 
ment for the last year was within 865 of the full capacity, and the ave- 
rage attendance of the boarding schools was 71 j^ier cent., and of the day 
schools 60 per cent. 

The increase in pupils and average attendance for the past two years 
has been at the rate of 30 i)er cent, per annum over the previous years. 
The increase for the current year cannot be correctly ascertained until 
the reports are received and consolidated at its close. 

Each class of schools has an important place in the work. The day 
school, generally regarded as of little consequence and almost as money 
thro.wn away, is a very important agent in opening and preparing the 
way for the others. Experience demonstrates that it is much easier to 
obtain children for outside schools from Agencies where the matter of 
education has been brought before the Indians, even though the object 
lesson may have been only a day school. 

But these difiiculties are becoming less each year, though there is 

still a strong opposition among some tribes to sending their children 

away to school, or even placing them iu Agency schools. The roots of 

the opposition reach far back into the jjast. Their own traditional and 

542 



INTERNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATOKS PAPERS. 305 

religiously received ideas are all against a departure from the ways of 
their fathers, and he is a brave spirit indeed who in the face of such 
opposition can set it aside and start out in the white man's way. 

The important part in the work of Indian education is and has been 
in pioneering the way and overcoming their prejudices. This has been 
a w(5rk of slow, but nevertheless sure, progress. The opposition en- 
countered is stubborn, but is being gradually vanquished by persistency. 
To those on the outside unacquainted with the diflSculties to be over- 
come, the progress of the work may have appeared much slower than 
it actually has been. 

There is not much difficulty experienced now in securing the attend- 
ance of the boys, but a strong unwillingness exists against sending the 
girls to school. The Indian estimate of the female sex does not give 
her equal privileges with the male. She is the hewer of wood and the 
drawer of water. All the burdens are to be borne by her, and she ac- 
cepts the situation cheerfully as one of honor, regarding it as much 
more appropriate that she should perform menial offices than that her 
husband, son, or brother, should have so far to forget his dignity as to 
work with his hands. Although she is not exactly regarded as jiurchas- 
able in the light of bargain and sale, she yet commands a property 
value which justihes the parents in demanding and receiving a large 
and valuable consideration in ironies, or other material, from one de- 
siring to make their daughter his wife. This transaction or ceremony 
often takes place while the girl is yet very young, often before she has 
reached ten or twelve years of age, and without her preferences being 
consulted. She is sometimes traosferred to a man older than her father, 
who installs her in his family as wife No. 2, 3, or 4. 

As the opportunity for an education is afforded this system vanishes. 
The education of the girls is certainly not less important than that of 
the boys, and its influence for good upon the tribe is even greater. 

But the great changes wrought in the last few years have not been 
without some influence in this respect, and I sincerely hope that the 
day is not far distant when among all the tribes these early marriages, 
voluntar}^ or coercive, shall cease, and as many girls as boys attend 
the schools, the education and civilization of the sexes advancing to- 
gether. 

The rapidly advancing columns of civilization have come upon the 
Indians from the west as well as from the east, and that imaginary 
line designated the frontier has ceased to exist. The Indian is sur- 
rounded by the evidences of civilization, and anxious feet are treading 
on the very lines of the reservations, eager to pass over and possess 
the lands. ISTot much longer will even the bayonets of the army avail 
to keep back the intruders. Eeservatiou lines will give way before the 
pressure, and the Indian will have to accept civilization or go to the 
wall. The signs of the times clearly indicate that this is inevitable. 
It will not delay until the children can be educated. 

The work of teaching must be extended to the old as well as the 
young. Never in the history of our country has the invitation gone out 
with greater force, from the condition of the Indians, to the Christians 
of the land to come and point out the true way, than at this time, and 
never has there been a time when such grand opportunities for success- 
ful work for the Master's cause among the Indians were offered to the 
churches. Will tbey heed the call and enter more largely upon the work f 
Congress is liberal and the managing power wise, but the Government 
in its^management cannot be exxjected to take the i^lace of, and do the 
missionary work of the churches. Upon the churches of America rests 
7950COT, PT. 2 — -20 - 543 



306 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the responsibility of the elevation to Christian character of the Ameri- 
can ludiau. 

While our efforts in behalf of the education of the children should 
extend to all the number, and we should see to it that facilities suffi- 
cient are provided, our efforts should not be confined to the children 
alone; much can and ought to be done for the adults. The close observa- 
tion and study which I have given the matter during the twelve years 
in which I have been connected with Indian affairs, convinces me that 
labor bestowed upon the adult Indian is not lost. 

While we cannot expect to develop in him as high a type of civiliza- 
tion as in the school-boy, we will find him ready to respond favorably 
to any effort we may put forward in his behalf. While we may not be 
able to give him the advantages of intellectual education, we can with 
proper teachers and teaching demonstrate the fact, that the wildest 
Indian may soon be brought uj) to the plane of an industrious self-sup- 
porting man. 

He must be prepared for citizenship and become a factor in the man- 
agement of the affairs of the Nation, He will become a citizen and be 
absorbed into the body politic, or he may become a vagabond and con- 
stant charge to the Government until he ceases to exist. In educational 
matters and the general ways of civilization he is quick to respond. 

The children learn raj^idlj^ and, considering the fact that they have 
to learn the English language as they progress in education, their ad- 
vancement compares well with that of white children. 

Including the Indians of Alaska, our entire Indian population is less 
than three hundred thousand, of whom not more than forty-five thou- 
sand are of school age. For more than half of these provision has been 
made. As already said, the pioneer work, which is the most difficult, 
has been done. That which remains to be done, though it is great, can 
be accomplished much more ra'pidly, and the day need not be far dis- 
tant when the Indians as a body will be lost to view by commingling 
with, or being absorbed by, the stronger races, and thus the Indian 
question be of the past. 

544 



EDD CATION OF THE INDIANS IN THE DOMINION OF 

CANADA. 

By Samuel Woods, M. A, 

Principal of Ottawa Ladies' College. 



I find from a letter written on November 15th, 1685, by the Sieur de 
Deuonville, Governor of Canada, to the minister for the colonies under 
Louis XIV, that there had been established at Quebec two schools for 
the education of the Indians. In the first of these, young Indians were 
trained with -a view to their entering the Church; and in the second 
they were taught the useful arts, together with such instruction as they 
were found capable of receiving to qualify them the better as artisans, 
farmers, etc. (Parkman's Old E6gime, p. 438, Archives de la Marine a 
Paris.) 

It is now nearly two hundred years since that letter was written, and 
the policy aunonnced in it has been the rule and guide of the Eoman 
Catholic Church ever since. In carrying out this plan the Jesuit fa- 
thers have willingly offered 'their lives on the altar of duty, and such 
names as Lalemeut, Masse, Breboeuf, Noirot, De La None, and hundreds 
of others, have won and worn the martyr's crown in endeavoring to 
carry the news of a crucified Redeemer to the dusky sons of the forest. 
Through the generations that have since passed, wherever the Church 
has found willing or unwilling auditors, whether on the banks of the 
Frazer, the Peace, the Saskatchawan, the Abbittibe, or the Saguenay, 
alongside of the church have been found the mission school and the 
swarthy children gathered there, learning first of all the wondrous story 
of the son of Mary, and then, but in a far secondary place, the elements 
of a secular education. 

This policy, uniformly pursued in Acadia, in the older Provinces of 
Canada, and thTOughout the regions of the Far West, has been it most 
valuable auxiliary in instilliug into the minds of the Indians, wherever 
they came in contact with the "Black Robes", a respect for the usages 
of civilized life, and a desire, not once but many times expressed, to 
know more of the means by which the white man advanced with resist- 
less step, and finally supplanted the aborigines in their own hunting- 
grounds. 

I have mentioned the noble efforts df the Roman Catholic Church first 
among the educational advantages enjoyed by the Indians of the Do- 
minion, because she is the oldest factor in the work, and because her 
power and influence have as a consequence exercised the largest amount 
of good upon the Canadian tribes; and to show that the old spirit is not 
yet dead, but that the zeal which sent Marquette and Robert Cavelier 
de La Salle beyond the confines of civilization in the long past still sur- 
vives, I quote from a petition of Soeur M. U. Charlebois presented to the 

545 



308 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Et. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald, Superintendent-General of Indian 

Affairs, in 1882. She says : 

Tlie petitioner uow humbly submits to your kind consideration the following state- 
ment of the different houses consecrated to the instruction of the Indian and half-breed 
children in this part of the North-west : 

The ' ' Asile Youville " at St. Albert's, established in 1859, clothes, feeds, and instructs 
tfO children. 

Tbo "Hospice St. Joseph " at lie a la Crosse, established in 1860,40 children. 

Tlje '' Hospice St. Joseph" at Lac La Biche, established in 1862, :38 children. 

The •' Hopital du Sacr6 Cojur" at Mackenzie Eiver, eslablishedin 1866, 36 children. 

The " Convent des Saints Anges " at Athabaska, established in 1874, 28 children. 

Thus under the Arctic Circle the good work advances under these 
self-denying enthusiasts, and the education of these semi-savages is car- 
ried on with sorely inadequate means. 

But on the Pacific coast a new factor in the education of our Indians 
is found. In 1841, Dr. Pickering, of the United States exploring vessel 
the Vincennes, thus writes, contrasting the then unbroken solitudes of 
that wihl coast with the eastern side of the continent: "Scarcely two 
centuries ago our New England shores })resented only scenes like that 
before me, and what is to be in the lapse of the tbird'?" Well, less than 
sixteen years after, the beautiful city of Victoria was risiug out of the 
primeval forest, emigrants from all lands were rushing to the new El 
Dorado, and amoug these were found the officers of the Loudon Mission 
Society and of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
Parts, with their wide views for the preservation and education of the 
Indian. Schools were opened at the chief tribal centers, and every .effort 
made to educate the young Indians by these societies, which adopted 
the rule that success could be gained in these objects only by inducing 
the young to embrace the doctrines of Christianity. To accomplish this 
desirable end they opened four principal schools, and the one at Met- 
Inhkatla has been so successful that annually for some years it has re- 
cived a grant from the Dominion Government of $500. The Eoman 
Catholic Industrial Mission School at St. Mary is in receipt of a like 
sum. 

In Manitoba and the North-western Territories, alongside of the Eo- 
man Catholic and in harmony with him, the Methodist and Episcopalian 
have gone hand in hand in the good work, and for many years and amid 
many discouragements Eev. Geo. Macdougall and Bishop MacLean 
were planting the seed which shall bear good fruit, now that the Gov- 
ernment has succeeded to their work. 

It u^iy seem somewhat strange that I should call attention to these 
incidents, but I do so for the reason that the ground was thus prepared 
for the wide and general diffusion of education among the Indians dur- 
ing the years since Confederation. 

And while the Church was thus preparing the way, there were other 
influences also at work which cannot be omitted in giving even the 
faintest outline of the education of the Indian. 

TEEATIES. 

It is now over one hundred years since the first treaty was made with 
the Canadian Indians by Britain for the quieting of Indian titles and the 
surrender of the lands, and yet in all this time no drop of white blood 
has been shed by an Indian because of a broken treaty, and the reason 
is plain : the Indian saw himself regarded as an equal in all the trea- 
ties made, and the rights and privileges guaranteed to him have been 
observed to the very letter. Confidence is a plant of slow growth, 
546 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 309 

but it has taken deep root amon^ tlie Canadian Indians, who have 
learned that the pledged word of the Great Mother, or her lawful rep- 
resentative, is a bond that will not be broken. If reserves are set aside, 
they are secured for all time to their Indian owners; and so, in the very 
richest and most valuable territories of Ontario, the Six Nation Reserve 
at Brautford, the Mohawk of Quints, the Ojibbewey of Lake Huron, and 
the Moravian on the Thames, are held by the sons, grandsons, or great- 
grandsons of the Indian signataries of the respective treaties. For it 
must always be remembered that in Canada the policy of '' removal far- 
ther west" has no advocates. In every treaty the Indians are allowed 
to select their own reserves on the surrendered lands, and they are 
guaranteed free hunting and fishing privileges over the whole lands 
covered by the treaty so long as the title remains in the Crown. When 
the land passes into private hands all such privileges cease. Hence, in 
the wealthy Province of Ontario, there are twenty-seven reservations, 
on which there is a settled Indian poijulation of nearly 19,000. In 
Quebec there are seventy-one reservations with over 11,000 inhabitants. 
In ISTova Scotia fourteen reservations have 2,250; and in New Bruns- 
wick there are eleven with about 1,500 resident Indians upon them. In 
Manitoba, Kewaydin, Assiniboin, Albnta, and Saskatchawan, there are 
included in the surrendered territories nearly 35,000 Indians perma- 
nently settled on reservations, among whom, now peaceful and happy, 
are bands of Sioux, the survivors of those who in Minnesota in 1859 
carried slaughter and desolation to the homes of so many peaceful 
settlers. In British Columbia there are about 17,000 treaty Indians on 
the various agencies, and in all these wide-spread territories law and 
order run together, and white man and red man live and have lived in 
peace. 

And just here let me pause to call attention to one fact which shows 
perhaps better than any other the strict adherence to treaty stipulations 
on the part of the Canadian Government. The far famed Thousand Isl- 
ands is an Indian reserve. If the Government at any time during the 
past ten years had so desired it, an immense revenue might have been 
derived from the sale of these lands. But no amount of argument or 
entreaty can prevail upon them to break the treaty, among the very 
oldest. And so while the islandvS on the American shore are gradually 
becoming denuded of their sylvan beauty and in some cases reduced by 
fire to barren rocks, no sale can take place on the Canadian side. Leases 
may be granted, and are granted at a fixed rental and for short periods, 
but only under the strictest regulations regarding the cutting of timber, 
lighting of fires, etc.; and as the lessee is liable for all such damage the 
l^robabilities are that the paradise of beauty on the Canadian side will 
long remain a standing and most powerful proof of the faith of the treaty 
guaranteed to the red man in the years now long past. 

LAWS REGARDING LIQUOR. 

But I have not yet exhausted the indirect educational influences which 
have served to render the Indian problem a source of pride and gratifi- 
cation to every Canadian. In every license law which has been passed 
by either the Dominion or Provincial Parliaments, one clause has ever 
been found, inflicting the heaviest penalties upon the man, be he hotel- 
keeper, trader, or any one else, who sells liquor to the Indian. Nay, so 
determined has the Dominion Government been to protect the Indian, 
thiit a most strict Prohibitory Liquor Law prevails in all the unorganized 
Territories of the North-west, and one of the special orders to the mounted 

547 



310 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION'S AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

police is to seize and confiscate all liquor entering the territory, even in 
the small quantity generally known as the "pocket pistol." It is no 
unusual thing to read in the police reports about the staving in of 
whisky kegs, and the utter destruction of their contents, and the trader 
whose stock is thus ruthlessly destroyed will think twice before runuin:;' 
the risk not only of the loss, but of imprisonment besides, if found guilty 
of a second offense. 

THE HON. HUDSON BAY COMPANY. 

Another educational agency must not be omitted. In 1643, England's 
unfortunate king, Charles I, granted to his nephew Prince Eupert and 
others a charter under the name of the " Honorable Company of Mer- 
chants and Adventurers trading to the Hudson's Bay." This company 
soon after established its posts on Hudson's Bay, and thence spread 
southward to Lake Superior, northward to the Yukon, the Mackenzie, and 
the Coppermine, eastward to Labrador, and westward to California, Ore- 
gon, and the Pacific. At the junctions of all large streams, on the shores 
of nameless lakes, in mountain valleys whence rushed down the waters of 
rivers that swept the fertile plains of the North-west, under arctic snows 
w.here the aurora was the only light for months, the factors of this com- 
)>any were found, and honorable men like Mackenzie, Eoss, Simpson, 
Harmon, McTayish, Ballantyne, and others taught the uncultivated 
savage that a certain amount of work would yield a certain return, and 
thus was inculcated the first feeble beginning of a civilization which 
only in our day is giving all the indications of bearing good fruit. For 
to the credit of the Honorable Company it is noteworthy that its factors 
were sincere Christians in nearly every case, and often in cathedrals 
paved with living green, and having God's own vault for nave and 
transept, the sublime ritual of the old mother Church has been rever- 
ently read to the servants of the company and the Indians assembled 
f(. r that express purpose. And how reverently this would be done can 
easily be imagined when it constituted almost the only bond that viv- 
idly held them to the old land with its many happy associations. 

Nor, last but not least, must I omit to mention the influence of the 
Indians on each other. The oldest reserves found themselves treated 
exactly as they had agreed, saw themselves becoming more wealthy 
year hj year, sharing the prosperity of their white neighbors, and 
enjoying the protection of laws framed in a most liberal spirit for their 
benefit. Even in the reverend synods and conferences of the land they 
saw the Indian admitted to an equal place and an equal voice in all 
deliberations. They saw the courts of law opened to a chief of the Six 
Nations, and a lucrative business largely made up by white men flowing 
into the office of a pure-blooded Indian. They saw many of the mem- 
bers of these tribes educating themselves and going out among their 
white brothers and building up remunerative practices as medical men. 
They saw all such men enfranchised and enjoying the fall rights of 
British subjects, honored and respected. They saw further their own 
schools taught by Indians. And when such tales, together with what 
accords with the Indian idea exactly, the prompt payment of all annui- 
ties, were told upon the plains, Crees and Salteaux and Chippewas were 
only anxious to settle, give up their wandering habits, and, accepting 
the liberal ofifers of the Great Mother, determine that they too would 
share in the privileges already acquired by the tribes in the eastern 
Provinces of the Dominion. 
548 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 311 

Such are the I'eadiug influences which had been at work among the 
Indians, when in 1867 they all passed from the various Provincial Gov- 
ernments into the power of the Dominion, or General Government. 
They were not savages. In the remotest regions of our wide Dominion 
they had met the white man as a friend and brother ; had smoked the 
peace pipe, and had learned to trust him implicitly. The change was 
imperceptible to the wards of the nation, and would not have been 
worthy of notice were it not that from that time a uniform system of 
management was organized, and the affairs of the Indians placed under 
the direct control of a Dominion cabinet minister. 

As soon as possible after Confederation steps were taken for a more 
vigorous Indian policy. In almost all the Provinces and territories the 
churches had been doing a noble work, and the Government, wisely de- 
termined uot to interfere with the plans which the experience of many 
years had amply justified. The schools conducted by the various de- 
nominations (see Appendix A) at once became public schools in this 
sense only, — that the income hitherto contributed by churches and pri- 
vate individuals or companies was supplemented by government grants 
in no case exceeding $12 per pupil per annum for public schools ; but 
the Government reserved the right of contributing to the establishment 
and support of industrial schools in as liberal a manner as they might 
see fit. 

It shall now be my pleasing duty to indicate as clearly as possible 
what was the condition of Indian education in the various Provinces at 
the date of their entry into Confederation. The record is one of which 
any nation might well be proud, and the progress may be looked upon 
as phenomenal, since the schools qualified to receive government aid 
have increased from 41, with an attendance of 1,716 pupils, to 150 with 
4,306 pupils. When such encouraging results have been achieved in 
seventeen years, are we not justified in concluding that the future, with 
the experience gained from the past, will show returns equally as grati- 
fying? 

ONTARIO. 

When the first return of Indian schools was received from this 
Province in 1867-'68, there were found to be only 38 in active operation 
and qualified to receive the government grant. Now there are in all 
69 schools, and the attendance has increased from 1,409 to 1,930. In 
all these there has been a very gratifying increase in secular knowl- 
edge, so much so that within late years the subjects of dictation, com- 
position, drawing, and French have been added, while in the industrial 
schools pupils are taught algebra, Euclid, and in rare cases Latin 
and Greek. Throughout the Province the schools are regularly in- 
spected by the county inspectors, and reports upon their standing and 
progress are periodically received by the Department. 

These Ontario schools take high rank, because our system of public 
school education is jjrobably equal to, if not in advance of, any other 
country in the world, and in every progressive step made by these 
schools the Indians have shared. Our public school system dates from 
1844 ; but I find in an old book published in that year, '^ Facts concern- 
ing the North American Indians and Hints for their Future Advance- 
ment," an account of the work done by some self-sacrificing Methodist 
ministers, which shows that even before our public school system came 
into being the problem of Indian education had been partially solved, 

549 



312 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

and the policy adopted by those old Christian Fathers has found its 
latest development in the industrial schools !iow so actively supported 
in Ontario, British Columbia, and the Territories. I quote as follows : 

Another means of accelerating their improvenaent -would be to establish schools for 
the instruction of the chiloreu and youth. Already we have schools on every mission 
station, which have done much good ; but the thing to which I now refer is to estab- 
lish schools of a superior order. Manual labor schools would be excellently adapted 
to their circumstances * '"' ". A portion of those annuities from eadi tribe might 
under the direction of the govei-nment agent be apportioned to their support. Per- 
haps a portion of their money could not be better, nor to themselves more advanta- 
geously expended. By methods of this nature, the Indian would be gradually and per- 
manently advanced in the scale of civil society; his migratory habits and fondness 
for roaming would be cured, and an interesting class of our fellow men rescued from 
degradation. 

It may be incidentally mentioned that in 1839 a report to Lord Glen- 
elg, still in manuscript in the archives of the Indian Department, pre- 
pared by the late Hon. Sir James Macaulay, recommends the opening- of 
similar schools, so that when the industrial schools were first opened in 
Ontario we were but advancing along the line advocated by the old 
French Fathers, Sir James Macaulay, and the Wesley an minister, Eev. 
Benjamin Slight, quoted above. 

And so in this Province there are now lour large industrial schools. 
The " Mohawk Institution " at Brantford is the oldest, and in it the 
pupils receive a thorough education, so much so that it is not unusual 
for them to enter the collegiate institutes and high schools side by side 
with the whites, and advance thence through the colleges of the Do- 
minion, taking high rank in the classes there. And while attention is 
thus paid to mental training, many of the pupils are carefully instructed 
in industrial trades, such as shoemaking, tailoring, blacksmithing, plas- 
tering, carpentering, and printing. In Appendix B I have indicated 
the present condition of many of these pupils, from which it will be seen 
that the instruction afforded is bearing excellent fruit. A similar insti- 
tution, called the " Mount Elgin Institute," exists in the Muuceytown 
Eeserve : here special care is devoted to the female department, which 
is by no means neglected at Brantford, and for $60 per annum any girl 
of Indian parentage can procure board, education, and careful training 
in household duties, such as washing, laundry work, knitting, sewing, 
spinning, cooking, and baking. The boys are trained similarly to those 
at the Mohawk Institute. The Mount JKlgin Institute dates tVom 1867. 
At Sault Ste. Mariis, and at Wikwemikong on the north shore of Lake 
Huron, two similar institutions have been organized and set forth upon 
a prosperous career. The former, the " Shiuwauk House," is under the 
charge of the Episcopal Church, and the latter of the Eomau Catholic. 
The aim of all these institutes is to train the Indian to give up his old 
ways, and to settle among his white brethren on equal terms and with 
equal advantages.^ 

NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWIOE:. 

These were two of the original contracting Provinces in the Confed- 
eration, and although the oldest in point of settlement, had done very 
little for the Indian beyond giving him a hazy notion of the outlines of 
Christian faith. There were no. reserves specially set apart, and I find 
in the Report of the Hon. H. L. Laugwin, in the very first year after 

' See Report (in the following Paper) on the condition of the Indian Schools of On- 
tario for the year 1884.— .1. G. H, 
550 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 313 

Confederation, a: rocoramendatiou that $1,000 per annum sbould be set 
apart for each of these Provinces, and the reason assigned is : 

Tliey [the Indians] have no means of acquiring the education necessary to enable 
them hereafter to share the blessings of civilization, and it would, in my opinion, be 
expedient to grant a sum of $1,000 to each of the two Provinces to procure for them 
this advantage. [Report, 1867-68.] 

Let us see the outcome of this i>olicy. In 1872 the Ho-n. Joseph Howe, 
Superintendent of Indian Affairs, reports as follows : 

In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick I regret to have to acknowledge thatuanch less 
has been done. * " * Ashamed of the condition to which the Miemacs had been 
reduced in my own Province by the neglect of the Government and the indifference 
of the whites, in 1840 I had an Act passed under Lord Falkland's rule making partial 
provision for the Miemacs, and gave two years of life to their service. I traversed 
the country, visited their villages, slept in their camps, had their lauds surve.yed and 
divided, educated some of their children, and without reward or the hope ot' it, did 
my best to set an example of devotion to the good work, which the pressure of other 
duties shortly alter compelled me to relinquish. These grants were continued down 
to Confederation but were never increased. * * * On coming into this snperiu- 
tendency, my first care was to increase the grants annually voted for Indian Affairs 
in the maritime Provinces, to appoint local agents, and to change the system and 
objects of expenditure; in short, to introduce, so far as the funds would enable me, 
the (old) Canadian system. Up to this time the results are encouraging, and I trust 
the work will not be neglected by those who may come after me, and who ought 
never to forget that the crowning glory of Canadian policy in all times past, and 
under all administrations, has been the treatment of the Indians. 

Such were the small beginnings. It will be seen from a previous part 
of my report that the Indian population of these Provinces is abour 
3,750, and to provide for the wants of these there have been established 
ten schools suj^ported entirely from the consolidated Indian funds of 
the Grovernment. In these schools there are 225 pupils receiving in- 
s fraction in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, and geog- 
laphy. The work is regularly inspected by the officers of the public 
schools, and while irregularity of attendance is frequently complained 
of, still favorable advancement is reported. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 

This Province has a very small Indian population, under 300, settled 
since 1870 on Lennox Island, Richmond Bay, on the north shore. The 
reservation contains about 1,300 acres of good land, and was purchased 
for the Indians by the London Aborigines Society. A school was first 
opened on this reserve in 1873, but it enjoyed a very precarious career- 
until about three years ago, when the Indians suddenly develoi)ed a 
desire to make more use of it. The last report gives an attendance of 
15 pupils on the average, and the usual subjects taught. The school is 
supported entirely by government funds. 

QUEBEC. 

Although there are seventy-one reservations in this Province, schools 
have been opened at only fifteen diiferent localities. But it must not be 
supposed that the interests of education are neglected at all the others. 
The Roman Catholic Church still pursues its way, still cares for the 
orphan and the destitute, and only where there are a sufficient number of 
children to forma school has it been deemed advisable by the Government 
to open one. These fifteen schools, then, have an attendanceof 467 pupils, 
the largest number maintained being at Caughuawaga, where there is au 
average daily attendance of 8C. These pupils are all instructed in the 

551 



314 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

usual branches, with giammar, history, and music added. The Dominion 
Government grant is $2,880 per annum, and the reports of the various 
schools are found on the whole very satisfactory. Unfortunately in 
this Province the religious difficulty occasionally crops out, and more 
schools might be opened if a basis of agreement could be ascertained. 
With a view of meeting the question fairly, the Indian Act contains a 
clause defining the rights and powers of the Indians in such cases. As 
soon as it is found that sufficient children can be collected to form a 
school, by a majority vote it is decided whether the school shall be 
Catholic or Protestant ; but in any case if a sufficient minority wishes 
it, a second school and a second teacher will be supplied. As this en- 
actment only came into force recently, it is fully expected that in many 
places it may be found practicable to do more than is now attempted. 
In this, as well as in every other enactment for the advancement of the 
Indians, the Government, under its present enlightened and vigorous 
management, is found providing a remedy so soon as the difficulty be- 
comes apparent. And still there is much to do for our Quebec Indians. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

As regards this Province I find in the report of the Minister of the 
Interior for 1874 the following : 

With regard to the education of the Indian youth in this Province, three schools es- 
tablished with this object have been brought prominently under the noMce of the 
Governmeut, toward which grants corresponding to the respective attendance and 
the character of each have been made. These institutions consist of — 

1st. The iudnstrial school at St. Mary's, under the care of the Roman Catholic 
Church, \A'hereat forty-two children are boarded, the boys receiving instruc 
tion in farming, and the girls in housewifery, needle-work, etc. Grant, i|35() 
per annum. 
2nd. A similar but still larger institution at Metlakahtla, under the supervis- 
ion of Mr. Duncan, supported by the Church Mission Society of London, hav- 
ing an attendance of three hundred and four children. Grant, $500 per au- 
num. 
3rd. A day school at Nanaimo with fifty pupils, under the superintendence of 
the Wesleyan Methodist Society. Grant, ^'^iSO per annum. 
There has also been authorized the payment of $300 per annum to each of seven 
such other schools as may already or shall hereafter be established, in accordance with 
the wishes of the Indians and the approval of the Indian Coramissiouer, and having 
each an attendance of not less than thirty pupils. 

The extension to British Columbia of laws already in force for the government of 
Indians in the older Provinces of the Dominion, and the passage last session of a 
stringent law to put a stop to the liquor traffic among the Indians, are notable cir- 
cumstances in the year's transactions. 

This was in the first report after the entrance of British Columbia 
into the Confederation, and it is gratifying to find that not only were 
these seven schools established, but they have ever since been main- 
tained, and the last report shows an attendance at them of four hun 
dred and eight x)upils, studying the usual public school branches, and 
though the attendance is less regular than in the other Provinces, still 
very pleasing evidences of progress are reported. To counteract this 
irregularity one inspector recommends the extension of the principle of 
the industrial schools to the whole Province. As yet, however, the ex- 
pense of such a step would involve too great an outlay. 

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST. 

The first school established under government control in these Terri- 
tories was opened in 1873, and although only eleven years have since 
passed, there are now forty-four schools with an attendance of nearly 

552 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 315 

1,300 pupils. Like everything else lathis new country these schools are 
active, vigorous, and aggressive, and owe their raj)id increase to the 
fact that the Government bound itself in every one of the treaties 
surrounding the territory to maintain a school on each reservation, or 
more than one if more were required. In addition to these there are 
three boarding and industrial schools which have been recently opened 
at Qu'Appelle, at Battleford, and at High Eiver near Oalgarry, on the 
same plan so successfully tried in the older Provinces. Here, too, the 
Government found a few religious schools, but for the most part the 
soil was virgin, and is destined to produce a return incalculable by any 
human means in the social elevation of the many thousand Indians 
scattered over the fertile reserves guaranteed to them forever by the 
faith of treaties which will never be broken. 

REPORT FOR 1884. 

Just while I was collecting the a,bove data the Superintendent-Gen- 
eral's Report for 1884 was announced as soon to be issued, and I have 
been permitted to make some valuable extracts from it. These are of 
the most favorable character, as will be seen by the following : 

The erection at the expense of the funds at their credit of more commodious school- 
houses, the repair and improvement of the old buildings, and the supplying of modern 
school furniture, books, and materials for the better education of their children, 
afford proof of increased interest in the important matter of education. * * * 
Schools for the higher education of Indian youth should be established in the Prov- 
inces of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, in which the brightest and most 
promising pupils of the day schools might be trained in industrial pursuits, the knowl- 
edge of which would eventually enable themito rise in the social scale to an equality 
with the white artisan or husbandman. * * * The progress of Indian children at 
day schools, however efJicieutly conducted such institutions may be, is very greatly 
hampered and injuriously affected by the associations of their home life, and by the 
frequency of their absence and the indifference of parents to the regular attendance 
of their children at such schools. * * » I would suggest in order to give i^ractical 
effect to the above ideas that two schools of the industrial type, with accommodations 
for at least eighty* ijupils in each, should be established in the Province of Quebec, 
and one of such institutions in each of the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Bruns- 
wick, and that into either of the latter institutions Indian children from Prince Ed- 
ward Island be also admitted ; the number of schools to be hereafter increased, should 
the success of those first established justify such augmentation. 

It will be seen from the above extracts from his Report, that the Rt. 
Hon. the Premier, who is Superintendent-General of Indian Aii'airs, 
does not intend to pursue a policy of masterly inactivity in the treat- 
ment of the Indian Problem, but, recognizing its very great importance, 
he proposes to deal with it in a statesmanlike manner and in accordance 
with the traditions of the Canadian Indian policy. 

In this rapid manner, for I regret to say that the time at my disposal, 
aside from my college duties, for the proper treatment of so large a 
subject was very limited, inasmuch as the request to prepare the paper 
was conveyed to me only twelve days before it was to be handed in, I 
have endeavored to overtake the more salient outlines of a system of 
education unique from its inception and growth, and commanding re- 
spect from its highest recommendation — success. I have thrown some 
additional items of information into the form of appendices to which I 
would refer, and in the preparation of which I have to acknowledge the 
great assistance afforded by the Deputy Superintendent-General for 
ludian affairs, L. Yankoughnet, Esq., who kindly placed at my disposal, 
on the request of the Rt. Hon. the Premier, every available means in 
his oiSce in order to obtain as full details as possible. 

But the educational facilities afforded by the Government have not 

553 



316 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

yet been exhausted, and the policy of placing the Indians on reserva- 
tions having been deliberately adopted, it was thought that something 
more ought to be done. And so seed was provided, agricultural imple- 
ments supplied, cattle, hogs, sheep, and even horses in many instances, 
were furnished, and competent men appointed to instruct the Indiaus 
in the use of them. In the northwest twenty-six such agencies of an 
educational kind are at work, and the returns are something wonder- 
ful, if we remember that this method of instruction has been in opera- 
tion only four .years. In Appendix D I have giveu tlie Lite.st returns 
from these farms or reserves, from which it can easily be seen that the 
Indians are becoming very fast a self-supporting class of j^eople, and 
that they hold in tlieir own hands the means of making themselves 
wealthy and respected. Their nomadic life is gradually becoming a 
thing of the past; their wars are no more heard of; their epidemics of 
small-pox and other zymotic diseases are gradually yielding to the pre- 
veutive measures so cheerfully and amply supplied by the Government 
Their wild, untutored, and hence suspicious nature is gradually becom 
ing tamed, and under the combined iuiiuence of paternal governmeu 
and mutual esteem they are fast qualifying themselves to become use 
ful citizens. 

So fully is this grand result shared by the authorities of the ludiar 
Department, that in the last session of the Dominion Parliament an Act 
was passed under which the Indian either at once becomes enfran- 
chised, or may acquire municipal rights of self-government, and be- 
come, on certain conditions, entitled to all the rights and privileges of 
citizenship without many of the burdens incident thereto. See Ap- 
pendix E. 

But it may naturally be inquired by some: All this costs money, and 
whence comes that most needful commodity for these various purposes? 
In reply to this question I submit Appendix F, from which it will be 
seen that the Indian Department is more than self-sustaining, and that 
in the far off future, when the Act of 1884 shall have been adopted by 
all the tribes, there will be an amount available tor the posterity of these 
nomads of the forest, in value beyond their wildest dream. Nor can we 
doubt that the wisdom which during the past century has created a 
fund of more than three million dolla.rs, will when that time comes fail 
to find a proper use for it in connection with still further measures for 
exalting the social, spiritual, and intellectual status of the Red Men of 
the Dominion of Canada. 
554 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



317 



APPENDIX A. 

List of Schools supported entirely or in part hi/ the religious denominations at the date of 
Confederation, tvith the numbers attending each. 



Province. 



Name of tribe. 



Keserve. 



Denomination. 



Ontario . 



Quebec 



Munsees and Oneidas 

"Wyandots ' 

Chippowas and Pottawatomios ' 

Cbippowas 

Mississangas 

do - 

Chippewas 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Mohawks 

Ojibbeways 

Six Nations 2 

Manitoulin Indians 

do 

, do 

do - 

Garden River Indiana , 

Indians of Two Mountains 

do 

, do 

Abenakis 



Munceytown . . . 

Anderdon 

Walpole Island . 

Saugeen 

Alnwick 

Rice Lake 

Cape Crocker - 



"Weslovan Methodist.. 

do 

Church Mission Fund 
Wesleyan Methodist.. 

do 

do 

Episcopal. 



Christian Island j Wesleyan Methodist 

Rama ! do 

Snake Island 

do 

Qainte . 

Shawanegan 

Giand River 

Manitowaning 

"Wikwemikonff 



Little Current .-. 
Shesheguaning . . 
Garden Eiver^. . . 
Deux Montagces 

, do ;...- 

do 

Lac St. Fran9ois . 



51 
56 
40 
25 
40 
28 
43 
18 
13 
34 
16 
31 
57 
156 



do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

-..do 

Roman Catholic 

Wesleyan Methodist . 

Congregational 

Episcopal I 33 

S6minaire de Montreal 30 

do 30 

--.- do 32 

Col. Church Society 25 



1 There were many other small schools at the various mission stations ; but unless the average attend- 
ance was over 20 no return was made of them. 

2 School No. 9 on this reserve. 

SAM'L WOODS. 
Ottawa, February 14, 1885. 

APPENDIX B. 

Showing present condition of many ex-pupils trained in the various Indian schools of the 
Dominion, ijarticularly at the industrial schools at Brantford and Shingwauk, together 
with a specially prepared Report hy B. Ashton, Esq., Superintendent of the Mohaivk Insli- 
iute, Brantford. 



Joseph Esquimau, school-teacher and catechist at Neepegon Bay. 
William Riley, school-teacher at Henvey's Inlet. 
Adam Kiyoskh, working at his trade as carpenter at Sarnia. 
Edward Jackson, working at his trade as carpenter at Wallacebiirg. 
John Wigwaus, boot and shoe maker at the Shingwauk House. 
Margaret, Kate, and Floretta Maracle, Clabren Russell, and P. H. Martin, teachers 
in Indian schools, and Jeanne Osborne, governess pupil at a Toronto Young Ladies' 
College. 

Thomas Green, matriculated at McGill University, Faculty of Applied Science. 
In 1882 graduated in science, B. Sc, studied civil engineering, and is now a Provin- 
cial Land Surveyor attached to the Dominion Land Office at Ottawa. 

Anna Jones in 1879 jjassed the best examination for public-school teacher, second 
class, out of eighteen candidates, she alone being an Indian. 

Here is a record of 78 pupils of the Mohawk Institute not included in the above or 
any subsequent return : 

Farming independently or on shares. 5 
Farming at hire or for their jiarents- 32 

Working at trade or in factories 9 

Domestic service with Indians 6 

Domestic service with whites 16 

Teaching school.. ., 8 

555 



318 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

I now have much pleasure in appending a copy of a letter received this day, and 
written in response to one of mine asking for information : 

Mohawk Institute, February 13, 1885. 
Principal Woods : 

Deak Sir — I mucli regret that I was unable to reply earlier to yours of the 7th 
inst. The Mohawk Institution was founded in or ahout the year 18'28, first as a day 
school for the Mohawks, and gradually developed iuto a school specially for teaching 
handicrafts. In 1831 the Institution comprised, besides a mechanic shop, two large 
rooms for teacbiug the girls spinning aud weaving, and *two for teaching the boys 
tailoring and carpentry. In 1833 it was opened as a boarding-school for ten boys and 
four girls. Subsequently it was greatly enlarged, till in 1844 it contained between 
Sqrty and fifty boys and girls. In 18.59 a new brick building was erected for sixty 
pupils, and tliis building has been enlarged from time to time, and now accommo- 
dates ninety pupils, forty-five of each sex, and since 1880 it has generally been full. 

On my taking charge of the Institution in 1872, candidates for admission were first re- 
quired to pass an examination in reading the Second Book, and in the simple rules of 
arithmetic. This rule has been tbemeansof greatly increasing the ©fiSciency of the day 
schools, and of enabling us to send out teachers better qualified for their duties. Can- 
didates are now required to read Third Book. Eight schools on this reserve are 
taught by impils from this Institute, who have all successfully passed the examination 
for entrance in the high schools, and received here six months' special training for 
teachers. 

Since 1875 twenty-nine pupils have passed the entrance examination to the high 
schools, and twice they have stood first. At the Christmas examination, 1884, at the 
Brautford Collegiate Institute, out of 75 candidates and a total of 020 marks, our 
pupils passed as follows: Willis Tobias (Delaware), No. 3 with 471 marks; Christo- 
pher Monture (Delaware), No. 7 with 460 marks ; Eobert Hill (Seneca), No. 9 with 
443 marks ; Ellen Eeed (Mohawk), No. 13 with 434 marks; John Lickers (Mohawk), 
No. 16 with 432 marks; Charles Anthony (Delaware), No. 19 with 425 rnarks; aud 
Mary Monture (Delaware), No. 29 with 407 marks. 

The New Euglaud Company, who chiefly support these schools, has decided that 
this Institutiou shall be an industrial and normal school, and this year established 
ten scholaxships at the Brantford Collegiate Institute for enabling Indian teachers to 
obtain provincial certificates. 
Former jjwpils : 

Rev. Isaac Barefoot (Episcopal) has first-class provincial certificate, was master at 
this Institute for several years, attended Huron College, London, has charge of a tchite 
congregation at Point Edward, Ontario. 

Eev. Albert Anthony (Episcopal), Assistant Missionary to the Six Nations. 

Dr. Oronhyatehka, Physician, London, Ontario, P. M. Grand Register Canada, Past 
Grand Workman of the United Order of Workmen, Grand Chief Forester, etc., enjoys 
a splendid practice, altogether among whites. 

Dr. George Bombury (deceased) was Assistant Physician to the Six Nations. 

Miss Jessie OsborneJ! second-class provincial certificate, governess Mohawk Institute. 

Of those who have regularly graduated, fourteen are teaching Indian schools; one 
has taught school several years, and is now studying medicine; three are bookkeep- 
ers, eight are attending collegiate institutes, one is clerk in the Indian Department 
at Ottawa, one is Government interpreter to the Six Nations. There are also several 
acting as interpreters, for missionaries, and others who by their educational advan- 
tages have been elected as chiefs, secretaries, etc. , among their own people, whilst 
others are farming successfully, and several are with the Canadian contingent in 
Egypt. 

I reman, dear sir, yours very truly, 

R. ASHTON, 
Superintendent 

Ottawa, February 18, 1885. 

556 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



319 



APPENDIX 0. 

Statement showing the progress made hy the^various Indian schools established throughout 
the Dominion of Canada for the henefit of the Indian youth, from the year 1863 to 1884, 
inclusive. 



Provinces. 



ft . 
o q 

II 
3 ca 



Kemarkfl. 



Ontario . 

Ontario . 
Quebec . 

Ontario . 
Quebec . 
Ontario . 
Quebec . 
Ontario . 



1864 
1864 

1865 
1865 
1866 
1866 
1867-8 



Quebec . 
Ontario . 



1867-f 
1869 
1869 
Ontario 1870 



Quebec 

!Nova Scotia 

"Sew Brunswick . 
Ontario 



Quebec . 

Nova Scotia 

Now Brunswick 

Ontario : 

Quebec , 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 



Prince Edward Island . 
British Columbia 



Manitoba and Northwest Territory. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory. 
Ontario . 



1870 
1870 
1870 
1871 



1871 
1871 
1871 
1872 
1872 
1872 
1872 
1873 
1873 
1873 
1873 
1873 
1873 
1874 
1874 
1874 
1874 

1874 
1874 

1874 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 

1876 
1876 

1876 
1876 
1876 

1876 
IK-fi 

]K77 



874 

887 
85 

987 
386 
915 
393 
1,409 



305 
1,320 

305 
1,275 



24 
1,701 



1,787 
401 
47 



1,516 
517 



517 

28 

120 

1,701 

497 

497 

2 



640 

120 

1,762 

441 

79 

79 

79 

1, 159 

480 

1,857 
394 



30 
497 
106 

1,985 



Several schools with small attendance not 
reported. 

Mission schools with small attendance not 

reported. 
See remark opposite 1863. 
See remark opposite 1864. 



Mount Elgin Industrial School, estab. 
lished at Munoeytown under the au. 
spices of the Methodist Missionary So 
ciety with 52 pupils in attendance. 



The boys attending the Mount Elgin In- 
dustrial School taught trades and farm- 
ing; the girls housework, tailoring, &o. 

No reliable returns received. 

Keturns incomplete. 

No. 1 School on Six Nation Reserve, near 
Brantford, has been a boarding school 
many years. It is now^ made an Indus- 
trial school, and named the Moliawk In- 
stitute. 

Eetums very unsatisfactory. 

Do. 
And partial returns from other schools. 

Partial returns from three schools only. 
Partial returns only. 



No returns received. 
Schools closed. 



Not heard from. 

A private school. The Department ia try- 
ing to open schools. 

School temporarily closed. 

Industrial and boarding schools at St. 
Mary's and Metlakahtla. 

No returns from two of the schools. 



No schools heard from. 
No returns. 

No returns received from some schools, 
f "Weaving, needle-work, mental calculation, 
< English, and French taught in some 
( sch ols in addition to the regular studies. 

No report. 

Not heard from. 



No return from ten schools. 
Scripture, sing»ng, and catechism taught 
in many schools. 

557 



320 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 
Statement showing the progress made hy the various Indian schools, <^-c. — Continued. 



Province. 



Qael)ec 

Ifova Scotia 

iNew Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory 
Ontario 

Quebec 

H ova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Priace Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory 
Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia , 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia , 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory, 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

British Columbia 

Manitoba and Northwest Territory 



1877 

1877 
1877 
1877 
ia77 
1877 
1878 

1878 
1878 
1878 



1878 

1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 

1879 
1880 
188D 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1882 



1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1883 
1883 
1883 
1883 
1883 
1883 
1883 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 






79 

79 

30 

402 

415 

1, 824 

.320 
79 



27 
648 

501 

1,695 

326 

78 

78 

25 

615 

590 

1,939 

376 

83 



15 

544 

517 

1,907 

404 

107 

67 

18 

652 

971 

1,965 



497 
99 
57 
12 

166 

762 
1,919 

402 

79 

71 

11 

1,180 

672 
1,930 

467 

107 

lis 

15 

408 

1,261 



Kemarks. 



Scripture, singing, and catechism taught 
in many schools. 

No reports. 

Some schools not heard from. 

Do. 
Dictation and di'awing taught in some 

schools. 
Dictation and drawing. 

Not heard from. 

Scripture and singing taught in some 

schools. 
Catechisui and Scripture taught in some 

schoids. 
Catechism, Scripture, singing, &c. 
Do. 

No reports. 

In the industrial schools boys are taught 
farming and trades, and girls sewing, &.c. 

Industrial arts taught in some schools. 
English, French, and composition taught. 



Several not heard from. 

Do. 
Object lessons. 



Catechism, dictation, and couii)08itioa 
taught in nearly all the schools iu addi- 
tion to the regular studies. 



Ketnins very defective. 
No returns from several schools. 
Object lessons, music, and drawing fciugbt. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Object lessons, drawing, music, mental 
arithmetic, dictation, composition, and 
catechism taught in nearly all the scliools 
in the various Provinces, and most of the 
schools regularly inspected by the local 
inspectors of pubhc schools and reports 
sent in to the department. 



Ottawa, February 14, 1885. 
658 



SAMX "WOODS. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



321 



APPENDIX D. 

Showing the agricultural and industrial statistics of the Indian farms throughout the Do- 
minion of Canada, extracted from the Annual Beport of the Bt. Hon. the Superintendemt- 
General of Indian Affairs for 1884. 



Province. 



Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 
Manitoba ■ 

Northwest Territory . 
British Cohimbia 

Total 



"3 IB 

ft5 



]5,451 

4,443 

2,088 

1,150 

292 

10, 206 

20, 650 

34, 617 



88, 897 



"3 


.a 










^^ 


P 00 


'^■^ 




t> 


n 














^. 


^ 


d 


a> 


C? 


^ 


Acres. 


Acres. 


60, 629 
3. 892 


1,024 
90 



1,423 
2, 074 
125 
1, 510 
7,327 
3,744 



162 
,196 



M7, 415 

1,189 

7,178 

2, 250 

340 

CO, 695 

25, 485 



295 849,826 



80,724 3,860 994,378 



$28, 360 

33, 140 

5,433 

2, 720 

10 

45, 563 

81, 180 

136, 029 



332, 435 



$34, 985 

30, 395 

13, 231 

3,613 

5,500 

4,560 

9,985 

28, 977 



131, 246 



3,075 

568 

389 

227 

67 

1,876 

2,317 

2,193 



10, 712 



1,750 

196 

60 

76 

6 

496 

459 

520 



3, 563 



1,301 

98 

20 

17 

3 

263 

509 

149 



2,360 



963 

81 

20 

26 

4 

242 

324 

78 



1,738 



Province. 



Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island 

Manitoba 

Northwest Territory . 
British Columbia 

Total - 



1,055 

73 

30 

10 

I 

167 

243 

72 



1,651 



344 
9 



47 



3,569 

552 

559 

20 

58 

5,164 

8,813 

1,153 



19, 888 



2,594 

174 

30 

34 

4 

213 

748 

3,535 



1,997 

270 



29 



518 

790 

1,045 



7, 322 4, 717 



1,500 
53 
74 
15 



17 
'i74' 



1,833 



4,15f 
511 
43 
60 
3 
113 
96 
2,309 



7,289 



663 

41 

11 

1 

2 

330 

730 

215 



1, 993 



5,287 



Province. 



W 



Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Prince Edward Island. 

Manitoba 

Northwest Territory. . 
British Columbia 



Total. 



Bufih. 

8,423 

2,641 

95 

42 

2 

296 

803 



Bush. 

33, 785 

1.591 

181 

147 

84 

2,053 

18, 775 

6,930 



Bush. 

48, 873 

7,974 

747 

2, 365 

340 

615 

3,369 

3,004 



Bush. 

12, 458 

1,519 

54 

20 



Bush. 

26,634 

479 

12 



Bush. 
1,945 



Bush. 

439 

861 

42 

1,190 



6 

183 
1,561 



944 

20, 022 

97 



Bush. 

73, 706 

10, 180 

7,469 

6,980 

1,200 

47, 272 

59, 913 

33, 485 



Tons. 

5,392 

1,028 

469 

190 

46 

4,009 

5,268 

2,048 



12, 302 



6c, 546 



67, 286 



15, 801 



48, 188 



1,975 



2,582 



240, 205 



18, 551 



Ottawa, February 14, 1885. 

7950 COT, PT. 2 21 



SAM'L WOODS. 



322 KDUCATIONAI. CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



APPENDIX E. 

Acts rolatinij to eufranchiaetneni and munioipal privileges. 

Siiciioii IH) <>rtlio liuliau Acli of 1880 makes pruviwou for any Indian, maloor fomale, 
l)y wliicli, on ii salisfactory roport to the Suporintoudent-GoDeral, ho or she may bo- 
coMio :i.(. once cnfraMc'-Iiified. 

Tlio Hiiiiio flansc^ also provides that any Indian who may bo adniii<.(Ml t(» the dejjroo 
of M. 1)., or |:o any otluT dof^rro, in an.v nniviTsidy, or wlio may be admiltiHl aH an 
advocaho, barristdr or oonnm^lov, or solicitor or al.tt>rn(\v, or notary pnbli(% or who 
may ontor Holy OrdtM'H, or who may b(^ licen.sod t() proa(5h by any donominalioii of 
OhriHlJans, Jnay, on apitlication, ipso facto, become and bo enfranchised under this 
Act.. 

Sec( ion 10(5 provides the machinery by which a whole baud maj"^ become enfrau- 
chised, and under it the Wyandot Indians of Auderdon are now enjoying the full 
franchise as citizens. 

INDIAN ADVANCKMKNT ACT OF 1884. 

This Act was jiasst^d for the purpose of prcpariug the Indians, by the organization of 
municipal onici^s among the tribes, for the full discharge of all the duties pertaining 
to them as fulnre ciiizens. 

It provides, iiitiyr alia, lor a general meeting of the tribe for the election of council- 
ors, delinea the duty of such when elected, and lays down their po\v(?rs to make by- 
laws for the following ])urposes: Schools, nuiUing due provision Cor minorities when 
Caidioli*' or I'rotestaui. ; healtli; do(H)rum al. uieetings; moral ol't'enses; subdivision of 
tribal lauds; Ircsjiass by aniuuils; coustrnctiou of roads autl bridgcstui the reserves; 
watiT-cdurses; ra.ising fniuls by assessment, which cannot exceed in any om^ year 
one half of one pereenl.; application of funds so raised; imposition of penalties and 
enforccnumt thereol" b^^l'or«^ any magistrate. 

It was expectcHl that sev^^ral of the bands would apply under this Act, particularly 
the one at Kama.. However, nont! have so applied as yet, because the more advanced 
bands wer(^, many of them, tnuleavoriug to qualify themselves under section lOG of 
the Act of 188U, (luoled above. 

SAM'L WOODS. 

Ottawa, Fehrmry 16, 188.'). 

APPENDIX F. 

Aualy^rd hahnnr xliict, sliowluy the ooiidUion of the Indian Fund on the 'iOthJune, 1882, 
thi' adxlilio)is thereto and dediK'lioiis thenfrom duriiiij the year, and the balances of the va- 
rious tribes and funds on tlic '.Wtit June, l;-i8:>. 



lifiuuc of tribo. 



Hiitoliowiuia Indians 

Chiv>i)cwHs of Hmuisoloil 

Cliippowiw iif Nawasli 

Chippowaa of Knuiii 

Ohippowas of Saniia 

Chippowaa of Saun'oou 

01u])powaM of Siiako Island . . 

( Miippowas of Tlianios 

C'liiiuiowiis of Walpolo Island 

Fori \Villiain hand 

I''iviuU Uivor liulians 

(laidou liivor Imlians 

llonvov's hilotr liulians 

IjuUo NopisHiiii;- Indiana 

Manitoiiliii IhIiuuI . 

IMaufiaiu'ttowan Indians 

"Mississaiiiois of Alnwiok 

M ississa uj;as of CvtHlit 

Mis.sissiuii^as of llico LaUo. . . 

!Missi,s,saiii:»s of Sougoj; 

;Mo1ii\\vKs of Q,uint6 

Morav iaus of Thames 

&G0 





Koi'oipts 






Balance to 


from inliMvst, 




Bahinoo to 


ovodid Jnno 30, 


laud, limbor 


Exiiondituvo. 


credit J uno 30, 


1882. 


and stono, sales, 




1883. 




lonts, (hies, &(i. 






$13,630 08 


$3, 269 07 


its, fl71 41 


.til, 933 (.9 


r>«, 245 40 


3, 080 87 


2,881 44 


50, 450 oi; 


309, 721 03 


23, 028 07 


31,122 70 


301, 027 311 


52,448 26 


2, 700 72 


1,532 91 


52, 010 07 


184, 4 f)? 77 


12, 344 35 


12, 636 02 


184,146 10 


240,415 98 


20, 1.55 27 


26, 765 23 


242,805 62 


24,781 82 


1, 4,50 91 


1, !)12 98 


24,719 75 


69, 400 Of. 


3, 826 65 


3, 533 62 


69, 093 09 


62,831 71 


11,307 09 


4, 113 23 


70, 025 57 


1, 002 61 


220 25 


151 15 


1,140 71 


809 89 


58 48 


71 04 


887 31! 


30, 103 26 


3, 989 12 


4,491 92 


29, 600 40 


1, 975 04 


3, 124 86 


381 72 


4,718 18 


10, 804 75 


1, 971 14 


1, 450 38 


11,319 51 


330 14 


207 77 


153 33 


381 58 


353 35 


114 99 


7 28 


401 20 


81,437 17 


5, 592 30 


11,975 21 


75, 054 32 


121,028 62 


6, 037 81 


7, 212 40 


120, 7,53 97 


56,097 5() 


3. 1 .--.S 20 


2.854 13 


57, 208 03 


11,^82 68 


1,497 00 


1,009 IS 


12,310 .50 


110,275 22 


8,143 41 


0, 079 82 


117,738 81 


159,354 33 


7, 857 18 


7, 904 03 


159, 306 88 



INTKKNATlUiSAL COJNGKE«S OF EI^UCATOKH I'Al'EKS. 626 

Analyzed balance sheet, showing the condition of the Indian Fund, «fo.— Continued. 



Name (tf IiIIk), 



Mnriares of 'I'Iimiikih 

Ojibbcvva.ys of Miiiiil.iuiliii 

0,1 il)lie ways of Lalio Huron 

Qjibbfwa'ys of Lake. iSuporior 

Qjibbewiiys of Misaissauga lUver . . . 

Otn'idaa of Thaiiion 

Variy IhIuikI Iiidiaim .. .- 

Pottawiitoniios of \Vali)ol(i Isliiud. . . 

Sorpeut River Jiuliaiis 

Six Nations of (Jraud River - 

Shawaniifra IncliaiiH 

Si)aniHli River Indiaus 

'J'h08at#>i) Ki ver i ndiaits * 

Toofooincuai band 

Whiteiisb h'iver liidiium . . 

WyandotH of Au<l(',rdon 

AiiennUin of St,. Francis 

AbenakiHof liit^ancoiir 

Anialicifcs of Kslo Vigei' and Verto . . 

Goldon Lake Indians 

Hurons of Lorctto 

Iroquois of Canghnawaga 

lro(i iiois of St. Rey,is 

Lako St. .fobn Indiana ...- 

Lake Two Mountains Indians 

No[)oswiuj;uas of Trjjjicr Ottawa 

River Desert Indians 

Indians of Uritisli (Columbia 

Indians of Manitol)a and Nortiiwost 

Terrii ory 

Indians of Nova Seotia 

Indians of New JJiunswick 

Tol)ij;ue Indians 

Indians of Prince Edward Island 

(;ieuch, I. B 

Maivillo, Nancy 

Manace, James 

"Wabbuck, William 

Province of Quebec Indian Fund 

Indian Land Management Fund 

Sus))i>iiN() account . , 

Indian Scliool Fund 

Survey account 



Total 



Habmce to 
credit June ;iO, 

1882. 



$2, 692 :tl 
104, .')(iC 88 

r):f, oiM 27 

42, 6^7 41 

3, 893 91! 

037 ()8 

39, 440 85 
3, 992 23 

1, 300 4G 
811,927 (i4 

0, 377 31 

2, 8(i8 00 
10, 022 05 

913 67 

2, 284 84 

08,851 99 

2, 782 70 

3«5 84 

1, 751 27 

23 02 

5()4 79 

21, 573 45 

29, 991 70 

1,153 08 

1,237 55 

3,421 83 

32,708.77 

(i, 006 70 

2, (14 G C7 
153 92 

2, 035 95 

3, 970 59 

28 92 
1, 135 92 
2, 531 65 
1,518 99 

2, 025 31 
48, 653 80 
72, 348 61 

5, 330 68 
132, 755 95 

3, 000 00 



3, 148, 574 94 



Roc(i)»ta 

from interest, 

land, limber 

and atonesale.M, 

rents, lines, &c 



■.■t;i33 61 
17,977 HII 

8, (i93 52 

6, 054 30 

4.'->9 71 

. 236 78 

2,561 5! 

2,904 63 

383 63 

48,518 :!8 

1, 181 98 

234 74 
1, 143 68 

51 60 

122 81 

4, 397 77 

1, 399 83 
467 44 

78 80 

1 01 

101 88 

1,888 89 

2, 989 58 

235 80 
60 8(i 

153 96 
2, 015 94 
1,034 98 

1, 906 20 

693 16 

753 22 

870 16 

1 30 

51 12 

113 90 

08 34 

91 l'.J 

6,744 48 

24,658 10 

240 12 

16,107 02 



Kx|)(!ii(litiiie. 



llii2H ,S-J 

Ki, 884 72 

10,972 06 

7,808 17 

242 30 

2.53 (10 

1,922 43 

555 16 

149 67 

37, 745 09 

347 22 

249 0() 

1,051 07 

51 64 

136 37 

4,010 29 

566 4 1 

34 70 

10 00 

20 00 

14 59 

6, 155 58 

2, 856 (i6 

266 73 

133 35 



1,922 82 
I 182 72 

596 99 

173 74 

72 80 

350 28 



120 24 

72 14 

90 18 

8, 962 64 

19, 094 :iO 

837 28 

18,262 24 

583 15 



Ba^an(•l^ to 

credit .funo 30, 

1883. 



$2, 097 Ki 

105, 4(;o 05 

50.815 73 

4(1, 883 60 

4, 111 34 

621 46 

40, 082 93 

(i, 341 70 

1, 6(10 42 
822,700 93 

6,212 07 

2, 853 68 
10, 114 60 

913 03 

2,271 28 

69, 239 47 

3,616 18 

798 .58 

8j0 07 

4 (iO 

(i52 08 

17,300 76 

30, 124 62 

1,122 81 

1, 1(J5 06 

3, 575 79 
32,801 89 

6,918 90 

3, 955 78 
673 34 

2,716 37 

4,490 47 

30 22 

1,187 04 

2, 525 31 
1,515 19 
2, Ol'O 25 

40,435 64 
77,902 41 

4, 739 52 
130,61)1) 



2, 4!6 85 



,153,049 94 



Sum,'inary showing state of the Indian Fund on 'Mth June, 1884. 

Ralanco at credit of fund Juno 30, 1883, $3,1.53,049.94, less $2,521.19 .$3,150,528 75 

Interest accrued duriiiK yeai' oti nione,y in liands of I)ominion Government.. $153, 816 71 
ColloctiouH on account of land sales, timber dues, dues on stone quarried, 

lents, fines, and fees, during the year 203,723 38 

(iovorucucut grants 33, 980 00 

Entry warrants 1, 319 05 

392, 839 17 

Total 3,543,367 92 

Expenditures duiing tboyear 271,457 90 

Balance at credit of Ind inn fund on 30tli Juno, 1884 3, 27 1, 910 02 

Tlie »iii;intity of laud sold during tlio ycur lor tlio lu'iiclifc oi' tlic Indiaus was 
24,175|- acr(^s, au<l tlie Kales of t,heso lauds aiuouuted lo |14,(il()."28. 

Tlio a|)])ro.Kliiiato quantity of Indian lauds now in the liainls yf the Dopartineut lor 
disposal is 47'1,1)10 acres. 

SAM'L WOODS. 
Ottawa, February 16, 1885, 

501 



REPORT OF THE CONDITION OF INDIAN SCHOOLS IN 
ONTARIO, 1884. 

By Hon. Adam Crooks, LL. D., 

Minister of Education for Ontario. 



[hi additiou to tlie forejioing- very coin])reliensive and valuable report, 
on the l^^dueation of the Indians in the Dominion of Canada, I ;i])|)eiid 
the follow'iiio extracts from the Report of the Honorable tlie Minister of 
KdiiCiitioa i'or Ontario, showing- the conditsion of Uie Indian schools in 
that J^rovinco dnriug the year iSSo-'S-l. The information is more, in 
detail, ftud, in sonjo res])ects, more recent than in the report pre])ared 
by Mr. Woods and embracing the Indian schools in the various Provinces 
of the Dominion. — J. Georgia Hodgins, Deputy Minister of Education, 
Ontario.] 

REGULATIONS FOR INDIAN SCHOOL INSPECTION, 1884. 

I. — Eegitlaiioiis on the Subject of Indian Schools and their Inspection, approved by the Min- 
ister of Education for Ontario and the JDepartment of Indian Affairs. 

Tho Departniout of liuliaii Affairs foi- the Dominiou havijifv exprct^sed a desire to 
]jlaco tho Indian schools in Ontario under the inHpectiou of the public school Inspect- 
ors for llio Province, the folh)\ving- Regulations have been adopted: 

1. The teachers are rcfxuired to have a speaking acqnaiutiiuce witli the Indian hiu- 
guage, and are, consequently, likely in most cases to bo Indians; but the instruction 
should, as soon as i>ra,cticable and as far as possible, be given in English. 

2. Teachers shall receive their certificates from tho County or District Boards of 
Examiners, who shall be granted discretionary powers as to the attaiumeuts required ; 
it will be found, however, for some time to come, that the standard of "high schoo*. 
entrance" will be quite as high as is attainable. 

3. Tlie subjects of study in these schools need not at present embrace more than the 
following, viz: Reading, writing, object lessons, elementary drawing (from cards), 
elementary arithmetic (tho four simple rules), elementary geography (the maps of the 
world and Dominion of Canada), spelling and grammar (formation and analysis of 
simple sentences). 

4. The Indian D. partmeufc will furnish all text hooks and apparalus for use in the • 
schools. 

o. The schools shall be placed under the inspectoral supervision of the County In- 
spectors in conjunction with the Indian xYgeut, who shall together also have a" con- 
trolling inlluence in the selection of teachers, except in the case of such schools as 
are established by any religions denomination under the Regulations of the Depart- 
ment of Indian Affairs, and in such schools the selection of teachers shall continue 
to bo made as heretijfore ; but each of the Inspectors shall state, in his reports of in- 
spection, his oj)iui()n on the competency of the teacher of each donominatioual Indian 
school inspected by him. 

A fee of six dollars ($6) per visit shall be paid the Inspector, a»d legitimate travel- 
ing oxptuises allowed tor two visits per annum, 

Aprii. 19, 1884. 

m 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 325 

Schedule of Denominational InMan Schools, as reported by the Indian Dejmrlment. 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



Lower Miincey. 
Mohawk Institute. 
Mud Lake. 
Oneida, No. 2. 
Walpole Island, No. 1. 
Tvendinaga, No. 2. 



Shingwank Ilonui, 
Wawnnosh Home. 
Garden River. 

Eight Scliools on the Six Nations' Reserve, 
viz : Nos. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. 



ROMAN CATHOOC CHURCH. 



Fort William (Boys). 

Fort William (Girls). 

Wikweniikong Indust') Institute (Boys). 

Wikwemikong Indust'l Institute (Girls). 

Red Rock. 

Wikwemikongsiug. 

Buywaks. 

Sheguiandah, 

West Bay. 



Sheshege waning. 
Serpent River. 
White Fish Lake. 
Sagam,onk. 
South Bay. 
Missis«aga. 
Mattawa. 
Garden River. 
Cornwall Island. 



METHODIST CHURCH OF CANADA. 



Alderville. 
Hiawatha, 
(ieorgina Island. 
Rama. 

Christian Island. 
Saugeen. 
Stone Ridge. 



Red Line. 
Oneida, No. 1. 

St. Clair. 

Stony Point. 

Walpole Island, No. 2. 

Cornwall Island. 

Mount Elgin Industrial Institution. 



Schedule of Indian Reserves in Ontario. 



Eeserve. 



Tyeiidinaga 

Alnwick 

Rice Lake 

Mild Lake 

Snake Island 

Rama 

Saugeen 

Cape Crooker 

Christian Island 

Manitonlin Island 

Tuscarora 

Koltle Point and Sauble . 

Sarnia 

Walpole 

Back Settlement 

River School 

Bear Creek 

Moravian 

( 1 ) Pairy Sound 

(2) Parry Sound 

Shawanaga 

Henvey's Inlet 

Garden River 

Fort William 

Grolden Lake , 

CouQwall laJand 



Name of inspectoi'. 



Jolin OTohnston 

Edward Scarlett 

James C. Brown 

do 

David Fotheringham . . . 

James McBrien 

W. S. Clendening 

do 

Peter MacLoan 

do 

M.J. Kelly, M. D - . 
Charles A. Barnes, B. A 

John Brebner 

do 

J. S.Carson 

do 

do 

E. B. Harrison 

Peter MacLean 

do 

do 

do 

do 

flo 

R. G. Scott. B. A 

Alex. McNaughton 



Residence. 



Belleville. 

CobuTg. 

Norwood. 

do. 
Aurora. 
Myrtle. 
Walkerton. 

do. 
Milton. 

do. 
Briinlford. 
Forest. 
Sarnia. 

do. 
Strath roy. 

do. 

do. 
Ridgotown. 
Milton. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 
Pembroke. 
Cornwall. 



563 



326 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 
2. — Extracts from Eeports of Public School Inspectors on Indian Schools. 
A. McNaughton, Esq., Inspector, County op Storm ont. 
Indian School, Cornwall Island. 

I visited the Indiiin school iu connection with the Methodist Church, on Cornwall 
Island, on the 20th day of June. 

Tlie school is under the charge of Misa Catharine Maracle, a young ]ady of Indian 
descent, possessing a good Englisli education, having been instructed in the lustitntiou 
in Brantford, and hohling a certifieate of qualitication for teaching an Indian school. 
She speaks the ludiah laugua.ge and is therefore capable of explaining everything to 
her pupils in their own dialect. 

The number of pupils present at the time of my visit was five, classified as follows : 
Third Class; one; Second Part of First Book, two; and the remaining two in the 
Primer. 

The pupil in the third class was able to read easy sentences, to spell with accuracy 
ordinary words occurring in the lessons, but had not sufficient command of English 
to answer questions on the literature of the lesson ; she was also able to recite the 
multiplication table, and to woik examples iu the simple rules; she also Avrote from 
dictation on the blackboard. The oth(;r i)npil8 were learning to read and to spell, 
to acquire a. knowledge of the English words in the lessons, the cardinal numbers, 
and also to write on their slates and on the blackboard. 

The school-house is pleasantly situated, spacious, and of elegant appearance, and 
would be well adapted for the purpose, if completed. At jiresent it is finished ex- 
ternally, and lathed but not plastered in the interior. The teacher stated, however, 
that she and her pupils had not suffered much inconvenience from the cold during 
last winter. It is furnished with a good coal stove. 

The pupils were seated on narrow benches, without desks in front, or support for 
their backs. Copybooks Avere exhibited, showing fair specimens of penmanship : but 
for Avant of desks, facilities foi' acquiring skill and dexterity in thaii art were entii-ely 
lacking. The number of pupils on the roll was 22. 

There were three maps, viz: British Isles, Canada, and New Brunswick; there 
was a good supply of text books, but no tablet cards. 

The most urgently needed requisites are a teacher's desk, common school desks for 
about twenty -four ijupils, and ta.blet lesson cards; a map of the hemispheres and 
maps of the continents should also be procured. 

On the same day I visited the Indian school on Cornwall Island, organized in 
connection with the Eoman Catholic Church, under the chai-ge of Miss Annie Baldwin, 
who holdsa letter of recommendation from the Eoman Catholic Board of School Com- 
missioners of Montreal. She has been successful in getting her i)upi]8 interested iu 
1 heir studies, and imparting to them some knowledge of English. She does not possess 
:i knowledge of the Indian language, and consequently her pujiils are comj)elled to 
leaiii everything iu English. I found, however, that her pupils had acquired a 
moie ready command of English than those instructed by a teacher conversant with 
both languages. 

The number of pupils present on the occasion of my visit was fifteen, classified as 
follows : Third Class, one; Second Class, two; and the remainder in the First Class. 

The pupils in the second aud third classes were capable of working examples in the 
simple rules and reduction ; to read and spell with a considerable degree of accuracy, 
and to recite aud apjdy the tables of weights and measures; they also had some 
knowledge of geography, being able to point out the principal ijhysical features and 
boundaries of the continents on a map of the hemispheres, and also to designate the 
countries of Europe and North America, and their capitals ; they also wrote sen tences 
on the blackboard from dictation. Several of the pupils in the first class were able 
to read aud spell easy Avords, to count and add in English, and had made some progress 
in learning the multiplication table; they were also learning to Avrite. 

The school is tolerably well supplied with desks and other conveniences. There is 
a blackboard, but it is too small. A good supply of books and lesson cards had re- 
cently been received, and were found very useful. 

I had previoiisly visited the school on the 24th of April, and I found that during 
the interval the pupils had made very satisfactory progress. 

I also visited the school on the 28th of June, on the occasion of the public exam- 
ination, when the Rev. Father Mainville, the priest in charge of the Indian mission, 
and several of the parents and friends of the pupils attended. Among other proceed- 
ings, the pupils, led by one of their friends, sang an Indian hymn. 

June, 1884. 

I again visited the Indian school on Cornwall Island on the 28th November, and 
found it in operation under the tuition of Miss Catharine Maracle. 

564 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 327 

The number of pupils present was seven, one of whom was reading in the Tliird 
Book, and working examples in simijle multiplication ; two were reading in the 
Second Part of the First Book, spelling words of one syllable, and learning to add 
numbers ; the remaining four were learning to read in the First Part of the First 
Book, and to count in English. 

Although the pujjils have not made great progress, yet considerable improvement 
was manifested, and particularly more facility evinced in pronouncing and under- 
standing the words of the lessons, and in the use of English. 

I found the school-house better furnished; a teacher's desk and four desks for 
pui)ils, each capable of accommodating two, having been procured. 

The specimens of writing were carefully executed. 

The school in connection with the Roman Catholic Church is without a teacher. 

November, 1884. 



John Johnston, Esq., Inspector, South Hastings. 
Indian Schools, Mohmclc Beserve. 

School No. 25, in the eastern end of the Reserve, taught by Miss Pearce, who holds 
a third class certificate, was thoroughly examined the afternoon of May 8th. 

There were present ten white and twenty-two Mohawk pupils. I might here state 
that in two of the four schools the whites are allowed to send their children by pay- 
ing half of the teacher's salary and other running expenses of the school. Very little 
of the laud is worked by the Indians, nearly all of it being leased for terms of five 
years to the whites. The Mohawks have built and own all the schools. 

This school is built of brick, is comfortable and quite well furnished with black- 
boards, tablets and maps; it is also well and comfortably seated. Since 1871 it has 
been carefully examined twice each year, a half day being spent at each inspection ; 
it has generally been well taught, as the whites always took a deep and lively inter- 
est in it, and were able to secure the services of a very fair teacher. The school at 
present is not as efficient as formerly, as the white people or myself have had nothing 
to do in selecting a teacher. 

Recent regulations of the Indian Department at Ottawa require that all the teach- 
ers must be of the Church of England faith ; a regulation which has been to the det- 
riment of the schools, as it was impossible for me to get such teachers. The result 
has been that very inefficient teachers from other parts were obtained ; teachers who 
have no certificates, and were unacquainted with any good method of teaching. 

The scholars in Part 1, were only middling in reading. The reading of those in the 
Second Book was also middling, while the spelling was good. The reading of those 
in the Third Book was middling; spelling, middling ; arithmetic, good, and the geog- 
raphy was middling. The order and attention good, and the writing middling. 

School No. 3, about five miles west of the former school, and on the old stage road, 
was examined from 9 to 12, May 19th, in the presence of the Indian Agent, Matthew Hill, 

To this school the whites are allowed to send by paying half the teacher's salary and 
other expenses : there is a neat frame building built by the Indians a few years ago 
when the school was efficient, and taught by teachers trained and taught in South 
Hastings. The school was dirty and the scholars very backw^ard in all the eulijects. 

The scholars in the Second Book were bad; the reading bad; spelling very bad; no 
writing; arithmetic bad ; and geography very bad. The reading, spelling, and arith- 
metic of those in the Third Book, bad ; the writing middling. The writing of the 
one in the Fourth Book was good, while the arithmetic was bad; the grammar very 
bad, and the geography middling. 

Western Mohawk School, taught by Miss Johnston, who holds no certificate, was 
examined in the afternoon of May the 19th, in the presence of the Agent, Mr. Hill. 

There were thirty scholars present, all Mohawks. The reading of the nine in Part 
First of the First Book was bad ; there were no scholars in Part Second ; there were 
twelve in the Second Book, but the reading was very bad ; the spelling, worse ; writ- 
ing, middling ; arithmetic, worse than bad, and no geography is taught them. The 
reading of the nine in the Third Book was very bad ; spelling, worse than had ; writ- 
ing, bad; arithmetic worse, and geography very bad. 

This house is a neat frame building, built by the Indians a few years ago. 

Mission School was examined July 2d, in presence of the Agent; it is a good frame 
building on a nice site; it was built by money collected in England by Chief Samp- 
son Green. This school gets a grant from the New England Comjiauy. It is taught 
by Miss Maracle, who was educated in the Indian School on the Grand River Reserve ; 
she is a Mohawk and is a very fair teacher, considering her opportunities; she had 
twenty-six present ; the room was clean and in good order, and I always found it in 
this condition. 

565 



328 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

The reading and spelling of those in Part First, numhering four, was good. Three 
in Part Second, reading, spelling and writing, good to middling ; while the arithme- 
tic was middling. Of the two in the Second Book, the reading was middling ; spell- 
ing, good to middling; writing, good, but the arithmetic was bad. There were two 
classes in the Third Book, three in one and six in the other. The reading was mid- 
dling; spelling, good ; writing, good; arithmetic, middling, and geography middling. 
There were five in the fourth class; the writing was good; arithmetic, bad, and the 
geography middling. At former visits I have found this school in a better state of 
efficiency, but the teacher told us that she had not been well for some time, and was 
unable to do the work properly. In the past she has done very good work in the 
school. 

Nos. twenty-five and three I have inspected regularly for the past thirteen years, 
and they were fairly efficient schools till the past two or three years. At the request 
of Chief Sampson Green, I examined the other two schools several times previous to 
this year ; but, had not I received the letter and circular from you last May, I did not 
intend to inspect the Upper Indian School any more, or as long as the present teacher 
was in charge. 

Something must be done to prevent these schools from being placed in charge of 
such inefficient teachers. It is all right to have them of the same faith as the In- 
dians, but they should be persons who know how to teach all the subjects included, 
as high as the fourth class at any rate. Many of the Mohawks don't know and don't 
mind what kind of a teacher is in charge. 

October, 1884. 



James McBrien, Esq., Inspector, County of Ontario. 
Indian School, Township of Bama. 

The equipment of the Indian School in the Township of Eama consists of a map of 
the world, a twelve-inch globe, a calculator, and books, stationery, slates, and pen- 
cils, supplied by the Methodist Missionary Society. The average attendance for the 
last quarter was 9^. The attendance of the pupils is extremely irregular. They are 
allowed to do as they please, as their parents do not attach much value to our edu- 
cation ; they think it spoils them for fishing and hunting. The subjects taught are 
reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography. The pupils appear to possess great 
ability to learn some things, but lack application. They learn to write with great 
facility. They are quite ingenious in drawing. Their mathematical ability appears 
to be next to nothing. The school is taught at present by the Rev. Kennedy Creigh- 
ton, the missionary in charge ; he says there will be a regular teacher by the first of 
July. The school-house is of the most primitive description. 

The following are the books used: 
Six Geographies (Cornell's). Five sets of Copy Books (Beaty's). 

Seven Arithmetics (Kirkland & Scott's). Fifteen slates, pencils, pens, etc. 
Eight Table Cards. Ten First Books (Canadian Series). 

Ooe Mental Arithmetic (McLellan's). Twelve Second Books (Canadian Series). 

One Spelling Book. Two Third Readers (Canadian Series). 

December, 1884. 



David Fotheringham, Esq., Inspector, North York. 
Indian School, Georgina Island. 

Respecting the Indian school on Georgina Island, in the inspectorate of North York, 
I reached the lake shore opposite at 10 a. m., of the 29th May, but owing to a rise in 
the wind was unable to reach the island till 2 p. m. I spent the afternoon in the 
school and paid a friendly visit to the Chief, Charles Big Canoe, in the evening. The 
following is a copy of my notes : 

School House. — Log, twenty-one feet wide, twenty-five feet long and eight feet high; 
very cold in winter. A new one, frame, to be erected this season by the Indian De- 
partment. 

Grounds, alongside and in rear of Mission Church : not enclosed, but surrounded by 
woods. Graves In close proximity to school-house and church. 

Appliances. — Very limited. One small and poor blackboard, a map of the world 

only, with some old tablets, donated by trustees of No. 1 Georgina School : some pews 

from church the only desks, with a few benches for seats, neither comfortable nor 

suitable ; text books furnished by Mission Society of C. Methodist Church, under 

566 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDIJCATOES — PAPERS. 329 

whose auspices the school is carried on ; books in nse, the authorized Readers and 
Gage's. 

Subjects Taught. — Reading, writing, arithmetic, and a little grammar and geography, 
all in English, though the teacher, Robert Mayes, can speak in their own language, 
Ojlbbeway. 

Order and Spirit. — All I could desire. 

Work. — Reading, creditable, fairly intelligent, and with good accent and pronuncia- 
tion. Writing, superior, both as to being uniform and free. Few schools in North 
York equal in writing. Intelligence and knowledge of subject read, fair. Character- 
istic slowness^in replies, though not to be complained of under the circumstances. 
Singing, better than in most public schools, not only in sweetness of voice, but in 
expression and training. 

Having had many inquiries to make of the teacher, I was unable to enter upon 
otlier studies at this visit, but trust to a future visit to give better opportunity. 

Number of pupils present, ten boys and eleven girls. On the island, about thirty 
children and one hundred adults. 

The teacher, Mr. Robert Mayes, I found earnest, gentle, firm, intelligent, and de- 
voted to his calling. He devotes his time on Sunday to the spiritual improvement of 
the Indians, as he does through the week to their social, intellectual, and moral ad- 
vancement. 

He holds no certificate of qualification, though otherwise seeming well adapted for 
his work. 

Our County Board, after hearing my recommendation that he be advised to attend 
the entrance examination, either in July or December next, agreed to that proposal 
with the understanding that a certain percentage should not be rigidly exacted. 

The house in which the teacher and his family live is not at all what it should be. 
I understand, however, that some improvements are in contemplation this summer. 

I should recommend that the school be supplied as soon as possible with : 

1. Maps of the continent and Canada. 

2. A globe. 

3. Tablet reading lessons. 

4. A numeral frame. 

.5. A limited number of object lessons. 

6. Drawing cards and handbook for teacher. 

7. Modern desks and seats. 
June, 1884. 

I again succeeded in reaching the island on the 9th of October. I found a new, 
comfortable, and fairly commodious school-house on the same site, but in front of the 
old one, which will now be used for council meetings. The desks, blackboards, stove 
and pipes are also all new, so that few of the public schools in North York are more 
comfortable, though many are larger. The size of this, however, is quite adequate to 
the number of Indian children— about 30— on the island. 

On the day of my visit, 13 boys and 7 girls were present, and acquitted themselves 
creditably in their studies in all the branches prescribed. 

Mr. Robert Mayes, the teacher, as I noticed on the occasion of my former visit, seems 
to be well adapted for his position, being kind but firm, methodical and laborious. 
The wonder is with the hitherto very poor accommodation, small remuneration, and 
isolation from associations to which he must have been accustomed, he should be 
willing to labor so devotedly where he now is. His residence has been undergoing 
considerable improvement, howevei", and hardships in that way will be reduced. 

Decembek, 1884. 



M. J. Kelly, Esq., M. D., Inspector, County of Brant. 
Indian Schools, Township of Tuscarora. 

These Indian schools are not all under the same management. One, known as the 
"Thomas School," one and a half miles from the Council House, is a baud school, i. e., 
under the sole control of the Council of the Six Nations; three others, viz, the 
"Red Line School," the "Stone Ridge School," and the "New Credit School." near 
Hagersville, seem to be under the management of the Wesleyau Conference ; while 
the remaining eight are known as "Board Schools," being managed by a Board ap- 
pointed in 1878, and consisting of three Indian chiefs, the two Church of England 
missionaries resident on the Reserve, the Superintendent of the Mohawk Institute 
near Brantford, and the Superintendent of Indian. Afi'airs in this vicinity, cx-officio. 
For foTir years the New England Company, of which I shall presently have something 
to say, contributed to the support of those eight schools |1,500 per aitanm. In 1882 this 

567 



330 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

grant was reduced to $1,000 per annum. The Six Nations Council contributed for 
the same purpose |1,500, and the Indian Department at Ottawa, $400 per annum. 
Teachers' salaries are uniform over the whole Reserve, one school excepted; male and 
female, without distinction, receiving $'250 per annum. The average attendance at 
the schools, and the standard of attainments of pujdls, as reported by the Board 
last year, were good and improving. As the New England Company has done so 
much here and elsewhere for the moral and intellectual elevation of the Indian tribes 
of North America, a brief sketch of its history may not be amiss in this preliminary 
report. The company was first established by the Long Parliament, in 1649. The 
first Pilgrim Fathers reached America in the "Mayflower" in 1620. The celebrated 
John Eliot followed in 1631. Through the work of Eliot and the publication of his 
eleven tracts, the wants of the North American Indians became known in England. 
The result was the original establishment of the company now known as the "New 
England Company." Long distinguished as the "Apostle of the North American 
Eed Men," this zealous missionary was a graduate of the University of Cambridge, 
and commenced life as a schoolmaster. On the flight of Hooker, the head master of 
the school in which he was assistant, Eliot, who was also of the Puritan way of think- 
ing, sailed with Governor Winthrop's family and other emigrants for Boston, where 
ho at once entered uyjou the work to which he devoted his life. 

The royal charter for establishing the colony had declared that : " To win over and 
incite the natives of that country to the knowledge and obedience of the only true 
God and Saviour of mankind, and the Christian faith, in our royal intention, and the 
adventurers' free profession, is the principal end of the Plantation." The colonial 
seal, too, represented an Indian with a label in his mouth, inscribed, "Come over and 
help us." Having acquired a knowledge of their language, Eliot procured the estab- 
lishment of schools, to which he induced the Indians to send their children. To aid 
him in his work he wrote his eleven tracts, in which he appealed with much force to 
the liberality of Christian j)eople in England, and which led to the formation of the 
New England' Company. The quaint wording of these tracts, as shown in their 
headings, is characteristic of the period. I transcribe some of the shorter headings. 
Tract II. — " The Day breaking, if not the Sun rising of the Gospel with the Indians 
in New England. London, 1647." Tract III. — "The clear Sunshine of the Gospel 
breaking forth upon the Indiana of New England. Thos. Shepard, Loudon. 1648." 
Tract IV . — " The glorious prayers of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New England. 
Edward Winslow, London, 1649." Nearly £12,000 stg. were forthwith collected by 
voluntary subscriptions throughout England and Wales, and. out of this £11,430 
were expended in the purchase of landed property at Eviswell, in Suflblk, a farm at 
Plumstead, in Kent, as well as several houses in London. 

The corporation at home at once appointed commissioners and a treasurer in New 
England, who, with the income transmitted them by the authorities in England, paid 
itinerant missionaries and school teachers amongst the natives. 

At the Eestoration (1660), the corporation created by the Long Parliament became 
defunct ; for a while the income ceased; but by the influence of "the excellent Eob- 
ert Boyle," son of the Earl of Cork, and one of the founders of the Eoyal Society, an 
order of Charles II in Council was obtained 10th April, 1661, for a new charter of in- 
corporation, vesting in the company then created (and now subsisting), the property 
Avhich had been given or bought for the purposes of the late corporation. Eobert 
Boyle was the first governor of the company, which included, among other noblemen, 
the famous Lord Chancellor Clarendon. In 1822 the company transferred its opera- 
tions from New Brunswick to other parts of British America, and has since established 
stations at various times and places, one of the most important being among the 
Mohawks and other Six Nation Indians settled on the banks of the Grand Eiver, 
between Brantford and Lake Erie. In the year 1823, after a preliminary investiga- 
tion on their behalf by the Eev. John West, and with the concurrence of Capt. Joseph 
Brant, the New England Company adopted resolutions respecting the placing fit per- 
sons, either individually or in mission families, at eligible stations in those parts 
of America in which the trusts of the company could be carried on. Accordingly, 
the company, in concurrence with Captain Joseph Brant, and with his assistance as 
a sort of lay agent, before 1827 commenced opeuations under the Eev. William 
Hough, as its first missionary, on the Grand Eiver, and built two school-houses 
near the Mohawk Village (about one and a half miles from Brantford), as well as 
a parsonage for the church there. This church possesses the communion plate and 
Bible j)resented by Queen Anne to the Indian church in the Mohawk Valley, which the 
Indians had been obliged to abandon. The Eev. Robert Luggar succeeded the Eev. 
Wm. Hough, as missionary, in 1827, and was in turn himself succeeded, ten years 
afterwards, by Archdeaicon Nelles, who still officiates at the Mohawk church every 
Sunday, having as the principal part of his congregation, the bo^s and girls of the 
Mohawk Institute. The first grant of the New England Company for Indian school 
purposes, was made to Captain John Brant, son of the great chief, in 1822 ; this was 
for the erection of the two school-houses before referred lo. In 1832, at the time of 
568 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 331 

Captain John Brant's death, the New England Company supported seven schools on 
the Reserve. In 1830 the "Mohawk InstiUite" was established for teaching handi- 
craft trades; in 1833 it became a boarding-school for ten boys and ten girls; rebuilt 
in 1859, it was subsequently enlarged, and it has for many years accommodated forty- 
five boys and forty-five girls, who are all boarded, lodged, clotlped and educated, free 
of charge. The institution is entirely supported by the funds of the company, the 
net cost of each pupil annually being about $60. Attached to the institute is a farm 
of 250 acres, and adjoining it the glebe belonging to the Mbliawk church, all of which 
is Indian land held under a conditional tenure. There are in the institute two teach- 
ers with the superintendent, all of whom reside in the building. The boys and girls 
in relays receive instruction in the literary classes for two days, and work the third. 

I paid my first visit to the schools on the Reserve, the 3d of June, beiijg accompanied 
by Mr. Aslitou, the Superintendent of the Mohawk Institute; examining in the fore- 
noon "Thomas's School," where we found the Indian commissioner and Mr. Allen 
Cleghoru of Brantford, awaiting us. Thirty-two pupils' names on the roll; twenty- 
one pupils present, of whom two were white. Teacher John Miller (white) teaching 
on an expired Third Class Certificate. Pupils, arranged in three classes, first, second, 
and third, were examined in reading, spoiling, arithmetic and geography ; doing fairly, 
though much inferior to white children of same grades in our public schools. House, 
frame, badly furnished; floor dirty; no trees or water-closets on grounds. G-lobe, 
small, and numeral frames needed, also maps of world, Canada and States, ink and 
pens, crayons, blackboard, reading books and desks. At noon met with the chiefs of 
the Six Nations in Council House where they had assembled, and explained to them 
my mission on the Reserve. In the afternoon, visited the "Red Line School," under 
iiho W. M. Conference : found enrolled twenty-six pupils ; present, nine. Teacher, 
Miss Annie Cross, an intelligent young lady, daughter of the resident missionary, hold- 
ing a recommendation for certificate from the Rev. Dr. Burns, Principal of the Young 
Ladies' College, Hamilton. The pupils were all in the first class, and knew very little 
of the work even of that class. The house is a small frame one, and the furniture is 
nearly nil : desks are arranged around the w^alls, on which hang maps of the world 
and Ontario : there is no school yard. This school needs a small globe, a numeral 
frame, tablets, blackboard, map of Dominion, new desks, also walls plastered and 
whitewashed. 

June 9th, with Mr. Ashton, visited board school No. 3, ten miles from Brantford ; 
a frame school-house painted white : neat grounds, half an acre, out-houses and some 
trees. Found here a clock, blackboard, ma^js of the Dominion and hemispheres, 
zoological chart, ten commandments, time and limit tables, good desks and seats. 
Rev. D. J. Caswell, B.D., Anglican Missionary, and Chiefs Moses, Martin and John 
Hill, were present during the examination. Thirty-one children present, arranged 
in five classes, and for the most, fairly well dressed. Teacher, Sarah Davis (Indian), 
who passed the entrance examination four years ago. Children were examined in 
reading, dictation, writing, arithmetic, very elementary grammar and geography, and 
did fairly well. In the afternoon visited board school No. 7 : David Hill (Indian), 
teacher : house, log, clapboarded ; ground inclosed by wire fence ; no trees ; desks, 
etc., same as in No. 3. Same visitors present, with a considerable addition of females. 
Thirty-three children present in four classes. Examination of much the same char- 
acter as in No. 3. 

June 12th, visited board school No. 10. Peter Martin (Indian), teacher. Same 
visitors as on the 9th June, with the addition of the Indian Conimissiouer, Lieutenant- 
Colonel Gilkisou, and Rev. Mr. Anthony (Indian). The school-house, a neat brick 
structure, was erected last year. It has a double porch with separate entrances for 
boys and girls ; a neat bell-tower, and in the front is placed a maible slab inscribed, 
"Six Nations S. S., No. 10, 1883:" the foundation is stone, and the cost of the build- 
ing was if 1,000. The school-room is furnished with double desks, a I'aised platform 
with teacher's desk, cupboards, a large slate blackboard, seven by three feet, with 
chalk troughs, etc. The house is situated in a pleasant grove, and there are two good 
water-closets. Within the school-room are a nice clock, small globe, numeral frame, 
natural history cards, maj)s of the world and Canada, and a zoological chart. Num- 
ber of pnpils present, forty-one, in five classes. The examination showed this the best 
school I inspected on the reserve. 

In the afternoon (an excessively hot one), paid a visit to the " Stone Ridge School," 
under C . M. Conference. A log house without grounds and water-closets. The teacher, 
a sou of the Rev. Mr. Cross, C. W. Methodist missionary, was absent. The children 
had been apparently trying to scrub the floor, but on our approach (there was a train 
of four or five buggies and democrats), they hastily decamped. Everything here was 
of the most premature sort : forms around the walls, no desks : floor broken in several 
places^ a raised platform for the teacher, about three fceib above the floor and railed 
in : on the walls a map of the world and the ten commandments. Though the ' ' school- 
master was abroad," there was little evidence of " sv/eetness and light " in the school. 

On the 13th of June, the board school No. 5, on the township of Oneida boundary, 

569 



332 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

was visited : new frame bnildiug, large aud airy, well furnished. Miss Bella Latham, 
(white), teacher. Nineteen chifdren present in live classes, one only in the fourth and 
in the fifth classes ; result of the examination, middling. It was impossible to reach 
any other school that day. 

June 20th, examined in the morning, board school No. 2, near the Council House ; 
Miss Floretta Marakle (Indian), teacher; an active, painstaking and energetic mana- 
ger of a school. Brown frame house, idastered and whitewashed inside: grounds in- 
closed by a wire fence : good outhouses : no trees: good clock,- maps etc. : floor clean: 
everything in good order. Thirty-five pupils present, arranged in five classes, one in 
the fifth and five in the fourth. Eeadiug, dictation, arithmetic and grammar, satis- 
factory; order good. Two chiefs aud Mrs. Elliot and Miss Eay, present. Afternoon 
of same day, examined board school No. 8. Frame house in a pleasant pine grove, 
opposite Kauyauga Church (Episcopal), Miss Maggie Davis (Indian) teacher ; passed 
entrance examination a year ago last Christmas. Inside, plastered walls quite white ; 
floor very clean ; porch, large ; clock, small globe, etc., in good order. Twenty pupils 
present, in four classes; proficiency fair. 

June 23d, in company with Mr, Ashton, and the Indian commissioner, I visited the 
New Credit School (under Band and C. W. Conference) of the Mississaugas, an Ojib- 
beway tribe. This school is about twenty miles from Brantford, and as the morning 
was extremely warm, we were late in reaching our destination. The land, nearly all 
the way from Branttbrd — a mile or so of a low sand level on the Reserve excepted — 
is a fine clay loam. Six miles south of the city, at Burch's Corners, you turn to the 
east and the road is straight thence all the way. About two and a half miles from the 
town on the Cockshut road, the Tuscarora boundary is reached, when you pass through 
the very garden of the Reserve. Such wheat fields, hay fields, and spring crops as 
lined the road on either hand, one does not often see. The reserve of 44,000 acres held 
by the Indians in Tuscarora is, for the most part, the very best of land, much of it being 
of alluvial formation, generally level, but shorn of its primeval forest trees, the bush 
having now a frousy, scrubby appearance. The commissioner has for years done his 
best to prevent the destruction of the forest, but the cupidity of the white man and 
the need of the Indian have been too strong for him. Scarcely a tree is to be found 
anywhere along the roads for shade or shelter, and wells are almost unknown. The 
highways are nearly impassable — indeed, altogether, I believe in the spring and fall— 
and are now even seamed with deep ruts. Food for horses as well as men must be 
taken along. 

The New Credit School is supplied by the Band, i.e., the Mississauga tribe, which 
makes it a grant of $300 per annum, and this is supplemented by a grant of $50 from 
the Indian Department. The teacher in charge is Mr. John Scott (white), who holds 
a permit from the Indian Office, Ottawa: his salary is |350. The house is frame, 
twenty by thirty feet with porch : grounds are not inclosed. The school room is not 
in a satisfactory state ; the desks are poor, the floor broken, plaster oif walls; needs 
an entirely new equipment. Fourteen pupils present, in four classes; proficiency 
middling. Doctor Peter Jones, of Hagersville, chief of the tribe and son of the late 
Rev. Peter Jones, of Brantford, was present during the examination. 

Afternoon, examined board school No. 9. Claybourn Russell (Indian), teacher. 
Small frame school- house with i)orch ; equipment the same as in other board schools ; 
grounds enclosed with wire fence ; no trees ; access to the grounds in all the board 
schools is by stile and not by gate. All the houses are furnished with large bells. 
Twenty-eight children were present, clean and neat in dress and appearance. Many 
visitors of both sexes. Five classes examined with fair results. 

In my opinion the schools known as "board" on the Tuscarora Reserve, have bet- 
ter equipment, are under better management, and are doing better work than the 
others. This is due, no doubt, to the interest taken in them by the members of the 
board, and especially by the commissioner and the sujterintendent of the Mohawk 
Institute. It would be well if all the schools were placed under the same manage- 
ment. As to the supply of teachers, I think the Indian, youth, trained in the Mohawk 
Institute, ought to have the preference : after passing the entrance examination they 
might be trained for three or five months in the art of teaching, under the direction 
of the superintendent of the Mfdiawk Institute, and for this extra work the Indian 
Department might reasonably be asked to pay a small amount. 
August, 1884. 



W. S. Clendening, Esq., Inspector, East Bruce. 
Indian Schools, Saugeen Reserve, with Cape CroTcer. 

First visit. — There are three schools in the Saugeen Reserve, known as (1) Indian 
Village, (2) French Bay, and (3) Scotch Settlement. The school-houses in the two 
latter localities are excellent, and in the former, fair. 

570 



INTEENATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 333 

In Ist, Margaretta Spence, teacher, holds a third class, and is learning the Indian 
language ; there was no privy or play-ground. 

In 2d, Alexander Madwayosh, teacher, is an Indian, and holds a district certificate 
granted at CoUingwood : he has only been here about two weeks, and being ill at the 
time of inspection, his classes were not examined. 

In 3d, Maggie Robertson, teacher, holds a third-class certificate. 

In the two schools examined, I found 18 scholars in Part I, 2 in Part II, 5 in the sec- 
ond, 4 in the third, and 1 in the fourth class. I found tho classes too far advanced, 
and the amount gone over not thoroughly prepared. 

I would recommend a numeral frame for each school, also the maps of the world aiid 
Canada. The schools were inspected on June 17th and 18th. 

August, 1884. 

I visited Saugeen Reserve again on November 18th and 19th, and Cape Croker, Octo- 
ber 28th and 29th. ... 

I noticed considerable improvement at Saugeen on the occasion of my second visit, 
and was pleased to see that some new maps had been provided. I found 15 scholars 
in each of two schools, and 26 in another. One is a missionary school, and the teacher 
holds a third-class certificate ; and one of the other schools is also taught by a third- 
class teacher, the other by an Indian. 

At Cape Croker I found 7 scholars in one school, and 18 in another. The teacher 
of the third school was absent at the time I visited the Reserve : one teacher is a young 
lady of entrance standing, the other two were Indians. 

Two Indiaas from Cape Croker, and one from Saugeen, attended an examination 
at Wiarton, and certificates have been granted them by the county board. The ten chcr 
who was absent from his school failed badly at the examination, and he is unfortu- 
nately too fond of spirituous liquors : the other Indian is doing good work in his school. 
I found scholars as far advanced as the fourth class, but it was a mistake, as they 
were quite unfit. 

Decembjek, 1884. 



John Deakness, Esq., Inspectoe, East. Middlesex. 
Indian Schools, Oneida Reservation. 

Oneida No. 1. — Teacher, Miss Mary E. Beatty (white). , 

Success. — She takes much interest in her work; adopts some good methods. She 
seemed to lend an attentive and willing ear to all my suggestions for the improve- 
ment of her school, or of her methods of teaching or government. 

Order. — Middling, while I was present. She says her pupils take advantage of a 
visitor's presence. Her inability to address them in their native language makes it 
more difScult for her to arrest their attention and to reprove them for disorder. 

Salary. — Her salary is |250. She thinks if the Indians were required to contribute 
to a part of the salary, they would take more interest in the school and try to send 
their children more regularly. 

Pupils. — Fifty-six registered ; average for last quarter, twenty -nine ; nineteen pres- 
ent on the 26th ; they are irregular and tardy. Although 9 a. m. is the hour of open- 
ing, school is usually not called until a quarter or half-hour past nine a. m. 

Subjects of study. — They are fairly proficient in writing, drawing, and spelling. I 
advised more teaching of oral and written English composition. In many cases I find 
them reading sentences meaningless to them. 

School-house. — A neat small frame building, poorly seated with long wooden licuchee, 
only four of which have desks. The house needs "banking up " before winter. The 
blackboard needs blackwashing. The only apparatus in the school is a map of the 
world. It needs a map of the Dominion of Canada and a small globe. The younger 
pupils ought to be supplied with slates — say, two or three dozen. 

Oneida No. 2. — Teacher, John T. Scuyler, Indian. 

Certificate. — He promised to write at the H. S. entrance examination ; he was edu- 
cated at the Mohawk Institute. 

Success. — Methods, crude ; management and order, fairly good ; I think he will be 
much benefited by my suggestions to him concerning the importance, and methods of 
teaching the children to speak English. 

Salary. — Two hundred dollars; $50 from the natives, and $150 from the English 
Church Missionary Society. If Mr. Scuyler were to prepare to pass the examination, 
and improve his methods of teaching, I would recommend the Indian Department to 
make a gr-'iut of $50 a year to the school. 

Pupils. — Registered, 43 ; average, 25 ; 14 i)resent on the 27th inst. 

Order. — Good, pujiils not well supplied with text-books. 

SQhool-house, — A good building, poorly seated. No maps or other apparatus. 

571 



334 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Oneida, No. 3. — Teacher, Elijah Sickles, Indian. Educated at the Mohawk Insti- 
tution, bears thence most excellent testimonials. He promised to write at the H. S. en- 
trance examination. 

Success. — I can highly recommend Mr. Sickles and his school to the Department. I 
have seldom met a teacher more earnest and zealous than Mr. S. ; he maintains good 
order, teaches with energy, and listens eagerly to every suggestion. 

Salary. — The Department pays him if 106, and the patrons of his school paid him 
last year $120 ; the year before, |144. $250 a year is not enough for such a teacher 
as Mr. Sickles. 

SchooJ^-house. — Good frame building costing |1,200. It was built by Mr. Sickles: 
he was not only the carpenter, but chiefly instrumental in collecting the means to 
build it : there is yet a debt of $200 on it for which he is personally responsible. I 
would be glad to hear that the Department could assist iu paying bbc debt. 

Apparatus. — A blackboard, map of the world, small globe and three or four dozen 
slates are needed. 

1 July, 1884. 



J. S. Carson, Esq., Inspectoe, West Middlesex. 
Indian School, Township of Caradoc. 

First visit. — The Mount Elgin Institution seems to bear a relation to the other In- 
dian schools, somewhat similar to that of our high to our public schools. 

The room for teaching is not well furnished, the desks are neither adapted to the 
size nor the comfort of the pupils, and the interior is wanting in that bright cheery 
appearance so congenial to both teacher and pupils : a little painting, whitewashing 
and a few pictures, with the necessary maps, would remove the objection. 

Thirty-six pupils were present, and I was informed others were working on the 
farm or in the house : during my visit, attention was paid to the character of the 
teaching in order that I might estimate the probable progress of the j)upils under ex- 
isting circumstances : the grand difiSculty is to reach the pupils' minds through the 
English language. The teacher holds a third class (iertificate, and appears to be ener- 
getic and painstaking. In my opinion he does not possess the requisite skill and tact 
to teach this school well: there should be in charge one of our best second class 
teachers ; his selection should be made with special reference to the requirements of 
the institution. If the teachers of the other schools are to be trained here, it is of 
the first importance that the teaching, discipline and management be of a Tiigh 
order : these can only be secured by the employment of a thoroughly competent in- 
structor. 

The schools taught by Messrs. Fisher, Henry, Timothy and Miss Scott are so much 
alike that one description would do for all. I may remark that Mr. Timothy was 
absent on the day of my visit, and his wife had charge. 

The children read and spell words, but have not the slightest acquaintance with 
their meaning and use : there is no systematic attempt to teach English, nor will there 
bo, till the teachers see their work from a different standpoint. To infuse life and 
energy into these schools will demand time, thought and exertion : the teachers need 
training, and the children should be made to attend with some measure of regularity. 

I intend to liave a meeting of the teachers, and spend one or more days with them 
in visiting the lowest rooms of the Strathroy school. I may add, thei-e should be iu 
each room a map. of the world, one of Ontario, also tablet lessons, plenty of black- 
board, and a numeral frame. 

The following table gives the attendance at each school on the day of inspection : 

Pupils. 

Joseph Fisher's 16 

John Henry's 20 

Charles Timothy's i 9 

Mary J. Scott's 2 

I would recommend that some of the most promising children be selected and 
trained, with a view of becoming teachers either at the Institiitiou, or, better, at 
some of our best public schools : with such an incentive they would work with pleas- 
ure and be fairly well prepared to teach the elementary branches. 

June, 1884. 

Second visit. — The school-houses, which are not at all as comfortable as those used 
for public school purposes, are not so bad as one would expect under the circumstan- 
ces. With one exception — the Church of England school-house — they provide reason- 
able shelter from, cold and wet. A small expenditure on each would make them better 
than many houses in back settlements. 

1 For secoud visit see page 343, 
572 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 335 

III most Ciises there is lack of blackboard accommodation. I do uot think the pres- 
ent teachers feel the want as keenly as if they were better qualified for teaching. 
The desks and seats are of a rude pattern ; still, for an Indian child, it is possible they 
may appear the perfection of comfort. There are some majDs, but very little use is 
made of them : some schools have numeral frames. 

The teachers are the same as those in charge when lay first visit was made. With 
the exception of Mr. Whiting, teacher in the Mount Elgin Institution, none of them 
holds a certificate. I am of opinion it would be useless to ask them to prepare for 
]).n.ssiDg even the entrance examination to a high school. Some of the teachers talk 
of lesigiiing ; if they carry out their intention, it may not be difficult to fill their 
places with Indians who are qualified under the regulations. It is almost needless 
to remark, a change for the better is very desirable. 

The attendance is small, sixteen pupils being the largest number present in any of 
the schools on the day of inspection. In the institution there were twenty -eight, 
besides a large class doing work on the farm. 

In reference to the teaching, it is fair in the institution, and very inferior in all the 
other schools. Reading,' writing, spelling and arithmetic are attempted. For the 
most part, the Indian tongue is used in the play-ground, and by the teacher to give 
esplauatiouH. It is not unusual to find pupils who can spell and recognize words, 
without the slightest idea of what they mean. The writing is middling, but the 
arithmetic is very low indeed. In one of the schools, I found two pupils who could do 
addition well, and were reading in the Third Book. There is a pressing necessity. 
for better teachers for these children. 

The school in the institution is soon to undergo extensive repairs : to this school we 
must look for the teachers who will succeed those on the Reserve. This summer two 
passed entrance to the high school, and at the Christmas examination others may 
succeed, [f these would spend a few weeks in a good public school under the in- 
struction of the teacher, they would suit very well to take charge of the schools on 
the Reserve. 

Early next year I propose having a conference with the Indian agent, Mr. Gordon, 
and the leading Indians, to determine what can be done, if anything, to promote the 
progress of these schools. The question is ijerplexing me, and unless improvement 
can be made, I fear the money paid for inspection cannot be considered a wise expend- 
iture. I am anxious to learn to what extent the Department is likely to be influ- 
enced by my suggestions regarding these schools. I especially desire better teachers, 
and hope for means to brighten the school-house inside. These are reasonable expec- 
tations, and there may be other means to gratify them. 

December, 1884. 



E. B. Harrison, Esq., Inspector, East Kent. 
Moravian Indian Reserve. 

The Moravian Indian Reserve was visited by me on the 20th May. I found two 
schools established there for the education of Indian children. 

The one on the Mission Farm at the river, is under the auspices of the Moravian 
Church, and has been in operation (so I am informed), for a period of upwards of 
ninety years ; it was formerly located at a short distance from the present site, and 
in the old Moraviantown, on the north side of the river Thames. The number of 
pupils, whose names are entered on the Register, and during the current year, is 
twenty-two; the average attendance during" the winter quarter was fourteen ; but 
as it is not mentioned in the list of the denominational Indian schools, as reported 
hy the Indian Department, I presume it was not the intention of the said Depart- 
ment that it should be inspected; consequently it was not inspected by me. 

The other school is situated at a distance of about one mile from the former school, 
and in the center of the Reserve, and as the Reserve is two miles square, all the children 
can attend without any difficulty, so far as relates to distance. I visited it on the 
day hereinbefore mentioned, viz, 20th inst., and now present the following particulars: 
The name of the teacher is Daniel Edwards; he is forty-two years of age ; he formerly 
held an old county board second-class teacher's certificate, and taught in a satisfactory 
manner in this county during a period of seven years, in the public schools ; he was 
compelled by ill health to abstain from teaching, for a few years; after recovering his 
health he was placed in this school as teacher, and has occupied this position for up- 
wards of five years; he has not a speaking acquaintance with the Indian language, 
but is able to make himself understood by the children through the medium of the 
elder pupils, who generally understand the English language suificiently well to know 
what the teacher says ; and also by his own knowledge of Indian words and ]>hra,8es, 
ac(]nir(d partly from having resided near them before he commenced to teach, and 
p;ntly during the time he has been with them. 

Only a daily register is kept, and at the end of the quarter forwarded to the Indian 
Department. 

573 



336 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 



The general condition of the school as to the organization is fair ; discipline, good ; 
t^fticiency, middling. A short time previous to my visit, the teacher recommenced his 
labors, after an illness of about three weeks ; this most likely had an effect on the 
efficiency of the classes. 

Object lessons and music are taught ; in the latter the pupils are not taught to read 
music. 

The proiiciency of the pupils is tested principally by oral examination. 

From 1875 to 1883, inclusive, I have visited this school periodically, except on two 
occasions; once when they had the small-pox in the Reserve ; and once when the 
building was occupied by the council ; my other duties and the bad state of the roads 
prevented me from making a second attempt. I have never reported to the Indian 
Department, but have to the chiefs. 

Irregular attendance has prevented satisfactory progress on the part of the pupils. 
The council should make attendance compulsory during certain months of the year, 
and fine those who would not comply. 

At first I endeavored to obtain the services of a teacher who could speak the In- 
dian language, but was unable to find one who was otherwise suitable. 

The school site contains about an acre of land, and is fenced. There are privies, one 
for each sex, but they require new doors; the present ones being made from elm lum- 
ber, are so warped as to be useless. I have no doubt this matter will be attended to, 
as I have sent a report to the chief. 

Last year a very neat, commodious and comfortable (except the ventilation) school- 
house was erected; it is a frame building and well painted; the room for cloaks and 
other garments of the children is large, and the same may be said of the teacher's room. 

The building is furnished with a suflicient number of excellent desks and seats to 
accommodate forty pupils ; the blackboards are good, but more are required ; there are 
three maps, viz., an old map of the world, a map of the Dominion, published in 1876, 
and a map of Palestine. They require a new map of the world, a map of North America, 
and a numeral frame. After vacation it would be advisable for the Indian Department 
to furnish the school with a new series of readers ; those now in use, the old author- 
ized ones, not being suitable. The copy-books, purchased at difi^erent places by the 
parents, are in many instances unsuitable ; these, with such stationery as is required, 
should also be provided for them. 

The old school-house is now used for a council room, and I trust also for their 
feasts. There is" a log house on the same site for the teacher; but as the present 
teacher has his own house to live in, it is now occupied by the janitor. 

Proficiency is marked thus : 1. Excellent. 2. Good. 3. Middling. 4. Inferior. 5. 
Bad. 



Questions. 


Answers.— Classes. 


Subject of instruction. 


I. 


II. 


m. 


IV. 


Total. 


, 


Part I. 


Part n. 


11 
2 


6 
2 


1 




Number of pupils enrolled 
during 1884, in each class. . 

Number of pupils pi'esent 
during my visit, in each 


16 

7 


17 
10 


51 
21 






Proflciency in reading 


3 and 2 


3 and 2 


8 

2 and 3 

( Slates 2 
I Books 3 

Addition. 
2 


2 

2 

Slates 2 
Books 2 

Simple rules. 
2 


a 

•g 

S 

■d 

K ■ 

P. 
■§ 










5 a> 

r-H P - 






5Counting numbers 

I 2 


Proficiency in singingi 




Two pupils in 
were not Indian c 
not included in 
being all Indians 



July, 1884. 



' The whole school = 2. Articulation, good and distinct. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 337 

C.'A. Barnes, Esq., Inspector, No. 1, Lambton. 
Indian Schools at Kettle and Stony Points. 

The school at. Kettle Poiut is at present conducted by Miss E. Royle, who came from 
England about aine months ago, and has been engaged teaching since February last ; 
she has no certificate of standtng in this country, and as her enga^meut terminates 
.the Ist of October, I did not think it necessary to ask her to attend the examinations. 

There were nine pupils present at the time of my visit, in the first, second and third 
classes; the reading in the third class was fair, although somewhat monotonous. 

Spelling fair; multiplication tables to nine times, very good. The writing in all 
classes wns very good ; in fact, I was very much gratified to find it so good. 

The supply of copies was somewhat scarce, but the term being so near its close, 
accounts for that being the case, but I have no doubt a supply will be in readiness at 
the oiKiiiug of the school after vacation. 

Miss Royle also teaches singing and knitting, thus giving variety to lier work. 

I would suggest that maps of the County of Lambton and the Dominion of Canada 
should be provided as soon as possible, in order that geography may be taught in- 
telligently. 

As soon as the question of readers is finally settled, I think tablets should also be 
supplied. 

The hnilding at present used as a school is also used for church purposes. 

A new church is in course of erection, and when complete, the present building will 
then be used altogether for school purposes, wheu I hope a larger supply of black- 
board will also be provided. 

Th>'. schoo? at Stony Point is also kept in the church, and is conducted by Mr. Moses 
Waucosh : the number of pupils present was sis: the supply of ink and pens was 
very limited, but I was informed afterwards by the Rev. Mr. White that Mr. Waucosh 
could have had these by asking for them, as he (Mr. White) keeps a supply of school 
requisites on hand. 

Reading, spelling, arithmetic, geography, grammar and writing are taught, but in 
all these subjects the knowledge is exceedingly limited. 

August, 1884. 



John Brebner, Esq., Inspector, West Lambton. 
Indian Schools on Walpole Island, and Sarnia Reserve. 

First visit. — No. 1, Walpole Island. — Wm. Peters (Indian), teacher. Has only 
taught eight days, the former teacher having gone to Saugeen Reserve. 

Attendance. — Thirteen boys and twelve girls. 

Senior Second Book, two boys and one girl ; reading indistinct and without proper 
pauses, know the words; spelling, very good; writing very good ; arithmetic, simple 
rules, well done. 

Junior 2d, one boy ; reading indistinct, knows the words fairly ; spelling only mid- 
dling; writing fair; arithmetic poor. 

Part 2d, Ist book, two boys and one girl ; reading better than in 2d, utterance more 
distinct, and more attention to pauses ; spelling, good ; writing, good ; arithmetic, 
addition and subtraction, good. 

First Part, three boys; reading, fair ; -spelling, good; jirinting, good. All the other 
pupils only learning the alphabet. 

Teacher appears energetic and anxious to do well : he got his education at the Mount 
Elgin Institute, but has passed no examination. 

Equipment. — Good school-house, fairly furnished with pine desks, etc., map of the 
Avorld, ten commandments and the Lord's prayer on tablets, black-hoard too small, 
numeral frame. 

Requisites. — First Book tablets, chalk (I Jiave sent a box of crayons), and hope the 
former will be provided as soon as possible. 

No. 2, Walpole Island. — Rev. William Stroud, teacher, First Class certificate. 

Attendance. — Nine boys and two girls, also three daughters of the teacher (not 
reported). 

Third Book, one boy; reading, middling, monotonous; spelling, good; writing, not 
very good ; arithmetic, simple rules, fair. 

Second Book, two girls, one boy ; reading, indistinct, know the words ; spelling, 
not very good; writing, fair; arithmetic, addition and subtraction, not well done. 

Second Part First Book, three boys ; reading, good but indistinct, can pronounce 
the words, but I doubt if they Icnoiv the meanings; spelling, poor; writing, good; 
arithmetic, middling. 

7950 COT, pi. 3 22 575 



338 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

First Part, four boys; reading, fair (simultaneous) ; writing, very good; arithmetic, 
(mental), fair. 

JSquipment.—Goocl school-house, seated with pine desks, map of the World, tablets, 
numeral frame and a small blackboard. 

July, 1884. 

Second visit.— Walfoue Island, No. 2.— William Peters (Indian), teacher. Visited 
October 29th, 10 to 12.30. Fifteen boys and fifteen girls present. 

Too little blackboard ; slato pencils needed. 

First Part, First Book, eight boys and twelve girls ; many just beginning to read, 
but a few read middling and spell on books well; no writing except figures; some 
fair printing; arithmetic, only a little mental. 

Second Part, First Book, six boys and two girls; reading fair; spelling good; 
arithmetic good, only two failing to get all the examples correct ; writing good. 

Second Book, one boy and one girl; reading, middling; spelling by boy, good, by 
girl, poor (very nervous); all examples in arithmetic correct; writing good; geog- 
raphy, bad. 

Since my last visit this school has sent three boys and one girl to the Shingwauk 
Home, and three boys and three girls to the Mount Elgin Institute ; so that there is 
now no Third Class left in the school. 

Walpole Island, No. 1. — Eev. Wm. Stout (white), teacher. Visited October 
29th, 1.30 to 3.30. Owing to the prevalence of a troublesome skin disease, only three 
Indian children were present (lowest hitherto, six), besides these there were six white 
children, two boys and four girls ; three of the latter being Mr. Stout's own, the 
others coming from the saw mill. 

Second Part, First Book, two boys. Eeading good, distinct ; spelling good ; arith- 
metic (addition) bad; writing, very good. 

Second Book class, one girl. Eeading good, except slight lisp ; spelling, very good ; 
arithmetic (addition and subtraction) only middling; writing not so good. Pupil 
often absent. 

School-house fairly furnished : more blackboard needed. 

White children. — Fourth Class. One girl, reading, poor; spelling, not good; writ- 
ing, fair; arithmetic, fair; grammar, only begun: should be in the third class. 

Third class, one boy and two girls. Eeading, good; spelling, good; grammar, very 
good ; did not examine in arithmetic; writing, very good. 

Second class, one girl. Eeading, middling; spelling, good; arithmetic, fair. 

First class, one boy. Eeading, good ; spelling, good ; arithmetic, none. 

Sarnia Eeserve (St. Clair). — Andrew Jacobs (Indian, ) teacher. Visited November 
19th, 10 to 12. Present, twelve boys and fourteen girls. 

First Part, First Book. Alphabet, three boys and one girl. Eeading, five boys and 
ten girls, read fairly, but indistinctly ; children appear to understand what they read, 
and can spell on the book ; no arithmetic has yet been taught them, indeed they can 
scarcely count a dozen. 

Second Part, First Book, three boys and two girls. In reading, know all the words, 
but name them monotonously and" without expression ; spelling, good ; arithmetic 
(addition and subtraction) done correctly ; writing good. 

Second Class. One boy, reads distinctly, spells well; does multiplication fairly; 
writing, good. 

Third class. One girl, reading, good, understands what is read pretty well ; spell- 
ing, good; arithmetic, jioor; writing, very good; geography, poor; .grammar uone. 

Pupils now attendirig, 11, 12 and 14 years of ago. Some have gone to Shingwauk 
and Mount Elgin Institutes, but exactly how many Mr. Jacobs could not tell. 

The furniture in this school is poor and not well arranged: too little blackboard, 
which is too little used : school-house not plastered, only lined with matched stufi, 
must be cold now. 

I think some j)ressure could be brought to bear on Indian pupils in connection with 
their annuities to secure more regular and punctual attendance. A minimum number 
of days for each half-year might be fixed, and some rewards or prizes given for con- 
tinuous punctual attendance, while a prospective deduction for irregular or tardy 
attendance might stimulate the careless. 

Sarnia Eeserve. — Andrew Jacobs (Indian), -teacher. No certificate. 

Attendance. — Eleven boys and fifteen girls. 

First Part, First Book, six boys and fourteen girls; reading, very indistinct, don't 
open their teeth enough to let words out ; spelling, none ; writing, fair ; arithmetic, 
none. 

Second Part, First Book, five boys; reading, fair; spelling, good; writing, very 
good ; arithmetic, middling. 

Second Book, none present; writing in tlieir books good. 

Third Book, one girl, bright, intelligent child, age thirteen (attended No. 14, Moore) ; 
reading, good; spelling, good; writing, good; arithmetic, middling. 

576 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 339 

Equ/ipmeiit. — Scliool-]iouse not good, too high from the ground, only wainscotted, 
cold, very poor desks, etc. 

In such u school, 1 ablets are indispensable ; map of the Dominion should bb in every 
school, with numeral frame and calculator, as these are needed. 

The teacher lacks energy, and 1 doubt if much work is done some days. 

Nove;mber, 1884. 



P. MacLean, Esq., Inspector, District of Algoma. 
Indian Schools, Algoma. 

GENERAL REPORT. 

First visit. — I visited fourteen of these schools, and with the exception of the indus- 
trial schools at Wikwemikdng, Sault Ste. Marie and Fort William, they are in a very 
low state, scarcely deserving the name of schools. 

Teachers. — The teachers are for the most part native females, with scarcely any 
education, and having but a very imperfect knowledge of English. In several cases 
the teachers were quite unable to understand me when asking little points of infor- 
mation about their schools, etc. 

The Fvpils. — The pupils generally have but very little idea of the meaning of their 
reading lessons, and in very many instances cannot give the English names of the 
commonest objects of life, or even such an are around them in the school room. I 
found them reading in every book from the First to the Sixth ; not the Ontario readers, 
but denominational readers of several varieties ; the reading is not by any means good, 
still I am surprised how good it is in some cases, when I consider how little of it they 
understand. 

The spelling is usually very good, and the writing excellent. The arithmetic is very 
poor ; the teachers in the majority of cases knowing nothing about the subject them- 
selves. Some of the pupils are neat, clean and tidy in their persons, but in too many 
cases they are very filthy. 

School -Bouses. — The school-houses are, generally speaking, very poor, small, unfur- 
nished, and dirty. In several instances the teacher resides in tte school-room ; has 
her bed, cooking-stov.e, cradle, wash-tubs, pots, etc., all around the room, with a few 
benches in one corner for the pupils. 

Irregular Attendance. — The teachers all complained to me of the very irregular attend- 
ance of the pupils. They appear to go to school when it suits their own whim, and 
stay at home when it pleases them to do so, the parents seeming to care little or noth- 
ing whether their children go to school or not. Many of the schools have but five or 
six pupils present, where there might be twenty or over. I would in this connection 
suggest for the consideration of the Indian Department, whether some regulation may 
not be passed to remedy this evil; such, for instance, as making the payment of the 
annuity for all children between the a^es of seven and fourteen, conditional upon 
their attendance at school for at least four or five months in each year ; or what might 
be better still, grant a small yearly bonus to every child so attending. 

School Beqiiisites. — The majority of the schools are entirely lacking in even the most 
ordinary school requisites. My detailed report contains a list of what requisites I 
consider necessary for each school at present, and I would recommend that they be 
furnished to the Indian agents with instructions to distribute to the schools. I would 
also recommend the preparation of a set of reading tablets with graded lessons for 
the use of the schools. The first few lessons should consist of a few English names 
of common objects, a pictorial representation of the same, and the Indian word for 
each: this might be arranged on the tablet in three parallel columns. These lessons 
might then be followed by short exercises intended for the slate, namely, a few Indian 
names to be written out in English, and vice versa, English words to be written down 
in Indian. In this way they would soon be in possession of quite a number of English 
words and their meaning. 

In conclusion, I would respectfully submit, that in my opinion the Indian schools 
will never give satisfactory results until there is a radical change in the present staff 
of teachers; the majority of whom hold no certificates, and nev.er passed any exam- 
ination ; but were ai)pointed to their respective positions by the denominational 
authorities of the churches to which the.y belong. 

DETAILED REPORT. 

1. Wikwemilcong (Bo^.s). — There arc two male teachers, Josej^h Richard and Stephen 
Dufresne, both educated in the Church schools, and who sx)eak English fluent I y : they 
appear to be doing their work intelligently and well. 

&7r 



340 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Number of pupils enrolled since Ist January, 1884, sixty-two : number present at 
my visit, thirty-nine. 

The pupils i;ead well, and had a very fair knowledge of the meaning of the lesson ; 
.spoke English well in answer to my questions; the spelling and writing, very good , 
had a fair knowledge of addition and subtraction mechanically, and some understood 
multiplication and division. 

The subjects taught in the school are reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, grammar, map-drawing, composition, singing, church catechism and sacred 
history. The classification of the pupils was First Book, Part I, twenty ; Part II, 
.six ; Second Book, six ; Third Book, five ; Fourth Book, two. The readers used were 
those of the Christian Bi'others. 

Blacksmithiug, shoemaking, and carpentry are taught to any of the older boys who 
wish to learn trades. I saw some well made boots and shoes turned out from tbeir 
shop. The school-room is neat, clean, and commodious, but the desks are very un- 
suitable. 

2. Wikwemikong (Girls). — There are two lady teachers — Mies Lucy Haes.sly, the Prin- 
cipal, educated at St. Mary's Orphan Asylum, Cleveland ; and the Assistant, Miss 
Rosa Kintz, educated at St. Joseph's Academy, Fordham, New York. 

Number enrolled since Ist January, 1884, 87 : number present at my visit, 53, clas- 
sified as follows : — First Book, Part 1,7;" First Book, Part 2, 18 ; SecoudBook, G ; Third 
Book, 6; Fourth Book, (i; Fifth Book, 4. The readers used were the "Metropolitan" 
series. The classification of the pupils is entirely too high. The reading, writing, 
and spelling were not good. The girls' school is behiud the boys' school in the literary 
subjects, but much of their time is taken up with the industrial subjects. The school- 
room is much too crowded, and the desks and seats unsuitable. By far the most 
important work in this school is the industrial knowledge given to the girls, whi> are 
to be the firture Indian wives and mothers, and which must have its civilizing influ- 
ence upon the race in due time. 

The girls are taught spinning, weaving, knitting, sewing, laundry and kitchen 
work. There is a clean, airy, comfortable dormitory, where each girl is expected to 
iieep hej- own cot in order. I was very much pleased with this school. 

3. Buywaks School.- — Teacher, Miss Agatha Gabow, taught at Wikwemikong Girl's 
School. Number enrolled this year, 20 ; number present at my visit, 18. Classified, 
First Book, ten : Second Book, eight. Subjects taught, reading, writing, spelling, 
and a little addition. 

School-room very small — about 12 by 18 feet. No blackboard, no maps, no copies, 
no desks. All the requisites consisted of 12 books and 8 slates. ' 

Children very much crowded. The teacher lives and has her bed in the school- 
room. Teacher has very considerable difficulty in comprehending EuglLsh. 

4. Wikwemikongsing. — Teacher, Miss Catharine Gabow, educated at Wikwemikong: 
has scarcely any knowledge of English; could get but very little information from 
her, as she scarcely understood a word of what I said. 

Number of pupils enrolled, 20 ; number present, 10, Classified, First Reader, six ; 
Second Reader, none ; Third Reader, four. 

The pupils, I may say, have not a word of English : heard them read and spell, 
which they did surprisingly well, considering that they knew nothing of what they 
were saying : their writing was good. The school-house is a fair log building used at 
present for a church : the teacher lives in it. 

5. Slieguiandah (Church of England).— The teacher is Mr. Fred. Frost (white), who 
was educated at the Grammar School, Ware, England, and is a clergyman of the 
Church of England. Mr. Frost was absent at the time of my visit, being in Toronto 
for medical advice. Mrs. Frost had charge of the school during his absence. 

Number of pupils enrolled, 31 ; number present, 16. Classified, First Book, four; 
Second Book, two ; Third Book, ten. Subjects taught are reading, writing, spelling, 
arithmetic, geography and Church catechism. 

6. Birch Island. — At the request of Mr. Phipps, Indian Agent, I examined Miss 
Martha Esquimo, a young Indian woman, sixteen years of age, with a view to ascer- 
tain her fitness as a teacher for an Indian school on Birch Island. She got her educa- 
tion at the Wawanosh Home, Sault Ste. Marie, where she studied for four years. I 
examined her in reading, spelling, writing, addition and subtraction : she read very 
well, and her writing was good: in spelling she made sixty per cent, on my test : her 
arithmetic was not good. I granted her a tempoi'ary certificate for six mouths, uutil 
they could procure a more competent teacher. 

This school has never been in operation before. The Indians on this Reserve are 
Protestants. 

7. Serjptmt River. — Teacher, Mrs. Sophia Peltier ; has no certificate ; was educated 
at Wikwemikong, and speaks English fairly. Number of pupils enrolled, eighteen : 
niimber present, sixteen: number on Reserve about thirty. The classification was 
more correct than in any of the previous schools, the pupils being all in the First 
Reader. 

m 



I 



I 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 341 

Snltjocts t.au,!ilit are reading, spelling, writing and addition. Pupils are just com- 
mencing to write the letters of the alphabet ; they know very litrle English ; the 
teacher conducts exercises in English conversation for an hour-daily. The school- 
house is ahout eighteen by fifteen feet ; has no desks, but four benches, and the black- 
hoard is about thirty by fifteen inches. Teacher and her hnsband live in the school- 
hous , with their cooking-stove, cradle, cupboard, &c. 

8. Mississaga. — Teacher, Mrs. Mary Cada (white), educated at public school, Chat- 
ham. Number enrolled, sixteen ; number present, six. Classified, First Reader, five ; 
Second Reader, one. One girl, who had attended the public school at Bruce Mines, 
was very clever and did her work well; spoke good English : the others knew little 
or nothing. 

The school was just commenced ahout a month, afterhaving been closed about two 
years. School-house, a log huilding 18 hy 24 feet, used as a dwelling at present-. The 
furniture consists of two beds, two large trunks, a cooking-stove, cupboard, kettles^ 
tin pails, &c : no desks : benches resting on chairsi 

9. Gar(h7} River (Church of England). — Teacher, Mr. Jas. H. Gallaher (white). 
Educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; is a deacon in the church. Number enrolled 
since let January, twenty-one ; number present, eight (boys) ; all in the First Reader. 

School-house : a frame building, very much dilapidated, with four desks and a few 
benches; a few tablets ; no mai>s. 

The teacher appears to be faithful and diligent, and it is to be hoped the school will 
improve under his management. At present it is in a low condition. 

10. Garden River (RomaiU Catholic). Principal, Rev. Father Ouelette; assistant 
teacher, Edward Ray, who holds a second-class certificate from Hammersmith Model 
School, England. 

Number of Pupils on Reserve about 60 

Number on the Roll 53 

Number Present 35 

First class ; Part 1, thirteen ; Part 2, ten ; Second class, nine ; Third class, three. 
Hours of teaching, 9 to 11.30 a, m. ; 1 to 3.30 p. m. 

11. SMngwmik Home (Boys). — Principal, Rev. E. F. Wilson; assistant teacher, W. 
H. Wotton, educated at St. George's School, Bristol, England. Number enrolled, 
twenty-six; number present, twenty; and two white boys, twenty-two. 

Classified, First Book, eight ; Second Book, iive ; Third Book, four ; Fourth Book, 
five. Subjects taught: reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geography, grammur, 
composition, history, singing, and free hand drawing. Hours, 9 a. m. to 12; 3 to 
5 p. m., and one hour every evening. 

Examined the second, third, and fourth classes, in reading, dictionary, writing, 
arithmetic, drawing and singing : the classes did very well in all subjects, especially 
writing and spelling: they all appear to understand and speak English well — ihe 
tuition and conversation being all in English — no Indian spoken on penalty of having 
to write 500 words. Good comfortable school-room, dormitories and dining-room ; 
also a shoe shop and carpenters' shop attached to the institution ; appears to be doing 
excellent work. 

12. Wawanosh Home (Girls). — Teacher, Miss Alexia V. Cunningham. Educated at 
Meaford High School, Ontario, but holds no certificate. 

Number of Pupils Enrolled 20 

Number Present 16 

Classified — First Reader 6 

Second " 6 

Third " 2 

Fourth " 2 

The classification is too high. I heard three classes in reading, spelling, writing 
and mental arithmetic : the pupils did fairly well, although not equal to the boys at 
the Shingwauk ; neither do they appear to understand English so well. The present 
teacher, Miss Cunningham, has been there but a short time. 

Besides the literary training, the girls are also taught sewing, knitting, laundry 
work, and cooking. 

They all live in the Home, which, like the Shingwauk, is a comfortable stone build- 
ing. 

13. Fort William (Boys). Teacher, M;s. Jane Boucher; taught at Fort Willi.Tm 
Convent several years ago; speaks good English, but otherwise appears quite illitir- 
ate. She said herself she had scarcely opened a book in six years, and had forgotten 
nearly all she ever knew. 

School-house, a comfortable room, well lathed and plastered, but kept in a most 
filthy and disorderly condition. Everything about the school indicates the unfitness 
of the teacher. 

579 



342 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

The Bcliool is supplied with maps of the continents and -world, a fair blackboard 
and some desks which are not very suitable. 

The number enrolled is iwenty-four ; out of which, four were present. The boys 
appear to come to school at any hour that suits them, and do just about what they 
please when they are there. 

The teacher said she also kept a boarding-house for some men who were working on 
the river ; and I think by all means she should be relieved of her school duties in oi-der 
that she may devote all her attention to the boarding-house : I am persuaded it 
would be much better for both. 

14. Fort William {Givls). — Teacher, Miss Leimame ; educated in Germany ; appears 
to be an excellent teacher, and has her school in a very creditable condition. 

Number enrolled 30 

Number present , 30 

Classified — First Eeader, thirteen; Second Reader, eight; Third Reader, six, and 
three in the kitchen. 

The subjects taught are the usual ones. Heard the third class in reading, geography 
and singing: class acquitted itself well. Examined the copy-books, which I found 
very neatly kept and well written. System and method are apparent throughout the 
whole institution. 

The school is industrial as well as literary ; the girls being taught sewing, knitting, 
spinning and weaving, as well as laundry and kitchen work. The pupils live in the 
" Home " and appear very neat, clean and tidy. The school room is at present a little 
crowded, but a fine new large building is in course of erection, and will soon be com- 
pleted. 

South Bay. — West Bay and Sheshegeioaning schools, on Manitoulin Island, were closed 
at the time of my visit. 

Sagamonlc and Bed Bock I was unable to visit for want of time. 

JULT, 1884. 



Second visit — South Bay. — Teacher, Miss Theressa Akiwens, a young Indian girl, 
about seventeen years of age ; her knowledge of English very limited indeed : answers 
the most ordinary questions with very great difficulty. Number of pupils enrolled, 
eighteen ; number present, nine : all in First Reader. Pupils have no knowledge 
whatever of English, and the teacher is able to convey but very little to them, of the 
subject of their lesson. 

The school furniture and apparatus consist of a stove, six or seven benches, and a 
few broken slates and torn books. The teacher lives in the school room. 

Buywaks. — Teacher, Miss Agatha Gabow, who appears to be rather intelligent, and 
speaks English fairly, although her pupils understand but very little. Number en- 
rolled, eighteen, and number present, nine; all in the First Reader. Furniture con- 
sists of a stove, four benches, teacher's bed, and one or two tablets. Indians promised 
to erect a new school-house. Pnpils attend very irregularly. 

Wikwemikong — (Boys). — Teacher, Mr. Stephen -Dutresne, educated at St. Hyacinthe, 
speaks English fairly, but with a decided French accent. Number of pupils enrolled, 
iorty-seven; number present, twenty-two: classified as follows, viz: two in Fourth 
Reader; three in Third Reader; seven in Second Reader, and ten in First Book. 

Pupils read fairly well, and appeared to have a good idea of the meaning of their 
lessons. As usual with Indian children, they write and spell well, but have very 
little beyond a mechanical knowledge of arithmetic. The readers used are the Chris- 
tian Brothers Series. 

This school is also industrial; carpentry, blacksmithing and shoemaking being 
taught to such boys as desire to acquire these trades. The school is fairly well sup- 
plier! with maps, books, tablets, «fec. 

Wikxvemikong — (Girls). — Teacher, Miss Lucy Haessly; assistant teacher, Miss Rosa 
Kintz ; both of whom speak English fluently. 

Number of pupils enrolled, seventy-one : number present, forty-seven : classified as 
follows : — four in Fifth Reader ; six in Fourth Reader ; four in Third Reader ; seven- 
teen in Second Reader, and sixteen in First Book. The readers used are the Metro- 
politan Series, but the pupils appear to be classified much beyond their capacity. I 
consider the fifth and fourth classes should not be beyond the Third Reader. 

Knitting, sewing, spinning, weaving and other branches of household economy are 
taught. The school-room is much too small, and the seating very badly arranged. 

Wawanosh. — Teacher, Miss Alexia V. Cunningham, a young Canadian lady of good 
education and some experience in teaching. The school is under the management of 
the Chtirch of England, and intended for the education of Indian girls only ; it is 
much similar to the girls' school at Wikwemikong being industrial as well as literary. 
The " Home," as it is called, is a large substantial stone building in which the pupils 
live and board under the care of a matron. The number of pupils at the time of my 

530 



INTERN ATIOJ^AL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 343 

visit in Octv)l>er was seventeen : classified thus — ten in First Book, fonr in Second 
Book, and three in Third Book. The readers used are the Ontario Readers. The 
reading, -writing and spelling may he called average ; hut the arithmetic, emhraciug 
addition, subtraction, and division, is purely mechanical, with scarcely any idea of 
the practical application of the rules. 

Shingwank. — Principal, Rev. E. F. Wilson ; assistant teacher, Mr. W. H. Wotton. 
This institution is also managed by the Churcft of England, and designed for the train- 
ing of Indian boys in industrial, as well as literary branches. There is a large stone 
building, -^Nith school- room, dining-room, and dormitories : the school-room is not well 
arranged, and the dormitories should be better ventilated. 

Tbe" number of pupils present was thirty-one: the subjects of study are reading, 
spelling, writing, arithmetic, geography, grammar, composition and history. I heard 
classes iu th(5 first five subjects: all did well in writing and spelling, fairly in read- 
ing, and one boy did very well in arithmetic. The pupils are classified rather beyond 
their proper standing, and I fear the teachers attempt to teach too much. 

Geveral EemarJcs. — All the Indian schools that I have yet visited are sadly deficient 
in school apparatus and .equipments, such as maps, blackboards, books, slates, &c. 
According to instructions of last April, I made out a list of requirements for each 
school separately, and forwarded the same with my report in July ; but so far no 
action appears to have been taken. 

With the exception of the two Protestant schools at Sault Ste. Marie, the one at 
Garden River, and the two Catholic ones at Wikwemikong, the teachers are all females 
and natives : they have little education, and hold no certificates of any kind. 

The schools are. not in operation over half the time ; a great portion of the year 
being occupied with sugar-making, fishing, blueberry and cranberry picking. The 
parents, gejuerally, are so careless about the education of their children, that the at- 
tendance is very irregular, even when the schools are open. 

In order to make these schools more efficient, and in some measure worthy the name 
of schools at all, I would most respectfully recommend to the Department, the follow- 
ing suggestions, as worthy of consideration : I know it is a delicate question to deal 
with these schools, but certainly some change is urgently needed. 

Sufjr/estions. — The Department should insist that the Indians would provide a com- 
fortable room, sufficiently large, and with suitable seats and desks. 

The Department to supply the necessary books, slates, &c., as reported by the in- 
sjicctor or Indian agent from time to time. 

The teachers should be obliged to pass some kind of examination, however simple, 
and hold certificates to that cifect: I am also quite willing that the church authori- 
ties, who have established these schools, should determine what the status of such 
examination shall be. The great point is that the teachers should feel that they have 
to make some little preparation to pass the examination, and obtain certificates en- 
titling them to teach. It is quite evident to me that the present system of appointing 
any person to the charge of a school, can never be productive of results, in any way 
commensurate with the yearly expenditure on the schools. 

I think arrangements might be made whereby special classes, under the charge of 
competent instructors, would be opened at Shingwauk Home, and at Wikwemikong, 
for training Indian teachers ; then all intending candidates should be obliged to at- 
tend these classes, till such time as they were able to pass the prescribed examination. 

Instead of a yearly allowance being paid to the teachers as at present, I would sug- 
gest that they be paid a monthly salary, and only for the time actually employed: I 
am convinced many of them do not work half the time during the year, while draw- 
ing probably a year's pay. 

I would also suggest that these schools be su^jplied with Daily Registers, similar to 
those in the Ontario public schools ; and that certified returns of half-yearly attend- 
ance be made to the inspectors. 

If the annuity for children between the ages of seven and thirteen, could be made 
conditional on their attendance at school for at least four months in the year ; or 
otherwise, a bonus offered to all such, as did so attend, I believe a marked improve- 
ment in the attendance would be the result. 

December, 1884. 

John Dearness, Esq., Inspector, East Middlesex. 
Indifin Schools, Oneida Reservation. 

Second Visit. — On the 9th October, in company with Mr. Thos. Gordon, the Indian 
Agent, I visited the three schools to see how far the suggestions of my former visits 
had been effected. 

School No. 1. — Some of the urgently needed repairs have been made ; the house is 
.embanked very nicely, and will be tolerably comfortable for the winter. The trustees 
assure me that they will have new desks in less than a fortnight. 

581 



344 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

No. 2. — Mr. Schuyler, teacher, did not write last July at the high school entrance 
examination, but promises to do so next Christmas. The desks in this school are very 
had, in fact, there are only two desks ; they are constructed of long boards attached 
with hinges to the wall ; the seats are long benches without desks ; the teacher asks 
for a half-dozen geographies, but he could do more good if he were supplied with maps 
and a globe. The great defect in this-and the other schools is the learning of words 
without understanding their meaning. 

No. 3. — Mr. Elijah Sickles, teacher, wrote at the high school entrance examination ; 
failed, but ijromises to study and write again next December. He is working faithfully. 
Since my last visit he has had the interior of the school-room painted and papered — 
did it bimself ; raised the money by a tea-meeting. The school is now supplied with 
maps, books, a globe and increased blackboard facilities. There is yet a debt of $250 
on the building. The teacher says they have paid $800 or $900 on it, and feel that 
they have exhausted their resources. I think they deserve encouragement, and would 
recommend that the Indian Department assist them to pay the balance of the debt. 

Observations lead me to suggest that all books furnished by the Department 
should be stamped, and rules should be adopted with a view to their care and pres- 
ervation. 

Decembek, 1884. 



Parry Sound Indian Schools.' 

Scliools. — There are at present three schools under my supervision, viz, Eyerson 
School, No. 1 (Parry Island) ; Hodgins School, No. 2 (Shawanaga) ; and Miller School, 
No. 3 (Henby Inlet). Another school-house is in course of erection on Parry Island, 
about live miles from the site of the present one. 

School-houses. — The school-houses are neat, substantial, hewed log buildings, capable 
of seating comfortably about 40 pupils each, and erected as far as possible by Indian 
labor, under the direction of the Superintendent of Indians, Captain Skene, whose 
exertions and interest in the welfare of the Indians have, more than anything else, 
contributed to the establishment and success of these schools. 

Interest in Education. — To show the interest the Indians have in the education of 
their children, I need only mention a few facts : 

(«) In 1878-79 there was only one school in operation ; in 1879-'80 there are three, 
with a prospect of two additional ones before the close of the year. 

(6) In Parry Island School (Eyerson), the chief of the band is both a pupil and also 
a' trustee. 

(c) Chief James, of Shawanaga, writes that his people are delighted with the success 
of their teacher. Miss Amelia Chechock, who has commenced to teach plain needle- 
work to the little girls. 

(d) Chief Wagemakkay, of Henby Inlet, assured me of his intense personal in- 
terest in education, and promised to do all in his power to encourage and induce reg- 
ular attendance. 

(e) The people of each band have voluntarily cons-^nted to have $100 per annum 
deducted from the aggregate of their annuities, to assist in paying the teacher, 

Indian. Teachers. — As yet there has been some difficulty in obtaining suitable teachers, 
Mr. Elias, a missionary among the Indians, was first engaged to teach on Parry Island, 
but his missionary work interfered so materially with his school duties that it was 
thought advisable to supersede him by engaging Miss Eliza Tobias, who had previously 
attended the Munceytown Institute. The change has been beneficial. Miss Amelia 
Chechock, also of the same Institute, is teaching at Shawanaga with success. Mr. 
Enoch Monague is the teacher at Henby Inlet, but his limited knowledge of the Eng- 
lish language will necessitate a change as soon as another teacher can be obtained. 
I may here remark that these teachers have no regular certificates, but I trust the 
time is not far distant when the Indian schools will be taught by regularly certificated 
teachers. 



APPENDIX. 

[The following is the report of a visit which I made to the Indian 
schools of the Parry Sound District three or four years ago. It details 
the first experiment which was made to establish Indian schools in that 
District.— J. G. H.] 

Sir, — I have the honor to state, that having completed the arrangements relating 
to the establishment of the Indian schools in the Parry Sound District, I desire to re- 
port the proceedings in detail : 

As directed, I last year took part in the organization of these schools. This was 

1 Extract from a former report. 

582 



iN-tEtlNAtlONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. S45 

partially done at that time with the assistance of Captain Skene, the Indian Agent at 
Parry Sound, and School Inspector Miller, who accompanied me to the Parry Sound 
and Shawanaga Reservations for that purpose. At both places the bands of Indians 
were called together by Captain Skene, and were addressed on the subject by Mr. 
Miller, Captain Skene and myself. The Indians seemed greatly pleased at the "pros- 
pect of haviu'g schools established among them. At Parry Island Captain Skene 
(under the direction of the Indian Department at Ottawa) had a neat and substan- 
tial log house erected, in which we met the Indians. Subsequently Mr. Miller 
organized the school, and enrolled between 20 and 30 Indian children. They were 
placed in charge of Mr. Elias, an admirable Indian teacher and missionary, who had 
been trained for his work at the Muncey Institute. Steps were subsequently taken 
by Captain Skene to have school- houses erected on other reservations, so that during 
this year schools might be organized in them. This has been done ; and at my recent 
visit Mr. Miller, aided by Visiting Inspector Switzer and Captain Skene, established 
another school at the Shawanaga Reservation, about 35 miles north of Parry Sound. 
Tliither we went in a steam-tug, and walked five miles through the woods to the re- 
serve. Owing to a slight alteration in our arrangements, we visited the reserve a 
day before the time appointed. Chief James met us at the school-house, but our 
coming so soon had disarranged his plans. He had intended to have received us 
with some little ceremony, and, with his band collected, to have had some other dem- 
onstrations in honor of the event. As it. was, he received us very cordially, and 
sent round without delay to collect the members of his band and their children. After 
Mr. Miller had enrolled about 30 children, he, Mr. Switzer, myself, and others, ad- 
dressed the company present. Our remarks were interpreted to the Indians by Mr. 
Elias; and at the close Chief James made a very hearty and touching speech, express- 
ive of his estimate of the value of education to the Indians, and of the great pleas- 
ure which the day's proceedings had given him. With true Indian courtesy, he ac- 
companied the party through the woods, five miles, back to the steam-tug, when, 
after giving him and his band three hearty cheers, we steamed away to Byng Inlet, 
60 miles from Parry Sound, which we reached late in the evening. This is the head- 
quarters of the Maganetawan Lumber Company. We were all pleased with the neat 
appearance of a village lying so far to the north. Although late at night, Mr. Miller 
and Mr. Switzer, our indefatigable inspectors, aided by Mr. J. H. Buck, the Manager 
of the Company, and others, organized a public school section there. We then held a 
very pleasant conference with the principal residents. 

Next morning we started for Henby Inlet, near French River, but as the captain of 
our steamer was not familiar with the navigation of the place, we had reluctantly to 
turn back and proceed to Parry Sound. I arranged, however, that Mr. Elias should 
take an Indian teacher with him and open the school there this month. When this is 
done the whole of the children of the various Indian bands in the reserves along the 
eastern coast of the Georgian Bay will be placed under instruction. This is certainly 
a matter for sincere congratulation. 

As to the result of the experiment, I have now no fears. I confess that last year, 
when the Parry Sound school was established, I had both doubts and fears as to the 
success of the scheme. With a view, however, to satisfy myself on the subject, ar- 
rangements were made that the pupils in the school on the Island should be submitted 
to a thorough and satisfactory test. This was done by Mr. Inspector Miller, in pres- 
ence of Captain Skene, Professor Croft, of Toronto University, Inspector Switzer, and 
some of the local clergy. The classes were examined in natural history, object les- 
sons,i arithmetic, grammar, spelling and writing. Making due allowance for the 
novelty to them of the occasion and the natural timidity of the Indian boys and girls, 
it was surprising to see how well the pupils acquitted themselves. Although slow 
and cautious in expressing their thoughts, the answers of the children were in almost 
every instance correct in substance or in fact. At the close of a prolonged examina- 
tion by Mr. Miller and Mr. Elias, I subjected each member of one of the largest classes 
to an examination in writing on the black-board. They all acquitted themselves to 
ray entire satisfaction. At the close, the examiners, Captain Skene, Mr. Miller, the 
clergy, and others, addressed the school and the Indians present. Replies were given 
by some of the leading Indians, including the old and young chiefs. The result of the 
experiment will, I trust, induce the Dominion Government to place the whole of the 
schools for the Indians of this Province under the supervision of the Education De- 
partment. 

There was a fact and an incident connected with the exercises which were very 
gratifying. Among the pupils enrolled, was the newly elected chief of the baud, who 

'It was both amusing and interesting to watch the countenances of the Indian boys and girls as Mr. 
Miller held up for them to name the pictures of animals, birds and reptiles familiar to them. The bear, 
wolf and fox were recognized as old friends; and many a friendly "ugh" greeted the appearance of a 
snalio, a frog and lizard, as well as the pigeon, hawk and crow. The beaver, muskrat, and otter re- 
ceivort instant recognition ; and the answers of the children as to tho names were greeted ^ith pleased 
laughter by the parents, who entered quite into the spirit of the exciting and interesting examination 
in natural history which was held by Mr. Miller. 

583 



346 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

acquitted himself so well as to be quite noticeable. In this he showed an admirable 
example to all the young men of the tribe, and by his voluntary enrollment in the 
school he showed the high estimate which he himself placed upon education, as a 
means of elevating and civilizing his people. Chief James, too, in an address to 
Shawanaga, gave utterance to very enlightened views on the same subject. The pleas- 
ing incident to which I have referred was the modest manliness, and yet the dignity, 
with which the young Indian Chief delivered his maiden speech of thanks and welcome 
to his visitors. In this he was with much kindness prompted and encouraged by his 
rival, the unsuccessful competitor for the chieftainship of the band. 

There was one feature of the gathering which quite interested us, and that was the 
general attendance from all parts of the reservation of the Indian men and women — 
the latter dressed in their best — and all evincing by their appearance the happiness 
and prosperity in which they live on their reserve.' Even the Indian girls in their 
classes had a ribbon or some little bit of finery on their hats or dresses, designed, no 
doubt, to do honor to the occasion which was to them so interesting and important, 
as a new departure in their hitherto unintellectual life. 

At the suggestion of Chief James, with the concurrence of Captain Skene, we named 
the Indian school at Parry Island ' ' Ry erson School, No. 1 ; " that at Shawanaga ' ' Hodg- 
ius School, No. 2;" and that at Henby Inlet /' Miller School, No. 3." 

Since my return and during this month Mr. Elias, the Indian teacher at Parry Isl- 
and, and Mr. Switzer, have reported the completion of the organization of these schools. 
Mr. Elias says, under date of the 23d ultimo: — ''I have organized the school up at 
Henby Inlet on the 16th instant, and set the teacher to his work, and have enrolled 
twenty-eight children. They all seem to be very mnch interested with the school. 
The teacher, Enoch Monague, is showing his determination to be useful in his labors. 

" I saw the Chief Isaac, of Henby Inlet. He said he knew why we did not get there. 
He only was sorry that he did not stop till we started for Henby Inlet, in order to pilot 
us. He knew that ' captain could not find the way to go in.' He said, it was all right — 
he knew we could not help it." 

Mr. Switzer, under date of the 3d instant, farther reports : — 

"I am able to report our safe return, after a stormy time, from insijecting Miller 
School, No. :'), at Henby Inlet. We took with us a package of books, etc., for the 
school, and on our arrival inspected the school through Mr. Elias, and found the pupils 
able to read small words, although the teacher had reached there only the week befoi^e. 
I held a consultation with the chief, trustees, and as many of the Indians as could be 
brought together, and among other things, I mentioned your regret at not being able 
to visit fhem in August, and explained the reason of the failure. The chief, in reply, 
stated that he would do all in his power to advance the interests of education among 
his boys and girls. On our way home we visited Byng Inlet, and found the interest 
in school matters quite as great as when you were there in August. The supply of 
books, etc., from the Department, is quite an acquisition to the school. 

" I am now quite sanguine of getting matters in connection with Hodgins School, 
No. 2, and Ryerson School, No. 1, arranged to suit you. Captain Skene has tacitly 
consented to leave the matter in my hands, but there were so many persons to consult 
that at first I was doubtful of success. However, all is arranged now, awaiting the 
consent of two of the trustees who are absent, to transfer Miss Tobias to Shawanaga, 
and have Mr. Elias again take charge of Parry Sound School. 

"After a narrow escape from being upset a few miles from Byng Inlet, we reached 
home (Parry Sound) on Thursday, October 30th, thankful to a kind Providence for 
His protecting care. 

'' During my recent visit to Ottawa, I personally explained to the Superintendent- 
General of Indian Affairs a number of matters connected with the working of the 
schools, and made a few practical suggestions in regard to the school-houses and the 
employment of suitable teachers." 

I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, 

J. GEORGE HODGINS, 

Dep. Min. of Ed. 

Hon. Adam Crooks, LL. D., 

Minister of Education, Toronto. 

584 



SECTION E.— ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE OF 
BUILDINGS FOR INSTRUCTION, LIBRARIES, AND 

MUSEUMS. 



Honorary Chairman. 

EDWAED A. BOND, Esq., Gliief Librarian British Museum^ London. 

Honorary Secretary. 

AIE^SWOETH E. SPOFFOED, Esq., Librarian of Congress, Washing- 
ton, D. G. 

Chairman. 

J. S. BILLI]^GS, LL. D., M. D., Surgeon U. 8. Army, Washington, B. G. 

Vice-Chairman. 

JOHjST H. EAUCH, M. D., Secretary Illinois Board of Health, Ghicago. 

Secretary. 

Dr. lewis H. STEIl^EE, JEJnoeh Pratt Library, Baltimore. 

Assistant Secretary. 

T. M. CLAEK, Esq., of the '■''American Architect,^'' Boston. 

585 



SCHOOL-ROOM AIE: WITH DIRECTIOI^S FOE EXAMINING 
IT, TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE OV ITS VITIATION AND 
THE AMOUNT OF VENTILATION REQUIRED. 

By R. L. Packard.^ 



The idea of iiiaking- a cbemical examination of the air of an inhabited 
room in order to discover the degree of its vitiation by the persons in 
the room, is said to have been first put in practice by Lavoisier, who 
determined the constituents of the air, viz, its oxygen, nitrogen, and 
carbonic acid, in the theaters and hospitals of Paris in 1785. Long 
after his time the significance of carbonic acid as a measure of the de- 
gree of vitiation of room air by the inmates of the room, and, therefore, 
as an index of ventilation, was established; and Professor von Petten- 
kofer elaborated a simple and accurate method of estimating that 
constituent of the air, which brought its determination within the 
reach of persons at all skilled in making chemical analyses. 

As the ventilation of school-rooms has always been notoriously bad, 
it was not long after Pettenkofer's method of estimating the impurity 
of air became known before it was employed in examining the ventila- 
tion of many German schools. The complaints of the bad effects of 
school life on children, and of certain physical defects among adults 
referable to the same cause, led to a sanitary examination of the sur- 
roundings of the school population in the schools. In a military coun- 
try like Germany, where all able-bodied men have to bear arms or do 
some form of military service, anything which detracts from the 
capacity for such service becomes of serious interest to the Government. 
The investigations of medical men, like those of Oohn on the near- 
sightedness of school children and its relation to the conditions of 
school life, drew the attention of the authorities to some of the causes 
which had. been shown to operate unfavorably on the health of the 
school population, and through that on the general health of the com- 
munity. The result has been that the Governments of the different 
German states have modified the school laws from time to time in recent 
years in accordance with the recommendations of their medical advisers, 
and regulations have been issued which give directions affecting the 
construction, location, arrangement, and management of school build- 
ings in compliance with hygienic requirements. These regulations ex- 
tend to architectural details, such as building materials, the size of 
rooms, their lighting, heating, and ventilation, the amount of floor and 
cubic space for each scholar, and the localities and sites of the buildings. 
Conformity to the requirements of law is now looked after by medical 
inspection, in addition to the regular supervision, and the general sub- 

iTlie following compilation was prepared, by direction of Gen. John Eaton, U. S. 
Commissioner of Education, by way of answer to inquiries received at the Bureau of 
Education at Washington. The subject has therefore been treated somesvhat in de- 
tail, and the technical part has been written out with sufiScient fullness, it is be- 
lieved, to enable those interested in the matter — superintendents and health authori- 
ties — to make a practical use of the directiops it conti^ins. — E. L. P. 

587 



350 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

ject of scbool b^'giene has come to occupy a recoguized place ih medical 
literature. The German states are mentioned for the sake of illustra- 
tion, but what is true of them in this connection may also be said of 
other countries of Europe. 

In this country there is not, of course, any systematic control or su- 
pervision of schools with which the general Government can have any- 
thing to do ; but individuals and the boards of health of several- States 
and cities have, from time to time, shown the bad hygienic condition 
of schools in different parts of the country, and have called the atten- 
tion of the authorities to the more pressing reforms which were thus 
shown to be necessary. As early as 1838, or twenty years before Pet 
tenkofer pointed out his convenient and accurate way to examine ven- 
tilation, Horace Mann, while Secretary of the Board of Education of 
Massachusetts, made a report^ on the condition of the school-houses of 
the State, in which he pointed out the evil effects of the vitiated air of 
badly ventilated rooms on health, and suggested means of ventilation. 
His report contains opinions from Dr. S. B. Woodward of Worcester, 
Mass., and from Professor Silliman of Yale College, on ventilation, the 
bad effects of rebreathed air on the human system, and the amount of 
contamination of room air due to respiration. Nine years later a spe- 
cial committee was appointed to report on the ventilation of the schools 
of Boston.^ The excellent report of this committee shows that the 
rooms were in a " lamentable condition in regar^l to ventilation," and 
the committee took occasion to say : 

Children confined in the atmosphere of these schools soon lose the ruddy and cheer- 
ful conxplexiou of perfect health which belongs to youth, and acquu-e the sallow and 
depressed countenances which might reasonaljly be expected in over-worked factory 
operatives, or the tenants of apartments nnvisited by the sun or air. We noticed in 
many faces, also, i^articularly toward the close of a school session, a feverish flush, 
so bright fchat it might easily deceive an inexperienced eye and be mistaken for a 
healthy bloom. * * * The condition of the pupils, depressed as they are by theise 
influences, is constantly demanding increased exertions from their instructors, while 
the requirements of the age place the standard of education at an elevation snffi 
cieutly difficult of access under the most favorable circumstances. Your committee 
are satisfied, therefore, that the present state of the school-houses daily impairs the 
health of the pupils and instructors. That its continuance will produce not only im- 
mediate discomfort and disease, but, by its effect on the constitutions of the children 
who must pass in them [the school-houses] a large portion of those years most sus- 
ceptible to physical injury, will directly and certainly reduce the amount of consti- 
tntional vigor hereafter to be possessed by that large mass of our population which 
now aud hereafter is to receive its education in these schools. 

In the course of their remarks on the vitiated air of the rooms, the 
committee also showed from the experiments of Lassaigne and others 
quoted in a paper by Dr. Wyman, that the carbonic acid of room air is 
equally diffused all through the room, contrary to the popular l»)elief 
which is not yet dead, that because ttiat gas is heavy it must sink to 
the floor of a room and stay there. This committee made some practi- 
cal suggestions in ventilation which were promptly adopted by the 
cofiimon council of the city for some of the schools. A summary oi the 
later reports on the subject by the boards of health in different parts of 
the country is given in the Keport of the Commissioner of Education 
for 1877. Those reports, and others published since, show that the con- 
dition of school buildings, both in the cities and in the country districts 
in many parts of the country, is still, as the Massachusetts committee 
described it thirty-six years ago, " lamentable," Ventilation is gener- 

' Report of the Secretary of the Board of Education on the subject of school- 
houses. Pamph. Boston, 1838. 

' City Document No. 7. Report presented to the primary school committee on the 
ventilation of the school-house^ of the Citj.' of Boston. Pamph. Boston, 1847. 

. 586 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 351 

ally deficient and the rooms are overcrowded in many cases. The med- 
ical men speak decidedly of the evil effects of badly ventilated, heated, 
and lighted rooms on the health of the school population, of the insuffi- 
cient space allowed for each scholar (which is only another way of de- 
scribing overcrowding, which again means bad ventilation), of bad sew- 
erage, and of damp sites for school-houses. These unhealthy conditions 
were found in many parts of the country, in Massachusetts, Wisconsin, 
Louisiana, ludiana, New York, Ohio, and Maryland — in fact, wherever 
sauitary examinations were made. The medical examiners found that 
"catarrh, dyspepsia, dysentery, and zymotic diseases" resulted from the 
foul air of the ill-ventilated rooms, and chemical examinations of the 
school air were made in several cities. The determination of the amount 
of vitiation of room air and the relation of vitiated air to health, pre- 
sent tangible subjects of investigation, and the following is an exposi- 
tion of the principles on which the examination of room air is based, and 
of the method of conducting the examination. ' The relation of air of 
ascertained degrees of vitiation to disease is a subject for medical inves- 
tigation. 

There are, generally speaking, three things which have to be con- 
sidered in making an estimate of the healthy or unhealthy condition of a 
room, viz, the temperature, humidity, and purity of its air, which taken 
together may be called its climate, the question of sunlight being aside 
from the present subject. But this full idea, which should be kept in 
mind in discussing the ventilation of a room, is often lost sight of in 
practice, many persons thinking, for example, that ventilation has been 
suflicieutly attended to when a room is kept up to a certain temperature 
in cold weather. Nor is what constitutes "bad" air popularly under- 
stood, and the idea of estimating the degree of deterioration of room 
air aw ancillary to ventilation is not yet a familiar one ; and yet a most 
important preliminary to introducing any change in the ventilation of a 
room would seem to be a knowledge of the usual condition of its air as 
to temperature, humidity, and purity. The determination of this con- 
dition would indicate what changes ought to be made in the ventilating 
system to bring the room air to a desired standard. 

The air of an inhabited room differs in composition from the external 
air by containing the matter contributed to the latter by the inmates 
of the room, and occasionally by certain other agencies, such as gas 
fixtures, the heating arrangements, etc. To gain a clear idea of the 
invisible contents of a room full of people, it will therefore be necessary 
to recite briefly the comj)osition of the external air, and show what 
changes it undergoes in inhabited rooms. 

The atmospheric air, then, which surrounds and fills our buildings; 
which gives us the breath of life ; which, because it is a fluid and has 
great pressure at the surface of the earth, penetrates everywhere, not 
only entering rooms in large volumes when we admit it by opening 
doors and windows, but forcing its way through the pores of brick work 
and other masonry ; which presses upon and saturates the soil and the 
waters of the earth — is a perfect mixture of the gases nitrogen and oxy 
gen, together with a small quantity of carbonic acid gas. This mixture 
contains a variable amount of watery vapor, and traces of ammonia 
and often other chemical compounds. Specimens of air have been 
collected in all parts of the world, and at various heights up to 18,000 
feet, and have shown small differences in composition upon being ana- 
lyzed. The mixture in the dry state contains on the average 20.96 parts 
of oxygen, 79.01 of nitrogen, and about 0.03 of carbonic acid gas in 100 
parts by volume. These proportions are averages of a great number of 

589 



352 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

analyses and vary within small limits in different localities, the amount 
of carbonic acid gas, for instance, which is about 0.03 per cent, (by vol- 
ume) in air remote from populous places, increasing to 0.04 and 0.05 per 
cent, in the ordinary outside air of cities, and to 0.07 per cent, and more 
in bad localities (near "middens" for example), while the proportion of 
oxygen decreases from the average to 20.80 per cent, and even less in 
bad localities.^ But greater variations than these have been Ibund 
where such conditions did not exist, where the air would be called purt. 
Thus Jolly^ found the percentage of country air to vary from 20.96 ami 
21.01 per cent, to 20,48 and 20.53 per cent., according to the wind. 

Since the statement that the air of a locality contains a given per cent, 
of oxygen conveys little meaning without some explanation of how the 
fact is known, the following outline of a method of analysis is given. 
Theair of a place is drawn through glass tubes with drawn-out ends, hold- 
ing a tew cubic inches each, and after the tubes are filled their ends are 
closed air tight. The specimens of air collected in this way are taken 
to the laboratory, transferred to a graduated glass tube, and carefully 
measured over mercury. Hydrogen gas, in excess of the amount nt^eded 
to unite with the oxygen of the air, is then introduced into the tube, 
the new volume carefully read, and the mixture exploded. The volume 
after explosion is read, and one-third of the contraction represents the 
oxygen. Many precautions in manipulation have to be observed, but 
the foregoing is enough to give a tangible idea of how the percentage 
of oxygen in the air of a place may be determined. 

The properties of the gases which, when mixed in the above jirp- 
])ortions, constitute atmospheric air, are now almost popularly known. 
Oxygen is the active agent in the air which supports combustion, hastens 
the corrosion of metals, and converts deleterious decaying matters into 
innocuous gases. It is indispensable to animal life and in the higher 
iiuimals it enters the blood through the lungs, which in return for the 
oxygen they have taken from the air return to the latter carbonic acid gas, 
which is the ultimate result of the action of oxyaen on the tissues. This 
gas, which is thus a waste product of the life processes of the higher ani- 
mals, is also the result of the combustion of carbon by the oxygen of the 
air, and therefore increases in amount in thickly populated places. It is 
also given out during the i)rocesses of decay and fermentation, and its 
presence in excessive amount may therefore be sometimes useful as an 
index of unsanitary surroundings. The nitrogen of the air serves to 
keep the oxygen diluted to the proportion in which, within small 
limits of variation, it has been universally found. If the quantity of 
oxygen is sensibly diminished, its dilution becomes so great that it can- 
not perform its functions. Thus Angus Smith found that candles would 
not burn in air where the oxygen was reduced to 18 per cent., there being 
3 per cent, of carbonic acid present at the same time, l^either nitrogen 
nor carbonic acid gas are respirable; either, if breathed alone, would 
produce death, and the latter gas is said to produce fatal results when 
forming as low as 10 per cent, of the inhaled air. (Parkes.) 

Besides the gases of which the air is composed, a quantity of .solid 
particles is suspended in it, the coarser kinds of which we know under 
the name of dust, which becomes noticeable when it has been allowed 
to settle in quiet places. The finer microscopical atmospheric dust has 
been collected on sea and land in all parts of the world, and has been 

' See tables of the proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid, from a large number of 
analyses of the air of town and couutry, in Angus Smith's Air q,nd JSfiiri, j)p. 24 a,n<\ 
52, and elsewhere. 

^ Jolly: Annalen ct,er Physik u. Chem., N. F. 6, 520, 

m 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPEES. 353 

frequently examined. In the neighborhood of inhabited places, which 
is all that concerns the present purpose, it is found to consist of both 
inorganic and organic matter, that is to say, of matter mineral or earthy 
in its origin, of the detritus of animals and plants, and of microscopic ani- 
mal and vegetable organisms. The inorganic matter consists partly of 
substances insoluble in water (silicates, particles of iron, etc.) and partly 
of soluble compounds (certain sulphates, nitrates, and chlorides, and 
occasionally free acids). In large towns and in the vicinity of works of 
various kinds, the air becomes decidedly contaminated with these sub- 
stances; the soluble salts (and acids) are brought down by the rain, and 
corrode metal- work and even brick-work (by attacking the mortar), and 
the neighboring vegetation is often killed by fumes from smelting 
works.^ 

The organic matter, which also increases to a considerable extent with 
the density of population, consists of the detritus of animal and vege- 
table tissue, and of organized bodies, such as the pollen of plants, spores 
of fungi, and living microscopic animal and vegetable organisms. The 
parts played by these different microscopical particles are various. In 
places where persons suffer from hay fever a large quantity of the pol- 
len of certain plants has been found in the material collected from the 
air, and the prevalence of that complaint has been accounted for by sup- 
posing that the pollen is drawn in with the breath, and becoming fixed 
in the mucous membranes of the air passages sets up an irritation there. 
The minute particles of organic matter thrown off from human beings 
are looked upon as being otten the source of disease. The living micro- 
organisms take an active part in inaugurating many pathological and 
chemical processes, such as certain diseases in animals, putrefaction, 
and fermentation. They swarm everywhere, and as soon as the death 
of an animal or plant occurs they fix themselves in the dead organic 
matter and grow there. Their growth gives rise to the chemical changes 
which finally cause such matter to disappear. That the irritation of 
fermentative changes is due to invisible organisms has been shown by 
exposing a liquid containing fermentable matter to the open air after 
boiling, and to air which had no access to it except through a filter of 
cotton wool, through a red hot tube, or through tubes bent in the form of 
the letter U. In the former case fermentation proceeded as usual, while 
in the latter the micro-organisms were retained by the wool, were burnt, 
or lodged in the U tubes, and there was no fermentation. The experi- 
ment has been varied in many ways but the results have been confirmed.^ 

M. Miquel, who made a study of the organisms of the air of Paris at 
all seasons of the year, found that the atmosphere is always charged 
with a considerable but very variable number of " microbes", that there 
are more in summer than in winter, and in wet weather than in dry.^ 

1 Tissandier : Les Poussibres deVAir. Paris, 1877, E. Angug Smith: Air and Bain. 
London, 1872. 

2 See Tjrndall: Floating Matter of the Air. New York, 1882; andM. Pasteur: His- 
toire d'un Savant par un Ignorant. Paris, 1883. 

*Miqu(3l : Sur les Poussidres OrganisSes de V Atmosphhre ; in Annates dl Hygiene Publique, 
1879, 2. Since this publication the relation of some of these minute organisms 
(bacilli) to disease has been widely discussed. The method adopted by Miquel for 
estimating the number of microbes in a cubic meter was to pass a large volume of 
air, measured by an accurate meter of peculiar construction, through an iron tube 
into which were fitted a cone, having a minute hole at its apex, and a small plate 
coated with glycerine placed adjustably over the cone. When the meter pump 
worked, the entire body of air was made to pass through the hole in the apex of the 
cone against the glycerine-covered surface of the small plate immediately above it. 
The glycerine (or glycerine and glucose) retained the microbes, and their number in 
a fraction of the plate's surface was ascertained by counting under the microscope 

591 



354 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

He made an estimate of the number suspended in the open air, and 
found it to vary from about 11,000 to 42,000 in a cubic meter (or 11 to 
42 per liter), besides the minute bacteria, etc., which his apparatus 
failed to arrest. A table which he prepared gives the number of 
" microbes" per cubic meter as 11,300 on the average in the autumn^ 
5,500 in winter, 15,700 in spring, and 28,900 in summer. An enuniera- 
tion of living organisms belonging to the world of bacteria which M. 
Miquel collected by the use of appropriate liquids, gave the following 
mean results per cubic meter : 



Month. 



October... 
November 
December. 
January . . 
February . 
March 



K"umber. 



197 
158 
49 
41 
23 
83 



Month. 



April 

May 

June 

July 

August — 
September 



Uumber. 



52 
137 

65 
122 

79 
117 



These organisms were ten times as numerous in the center of Paris 
as in the park of Montsouris. 

Thus the external air consists essentially of a mixture of oxygen and 
nitrogen and a little carbonic acid gas, together with a varying amount 
of watery vapor, the mixture holding in suspension and carrying about 
a minute quantity of invisible solid particles of very different natures. 
When this mixture of gases is confined in a place where people are as- 
sembled, it becomes changed by the action of their lungs and skin upon 
it, which deprive it of part of its oxygen and give it carbonic acid gas 
instead, together with watery vapor and organic matter, so that the 
original proportions of the atmospheric gases are sensibly altered, and 
the composition of the air may become in this way so different from 
pure air as to render it unfit for further breathing. 

The air of confined spaces containing a number of people has been 
analyzed and found to contain proportions of oxygen varying with the 
degree of vitiation. Thus the oxygen of the air of bad localities in some 
German mines was found to range as low as 1.9 per cent, and 2.29 per 
cent, less than in normal air, while the carbonic acid increased from 
1.8 per cent, to 2.38 per cent., which would make the composition of the 
air 19.06 per cent, and 18.67 per cent, oxygen, and 1.83 per cent, and 2.41 
per cent, carbonic acid by volume, the nitrogen remaining unchanged. 
This was very bad air and found in exceptionally bad places, like those 
in which Cornish miners informed Angus Smith they had worked when 
it was impossible to remain above ten minutes at a time, and when nearly 
every man on his turn fell down , and the caudles went out. The average 
of 339 analyses of the air of mines gave Angus Smith 20.26 per cent, 
oxygen and 0.785 per cent, carbonic acid. The average of the " ends " 
where men were working was 20.18 per cent, oxygen, with an extreme 
of 18.3 per cent. 

Passing to other places where the air was recognized as bad, the 
oxygen was found to be 20.84 per cent, and 20.83 per cent, in a dwell- 
ing room, 20.74 per cent, in the "pit" of a theater and 20.63 per cent. 

after an equal distribution had been made by stirring tbe glycerine on the plate with 
a heated needle dipped in pure glycerine. From the number in this fraction tbe 
whole number on the plate was known, and consequently the amount in any given 
volume of air. 

See also a report on the external air of Washington, by Dr. J. H. Kidder, Surgeon 
U. S. Navy. Report of the Surgeon-General of the Navy. 1880. 
592 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



355 



in the gallery, 20.87 per cent, oxygen and 0.08 per cent, carbonic acid 
in hospitals, and in a very badly ventilated law court 20.49 per cent, 
oxygen. In this case the air was almost intolerable to a person coming 
from the outer air. If we arrange the analyses of the air of confined 
spaces where people are breathing and which is noticeably bad we have, 
replacing the deficient oxygen by carbonic acid (supposing a standard 
of 20.96 per cent, oxygen and 0.03 per cent, carbonic acid) : 





"Normal" air. 


Eoom air. 


Mine air. 




20.96 

.03 

79.01 


20.83 

.16 

79.01 

100. 00 


20. 74 20. 63 

.25 .36 

79. 01 79. 01 


20.49 

.50 

79.01 


20. 26 18. 67 




. 78 2. 38 




78. 96 78. 95 








100. 00 


100.00 100.00 


100. 00 


100.00 100.00 



These figures show that there is no uniformity in the gaseous compo- 
sition of sensibly " bad" air which would enable us to give its average 
composition, nor is there any absolute line of division between good and 
bad air; but there are all gradations from tolerably bad to the last 
specimen, which would be intolerable for any length of time. Appar- 
ently small differences in the percentage of oxygen indicate serious de- 
terioration of air when the deterioration is due to respiration. 

The air of rooms comes almost entirely from the air which surrounds 
the buildings. If that is pure the room air will be contaminated only 
by what is added to it by the occupants of the room. But if the outer 
air is rendered impure by admixture with other gases, for example, than 
those which form its normal composition, the room air will contain this 
impurity in addition to the exhalations from the persons in the room. 
' But it should not be forgotten that there is another, and sometimes a 
dangerous, source from which air finds its way into rooms, and that is 
the soil on which the building is placed. The interstices of the soil are 
filled with the gases of the air and sometimes other gases, and the pro- 
portion of the atmospheric gases is often different in the soil from thq,t 
of the free air owing to the presence of decomposing matter in the soil. 
When houses have cellars or basements the air and other gases of the 
soil pass through the cellar walls into the basement, and so into the 
rooms. In winter, when the buildings are much warmer than the sur- 
rounding soil, this passage of gases through the walls is greater than 
in summer, because the warmed building acts like a chimney and sucks 
the air and gases from a considerable distance into its basement and 
thence into its rooms. Pettenkofer mentions cases where gas from mains 
traveled a distance of twenty feet through the ground and the founda- 
tions and into the warmest rooms of a house, causing sickness and death. 
As the gases of the soil have been found to carry the minute organisms 
spoken of above into the basements of buildings, they may be supposed 
to have introduced disease in this way from the soil or the sewers, cess- 
pools, etc, near the buildings.^ Aside from these possible sources of 
contamination, school air contains only what has been contributed to it 
by the inmates of the room. Generally speaking, this consists of the 
matter given off in the breath and the perspiration. The former gives 
out carbonic acid in large quantity, watery vapor, and a peculiar organic 
matter the precise nature of which is not yet perfectly known ; the latter 
consists largely of watery vapor, which carries with it different salts and 

1 Translations of Pettenkofer's popular lectures on the relation of the soil to dwell- 
ings are reprinted in Vols. XI and XX of the Fojpular Science Monthly. 

593 



356 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

volatile odorous organic substances, such as certain organic acids. The 
chem.istry of respiration was carefully worked out for smaller animals 
by Eegnault and Reiset, and for men by Pettenkofer in the large compli- 
cated apparatus at Munich. The mean composition of the breath when 
freed from watery vapor may be given as follows: Nitrogen, 80.3; oxy- 
gen, 15.4; and carbonic acid, 4.3 parts by volume. The proportion of 
the gases varies under different circumstances, depending on the amount 
of exertion, the condition of digestion, the temperature of the air, etc., 
but the above may be considered as representing the mean gaseous 
composition of expired air after drying. Compared with normal air we 
have, giving the percentage composition, by volume, 

"Normal" air (dry). Expired air (dry). 

Oxygen • 20.96 15.56 

Carbonic acid 03 4.34 

Mtrogen .79.01 80.10 

The expired air therefore has over a hundred times as much carbonic 
acid as "normal" air, and less than four-fifths the " normal" amount of 
oxygen, much less also than was found in the worst air of mines. It is 
probable, therefore, that if a person were to breathe a mixture of gases 
having the composition of expired air he could only endure the experi- 
ment a short time. Still Eegnault and Reiset found that the percent- 
age of oxygen could be reduced far below that of the breath without 
causing death or insensibility in small animals, and Pettenkofer says 
that he was able to stay a long time in a room containing 1 per cent, of 
carbonic acid without inconvenience, while another observer, Forster, 
staid for ten minutes in a place with 4 per cent, of that gas without any 
uncomfortable feeling.^ 

There is some uncertainty as to the limit of endurance of large quan- 
tities of carbonic acid, but in any case the power of enduring an atmos- * 
phere of abnormal composition for a short time has little to do with the 
effect on health of a cbntinued exposure to air whose gaseous composi- 
tion varies only by a few tenths of one per cent, from the normal, and 
which, as shown by the analyses of room air above, is all that people 
are called upon to breathe under any ordinary circumstances. Besides, 
the mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid gases is not all that 
should be taken into account in estimating the effect of rebreathed air. 
In Pettenkofer's experiment the carbonic acid was liberated in the room 
from bicarbonate of soda by sulphuric acid ; in Forster's case the gas 
was that of fermentation in a wine cellar; and Pettenkofer makes a 
distinction when he says that the air of a room containing 1 per cent, 
of carbonic acid gas due to the respiration of persons in it would be al- 
most intolerable. It is therefore not the lessened amount of oxygen 
and increased carbonic acid alone which cause the unpleasant sensa- 
tions and serious results due to bad air, so that it must be the other 
things given out into the atmosphere of a room by the breath (and per- 
spiration), together with the comparatively slight alteration in the 
proportion of the gases in room air, which produce those effects. The 
other things are, as has been said, watery vapor and organic matter. 
The quantity of the former varies considerably with the temperature and 
humidity of the air. Its importance in the present instance is in the 
effect it has of increasing the humidity of the air of a room, and in its 
power of aiding in the decomposition of the organic matter which it 

1 Eegnault and Eeieet: Untersuchungen iiber Bespiration ; in Annalen der Cliemie und 
Pkarmacie. Bd. LXXIII. Pettenkofer: Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. SuppL Bd. II. 
Forster : Zeitachrift filr Biologie. Bd. XI. 

594 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 557 

helps to convey from the Inngs and skin. This "organic matter" is 
probably the most important ingredient of the exhalations, as far as 
unheal thful effects are concerned. The term is conveniently vague, 
but is as definite as the present state of knowledge will allow, since 
the actual composition of t\\e organic matter is unknown. It has been 
collected and examined in various ways. It has a fetid odor, and is 
soon recognized by the sense of smell when many persons (or, indeed, 
one individual) have been long in a confined space. Its amount in ex- 
posed air has never been precisely determined, nor is it possible at 
present to estimate it correctly. 

It must be partly suspended, and is made up of small particles of epithelium and 
fatty matters detached from the skin and mouth, and partly of an organic vapor given 
off from the lungs and mouth. The organic matter from the lungs, when drawn 
through sulphuric acid, darkens it ; through permanganate of potash, decolorizes it ; 
and through pure water, renders it offensive. Collected from the air hy condens- 
ing the watery vapor on the sides of a globe containing ice (as by Taddei, in the wards 
of the Santa Maria Novella), it i^ found to decolorize permanganate of potash, and 
to yield ammonia. It is therefore nitrogenous and oxidizable. It has a very fetid 
smell, and this is retained in a room for so long a time, sometimes for four hours, even 
■when there is free ventilation, as to show that it is oxidized slowly. It is probably in 
combination with water, for the most hygroscopic substances absorb most of it. It is 
absorbed most by wool, feathers, damp walls, and moist paper, and least by straw and 
horse hair. The color of the substance influences its absorption in the following 
order: black most, then blue, yellow, and white. It is probably not a gas, but is 
molecular and floats in clouds through the air, as the odor is evidently not always 
equally diffused through a room.i 

jr « « « « « * 

The effect of the fetid air containing organic matter, excess of water, and carbonic 
acid produced by respiration, is very marked upon many people; heaviness, head- 
ache, inertness, and in some cases nausea, are produced. From experiments on an- 
imals in which the carbon dioxide and watery vapor were removed and organic matter 
alone left, Gavarret and Hammond have found that the organic matter is highly 
poisonous. * * * Cases have been known in which the inhalation of such an 
atmosphere produced in men deciiied febrile symptoms (increased temperature, quick- 
ened pulse, furred tongue, loss of appetite, and thirst) for even twenty-four or forty- 
eight hours subsequently. 

When the air is rendered still more impure it is rapidly fatal, as in the cases of the 
Black Hole of Calcutta, of the prison in which 300 Austrian prisoners were put after 
the battle of Austerlitz (when 260 died very rapidly), and of the steamer "London- 
derry." The poisonous agencies are probably the orgaruc matter and the deficient 
oxygen, as the symptoms are not those of pure asphyxia. If the persons survive, a 
febrile condition is left behind which lasts three or four days, or there are other 
evidences of defective nutrition. 

When air more moderately vitiated by respiration is breathed for a longer period 
and more continuously, its effects become complicated with those of other conditions. 
Usually a person wbo is compelled to breathe such an atmosphere is at the same time 
sedentary, and, perhaps, remains in a constrained position for several hours, or possi- 
bly is also underfed or intemperate. But allowing the fullest effect to all other agen- 
cies, there is no doubt that the breathing the vitiated atmosphere of respiration has 
a most injurious effect on the health. Persons soon become pale, and partially lose 
their appetite, and after a time decline in muscular health and spirits. » » » of 
special diseases it appears pretty clear that pulmonary affections are more common.* 

It is in this "organic matter" given off by human beings that the 
contagium of disease is to be found, currents of air being sometimes the 
vehicle to convey it from place to place and from one person to another.^ 

^Parkes' Practical Hygiene, p. 116. De Chaumont. Philadelphia, 1883. 

*Parkes, p. 133, who quotes numerous instances of phthisis among men and lower 
animals due to air vitiated by respiration. 

'^ To the non-medical mind there is something appalling in the stealthy, mysterious, 
deadly action of this subtle effluvium of humanity. It has produced pestilences of 
revolting kinds when human beings have been crowded too closely in unventilated 
spaces. Sometimes it has wreaked revenge in a vindictive way on those who have been 
instrumental in quickening it into activity, as when jail fevers have spread from the 
prisoners to the jailers, lawyers, and judges. The earliest mentioned instance of the 
kind in England was in 1414, when " the gaolers of Newgate and Ludgate died, and 

C95 



35S EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



With the organic matter iu room air must also be reckoned the 
"microbes" and bacteria which are found there as well as in the outer 
The following is a curious comparison between the number of liv- 



air. 



ing bacteria iter cubic meter found in the air of a hospital and in the 
outside air of Paris, by Miquel and Besangon. 



Hospital. 



Outside. 



March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August ... 
September 
October . . . 
November 



10, 700 


750 


10, 200 


970 


11,400 


1,000 


5,700 


1,540 


7,000 


1,400 


6,600 


960 


8,400 


990 


12, 700 


1,070 


15, 600 


810 



The figures are regarded as representing only a portion of the bacteria 
really present in the air. The number in the hospital is smaller in 
summer than in winter on account of the free ventilation through the 
open windows during the former season.^ 

The air of a room containing many persons is therefore different in 
composition from the outer air in the proportion of the gases which 
compose it, in having a different amount of watery vapor, and in con- 
taining a small quantity of organic matter which is injurious in itself 

prisoners in Newgate to the number of sixty -four." At the Cambridge assize in 1521, 
a contagious fever spread from the prisoners, which carried off "justices, gentle- 
men bailiffs, and others." After this there was the famous "black assize" at Oxford 
in 1577, when "spreading from the jail, there arose such a dampe that almost all were 
smouldered, very few escaping, the jurors presently dying, and shortly after Sir 
Eobert Bell, Lord Chief Baron. All died in forty hours, the Lord Chief Baron an^l. 
300 more." In the King's Bench prison in 1579 a hundred inmates died of *' the sick- 
ness of the house." In 1586 a " sudden and strange sickness," which had appeared 
among the prisoners in the jail, was dispersed at their trial through the audience in 
court, "whereof more died than escaped." Lord Bacon, writing on the subject, 
characterizes " the smell of the jail" as "the most pernicious infection next to the 
plag^ie. When prisoners have been long and close and nastily kept, whereof we have 
had in our time experience twice or thrice, both judges that sat upon the trial, and 
numbers of those that attended the business or were present, sickened upon it and 
died." In 1750, at the May sessions at the Old Bailey, the court was excessively 
crowded. "The prisoners awaiting trial numbered a hundred, and these were mostly 
lodged iu two rooms, 14 feet by 7 and only 7 feet in height ; but some, and no doubt 
all in turn, were put into the bail dock ; many had lain long confined in tire pestifer- 
ous wards of Newgate. The court itself was barely .30 feet square, and in direct com- 
munication with the bail dock and rooms beyond, whence an open window ' at the 
furthest end of the room' carried a draught poisoned with infection to the judges' 
bench. Of these four died," and forty other deaths soon followed. 

In consequence of this state of things a committee was appointed by the corpora- 
tion of London to provide pure air for Newgate. The committee erected a windmill 
on the prison, which pumped air from a shaft connected by pipes with the various 
wards. The workmen employed in fixing the tubes ran great risks, and in several cases 
were seized with the fever. " One man * * * had been employed in opening one 
of the tubes of the old ventilator which had stood for three or four years. Such an of- 
fensive smell had issued from the tube that he wa§ seized with sickness and nausea. 
He went home and that night fell ill with the fever." Others suffered the same fate. 
' ' One was a lad of fifteen who had been forced by his fellows to go down the great 
trunk of the ventilator in order to bring up a wig which some one had thrown into 
it. On coming up again he was immediately attacked by a violent headache, a great 
disorder in his stomach and nausea. * * * A peculiarity in his case was, that he 
had been twice let down into the ventilator when the machine on the leads had been 
standing still, and he had suffered no ill effects ; but the last time it was in motion, 
and the heavily laden up-draught had well nigh poisoned him and two others, who 
had dragged him out of the shaft." — Chronicles of Newgate, Vol. I. London, 1884. 

iFremy: Uncycloj>edie Chimique, Tome IK. Duclaux : Chimie Biologique, "p. 77. 
596 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPEES. 



359 



and may become dangerous as the means of spreading disease. If we 
add to this the temperature of the room air we have a clear idea of 
the usual climate of a room full of people. Occasional impurities in 
the air due to lighting and heating, and the possible occurrence of the 
poisonous gas carbonic oxide, may be disregarded. 

Persons from 12 to 16 years of age give out on the average 915 cubic 
inches of carbonic acid per hour, which, using the average composition 
of the breath above given as a basis of computation, would make 12.2 
cubic feet of breath per hour for each person. In a room containing 
50 persons of the ages specified, 610 cubic feet of expired air would be 
given out per hour, and in three hours (a school session) 1,830 cubic feet 
of such air, containing over 79 cubic feet of carbonic acid, would be 
breathed into the room, together with an undetermined quantity of 
watery vapor and organic matter. In a room of 10,000 cubic feet con- 
tents this would make 0.79 per cent., or, in round numbers, 0.8 per cent, 
of carbonic acid gas, or more than twenty five times as much as normal 
air contains, and the oxygen would be proportionately less, viz, 20.16 
per cent., or less than in the average bad air of coal mines. If the room 
were gas tight this alteration in the proportion of the gases composing 
its air would go on increasing as long as the breathing continued, the 
watery vapor would also keep on increasing until the air became satu- 
rated, and the organic matter would increase in quantity and offen- 
siveness. But there is no room where this condition exists. By virtue 
of what is called natural ventilation there is always some exchange of 
air between a room and the outside air. In Pettenkofer's experiment 
he stopped up carefully all cracks and fissures in the doors and windows 
of a room, and set free in it a quantity of carbonic acid from bicarbonate 
of soda and sulphuric acid. Successive determinations of the amount 
of gas in the air showed that its proportion steadily decreased, which, 
under the precautions taken, could only be due to an exchange between 
the outer and room air through the walls of the room ; and from the data 
obtained in this way a formula which gives the amount of natural ven- 
tilation was prepared by Professor Seidel from the varying proportions 
of carbonic acid in room air. Subsequent direct experiments have shown 
the permeability of the walls of buildings to air, as is illustrated in the 
following table from Lang's ^^ JSfaturliche Ventilation": 



Material of bnilding. 



Difference of 

temperature 

outside and 

inside. 



Cubic feet of 
air per hour 
through one 
square yard 
of wall. 



Sandstone , 

Quarried limestone . 
Brick 

Tufaceous limestone 
Air-dried brick 



Fahr 
34° 
18.5° 
35° 

27.5° 
22° 



59.6 
81.8 
99.8 

128 
180.7 



The amount varies with the thickness of the walls, their moisture and 
covering, and the difference of temperature. 

But notwithstanding the natural ventilation through walls and closed 
windows and doors, and even with special contrivances for artificial 
ventilation, the air of crowded rooms is usually very bad, and it becomes 
of importance to know how bad. In determining this question we have 
to consider three elements in the climate of a room, viz, the purity of 
the air compared with external air, its temperature, and its humidity. 

597 



360 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Taking these in order, we hav^e seen that the impurity, i. e., the foreign 
matter, directly contributed to room air is the organic matter given off 
from the lungs and skin of the inhabitants of the room, and that the 
carbonic acid and watery vapor from the same source alter the nor- 
mal composition of air, so that it may be regarded as deteriorated for 
breathing purposes. If we knew the proportion of organic matter in 
the exhalations, in the breath for example, and could determine its 
amount in the air of a room, we could measure in that way the degree 
of vitiation of the air by the persons in the room. But it is not known 
whether the organic matter of the breath has a constant definite pro- 
portion to the volume of air expired, and there is as yet no accepted 
and ready way of estimating the quantity of organic matter in the air 
of a place.i And there is a further difficulty, due to the imperfect dif- 
fusibility of the organic matter through the room air. 

The experiments of Pettenkofer, Roscoe, and others have shown that 
carbonic acid diffuses rapidly through the air of a room ; but, as shown 
in the summary in Parkes' Hygiene, the organic matter "floats in clouds 
through the air, as the odor is not always equally diffused through a 
room." Angus Smith ("Air and Eain," p. 180) says, " the carbonic acid 
increases constantly and regularly in a close place where men breathe. 
The organic matter does not do so; it deposits with moisture, it covers 
every surface, and we smell it when all the carbonic acid is washed out 
by fresh air. The air is not limited in its capacity of holding carbonic 
acid ; it seems to be so with regard to organic matter." It is therefore 
impracticable at present to use the organic matter as a measure of the 
vitiation of room air. But carbonic acid gas not only diffuses equally 
through the air of a room, but is present in the breath in a constant 
proportion, so that we can compute how much is given to a room by a 
given number of persons. If, therefore, carbonic acid is not admitted to 
a room from any other source than the respiration of the persons in 
it, we have a ready measure or index of the vitiation of the air from 
that source. From these considerations it was selected by Pettenkofer 
for that purpose, and he perfected a comparatively simple and easy 
method of determining it, which leaves nothing to be desired' in point 
of accuracy. 

The principles on which that method is based are as follows : Caustic 
lime or baryta dissolved in water takes carbonic acid from the air to 
form carbonate of lime or baryta, which separates from the water in 
the form of a white insoluble deposit of carbonate of iime or baryta. 
By the laws of chemical combination, bases and acids do not combine 
with each other hap-hazard, but in definite proportions by weight, so 
that in a given weight of carbonate of lime (for example) there is an 
invariable proportion of lime and of carbonic acid. If we measure ac- 
curately into a suitable glass vessel a small quantity of lime water, 
together with a few drops of a fluid which is of one color in an alka- 
line liquid like lime water, and of another when the fluid becomes acid,. 

^Tbe "organic matter" may be classified into two kinds, that containing nitrogen 
iuits composition and that which is not nitrogenous. It has been assumed that it is 
the nitrogenous organic matter which is the source of danger, and accordingly a 
method of estima^iing it has been invented. It consists in spraying or atomizing the 
air with pure distilled water in a suitable apparatus, so as to collect all the organic 
matter and hold it in the water. This is then boiled with permanganate of potassium 
and potash in a retort, so as to convert the nitrogenous matter into ammonia, which 
distills over and is measured by the Nessler test. The whole operation requires great 
care and many precautions, and there is a doubt about its accuracy and about the in- 
ferences which are drawn from the results. See Report on the Organic Matter in the Airy 
by Ira Remsen, National Board of Health Bulletin, Vol. II, No. 11, 1880. 
598 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 361 

and add to it carefully a quantity of very dilute acid of known strength 
until the color just changes, we know that the lime is neutralized by 
the acid, and by reading off the amount of acid used, in the burette 
containing it, we can calculate the amount of caustic lime in the lime 
water, or the strength of the latter. If a small measured quantity of 
lime water the strength of which has thus been ascertained, is put into 
a large measured jar and the jar stoppered, tbe lime water will take up 
carbonic acid from the air of the jar and form carbonate of lime with 
it. On taking out a measured portion of the lime water thus weakened, 
and treating it with tbe acid as above described, less acid will be required 
than with the fresh lime water, and the difference in the two strengths 
enables us to calculate the amount of carbonic acid which was taken 
up by the lime water, and from that, knowing the capacity of the jar, 
another calculation gives the proportion of carbonic acid in the air 
of the jar, or, which is the same thing, of the locality where the jar was 
filled with air. 

In a room containing a number of persons the proportion of carbonic 
acid is necessarily much greater than in the open air", and goes on in- 
creasing with the length of stay. A time soon comes when the air of 
the room becomes unsuited for rebreathing, although the inmates of the 
room may be unconscious of the fact. It becomes an object to establish 
some standard, or limit of impurity, measured by the proportion of car- 
bonic acid in the air, beyond which room air is undoubtedly objection- 
able. After fixing such a limit it would be easy to tell how vitiated the 
air of a room is by determining the amount of carbonic acid in it and 
comparing it with the standard. The excess of carbonic acid would 
indicate that too many persons were breathing in the room or, which is 
the same thing, that the ventilation was deficient. 

The standard or limit selected by Pettenkofer was the amount of car- 
bonic acid found in room air which was decidedly objectionable to the 
senses, and which had produced injurious effects on health. He inau- 
gurated a series of determinations of the carbonic acid of the air in dif- 
ferent dwelling rooms, in some of which the air was not perceptibly 
bad and the inmates had never felt any discomfort, and in others where 
the sensations, subjective impressions, and medical experience all 
showed something abnormal, and also in barracks, hospitals, and pris- 
ons, in Munich. In a dwelling house in the day time the carbonic acid 
gas averaged 6.8 parts in 10,000, beginning with 5.4 and increasing to 
8.7 parts after a few hours, while in a sleeping-room at night with the 
windows closed there were 23 parts in 10,000. The long list of experi- 
ments made by Pettenkofer and Oertel in prisons, hospitals etc., showed 
that the carbonic acid ranged from 13 to 56 parts in 10,000, and proved 
that 0.1 per cent., or 10 parts in 10,000, indicated the limit between bad 
and good room air. At 20 parts the air showed all the signs of great 
vitiation, that is, it was " close" and disagreeable. Pettenkofer took 
pains to point out that the increased amount of carbonic acid in room 
air is not itself the source of injury, so much as a convenient measure 
of vitiation ; and his rule is that whenever the air of a room contains 
over 10 parts in 10,000 of carbonic acid due to the respiration and per- 
spiration of the inhabitants of the room (there being no other source of 
that gas than the outer air with 3 to 4 parts of carbonic acid), such air 
is unsuitable for continued breathing. The sense of smell is indeed af- 
fected by the organic matter when a person from the outer air enters a 
room where the carbonic acid is 7 parts in 10,000, but 10 parts is allowed 
for rooms containing many persons. 

599 



362 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Numerous experiments by other observers have confirmed these re- 
sults, the most complete being those of Dr. De Chaumont, which were 
made with this point in view. He says : ^ 

It is generally admitted that it is organic matter, either suspended or in the form of 
vapor, that is the poison in air rendered impure hy the products of respiration. It is 
also admitted that it is the same substance that gives the disagreeable sensation 
described as " closeness " in an ill ventilated air space. * * * Unfortunately all 
the methods devised for the determination of organic matter in air are both difl&cnlt 
and unsatisfactory, so much so that they are almost practically impossible in an inquiry 
with regard to ventilation. Observations, however, as far as they have gone, seem to 
show that the amount of organic impurity bears a fairly regular proportion to the 
amount of carbonic acid evolved by the inhabitant in an air space ; and as the latter 
can be easily and certainly determined, we may take it as the measure of the condition 
of the air space. This being accepted, and general diffusion being admitted, we can 
•easily calculate the amount of fresh air required to bring down the carbonic acid to 
some fixed standard, adopting as a datum the ascertained average amount of carbonic 
acid evolved by an adult in a given time. If, now, we adopt as our standard the point 
at which there is no sensible difference between the air of an inhabited space and the 
external air, and agree that this shall be determined by the effects on the sense of 
smell, our next step is to ascertain from experiment what is the average amount of 
carbonic acid in such an air space, from which we can then calculate the amount of 
air required to keep it in that condition. The sense of smell is very quickly dulled, 
so that in order to keep it acute each air space to be examined ought to be entered 
•directly from the open air. For this reason I have not included in the present paper 
any of the observations made in prisons, as it is almost impossible from their con- 
struction to enter the cells directly from the open air. 

Accordingly, De Ghaumont confined his experiments to barracks and 
hospitals. 
The sensations recorded on entering a room were entered as : 

(1) " Fresh," " fair," " not close," " no unpleasant smell," etc., indica- 
ting no appreciably different sensation from the outer air. 

(2) " Rather close," " a little close," " not very foul," " a little smell," 
etc., indicating the point where organic matter begins to be perceptible. 

(3) " Close," where organic matter begins to be decidedly disagreeable. 

(4) "Very close," "bad," etc., indicating the point where organic mat- 
ter begins to be offensive and oppressive to the senses. 

(5) " Extremely close," " very bad," indicating the point at which the 
maximum point of differentiation by the senses is reached. The experi- 
ments were made in both winter and summer, and included 473 deter- 
minations of carbonic acid and 247 of temperature, watery vapor, and 
relative humidity. The results were, as follows : 

Ist. Air recorded as "fresh," etc. 

Mean temperature : 

Outside .57. 47° F. 

Inside 62. b5° F. 

Mean vapor: 

Outside grains per cubic foot- . 4.285 

Inside do 4. 629 

Relative humidity : 

Outside ...per cent.. 80 

Inside do 73 

Carbonic acid: 

Outside parts in 1000.. 0.4168 

Inside do 0.5998 

Excess inside do 0. 1830 

Therefore good ventilation requires a temperature of about 63° F., 
watery vapor not over 4.7 grains per cubic foot, and carbonic acid due 
to respiration not over 0.2 parts in 1000 (or 2 parts in 10,000). 

1 On the Theory of Ventilation; in Proc. Boy. Soc, 1875, p. 187. 
600 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 363 



2d. "Rather close," etc. (where organic matter becomes perceptible). 
Mean temperature : 

Outside 54.85'^ F. 

Inside 62.85°F. 

Excess of vapor inside grains per cubic foot.. 0.687 

Relative humidity lowered percent.. 7,6 

Carbonic acid: 

Outside (mean) : parts in 1000.. 0.4110 

Inside... do.... 0.8004 



Excess inside do.. 



0. 3894 



Therefore ventilation ceases to be good when vapor is over 4.7 grains 
per cubic foot, and the carbonic acid due to respiration {i. e., the excess 
over that in the outer air) is 0.4 parts in 1000 (or 4 parts in 10,000). 

3d, " Close," etc. (the organic matter begins to be disagreeable to the senses). 

Mean temperature : 

Outside 51.280F. 

Inside 64. 670 F, 

Vapor : 

Outside grains per cubic foot . . 3, 837 

Inside do.... 4.909 

Relative humidity lowered per cent.. 11.56 

Carbonic acid : 

Outside parts in 1000.. 0.3705 

Inside do.... 1,0027 



Excess inside do. 



0. 6322 



Therefore ventilation begins to be decidedly lad when the watery 
vapor amounts to 4.9 grains per cubic foot, and the carbonic acid is 0.6 
parts in 1000 (or 6 parts in 10,000) in excess over that in the outer air. 

4th. " Very close," etc. (the organic matter begins to be offensive and oppressive). 

Mean temperature : 

Outside 51,280F. 

Inside : 65.150F. 

Vapor : 

Outside grains per cubic foot.. 3.678 

Inside - do.... 5.078 

Relative humidity lowered per cent. . 8, 58 

Carbonic acid : 

Outside parts in 1000.. 0.3903 

Inside do.... 1,2335 

Excess inside do 0, 8432 

Therefore ventilation may be said to be very lad where the watery 
vapor reaches 5 grains per cubic foot, and the excess of carbonic acid 
is 0.8 parts in 1000 (8 parts in 10,000). 

The results under the 5th class were so nearly like those under the 
4th that Dr. De Chaumont thought it best to combine the two, so that 
the conclusion just stated applies to the limit of differentiation by the 
senses. That is to say, when the carbonic acid of vitiation is 8 parts 
in 10,000 in excess over that in the outer air, the senses are no longer 
able to discriminate between such air and air which is much worse. 
Collecting the results into a table we have: 



So-oi 
class. 


Temperature, 
Fahrenheit. 


Watery vapor. 


Carbonic acid, parts 
in 1000. 


Inside. 


Excess 
over out- 
side. 


Inside. 


Excess 
over out- 
side. 


Inside. 


Excess 
over out- 
side. 


1... 
2... 
3... 
4 .. 
5... 


62. 85° 
62.85 
64.67 
65.15 
65.05 


5.380 
8.00 
12.91 
13.87 
13.19 


4.629 
4. 823 

4. 909 

5. 078 
5.194 


0.344 
0.687 
1.072 
1.400 
1.319 


0. 5998 

0. 8004 

1. 0027 
1. 2335 
1. 2818 


0. 1830 
0. 3894 
0. 6322 
0. 8432 
0. 8817 



101 



364 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



From whicL. it will be seen that there is a generally regular progres- 
sion, and if classes 4 and 5 were combilied the progression would be 
perfect. This was accordingly done, and using the carbonic acid as the 
measure of respiratory impurity — a selection confirmed by various cal- 
culations — Dr. De Chaumont reached the conclusion that 0.2 parts in 
1000 of that gas is the limit of respiratory impurity admissible in good 
ventilation. 

The amount of fresh air necessary to keep the impurity down to the 
particular limit would be determined by the formula 

where d is the delivery of fresh air in cubic feet per head per hour, e the 
amount of carbonic acid expired per hour by one inmate, and r the limit 
of respiratory impurity, taken as carbonic acid per cubic foot, as ascer- 
tained by analysis. If we take e to be 0.6 cubic foot for an adult in repose, 
such as during sleep, we are rather under Pettenkofer's estimate, but con- 
siderably above Angus Smith's. The following table gives the amounts 
of fresh air which have entered the air spaces examined, computed by the 
above formula according to three estimates of the value of e, and using 
the values of r (the excess of carbonic acid over that of the outer air) 
obtained in the analyses which are given in the last column of the pre- 
ceding table. 



No. of class 
(aa before). 


Limit of respiratory 
impurity (excess 
of carbonic acid in 
cnbicfeet)=r. 


Cubic feet of air per bead per hour (=- ), cal- 
culated from the amount of carbonic acid 
exhaled per hour according to— 


Angus Smith, 
e=0.45 cubic 
foot. 


Pettenkofer, 
e= 0.705 cu- 
bic foot. 


Proposed esti- 
mate adopted 
b y Parkes, 
e=0.6 cubic 
foot. 


1 


0. 0001831 
0. 0003894 
0. 0006322 
0. 0008533 


2,460 

1,155 

710 

530 


3,850 

1,810 

1,115 

825 


3,280 

1,540 

950 

700 


2 


3 


4 and 6 



Dr. De Chaumont thinks that 0.6- cubic foot of carbonic acid per head 
per hour is the lowest limit that should be used. His conclusion is 
that the conditions, as the standards of good ventilation, should be, 
temperature, 630-65° F.; wet bulb, 580-610F. (or between 4° and S^F. 
difference); watery vapor not over 4.7 grains per cubic foot at 63° F., 
or 5 grains at 65° F. ; relative humidity 73 to 75 per cent., and carbonic 
acid of respiration 0.0002 per cubic foot, or 2 parts in 10,000. Calling the 
carbonic acid in the outer air 4 parts in 10,000, this would make the limit 
6 parts in 10,000 for rooms. This limit is regarded as too low for school- 
rooms, and it should be remembered that the amount of moisture is reck- 
oned for an English climate and the relative humidity may be lower 
here. 

The assumption being that ventilation ought to be sufficient to re- 
move all sensible impurity from an inhabited room, so that a person 
coming directly from the external air should perceive no great differ- 
ence between the room air and outside air in point of freshness, De Chau- 
mont's figures show conclusively the inadequacy of the senses to make 
reliable discriminations. They mean that a person coming from the 
outer air into a room where the carbonic acid of vitiation is 8 parts in 
602 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 365 

10,000 caunot tell by the senses alone the difference between that at- 
mosphere and one where the carbonic acid is as high as 20, 30, 50, or 80 
parts in 10,000 — an amount which has been found in the air of German 
schools, so that as far as his judgment is concerned, the latter air could 
go on doing its deadly work while being regarded as no worse than air 
which is not far beyond the permissible limit. 

De Chaumont speaks of the tendency of the senses to become speedily 
dulled after a short contact with bad air, and shows that at a certain 
point they cease to discriminate. Not only is this so, but different per- 
sons are differently affected by the same air, some being more sensitive 
than others ; and the same individual will have different sensations in 
the same air at different times, so that the senses are unreliable guides. 

But a direct experiment, or rather experience, will give a more vivid 
idea of the inability of a person who has been for some time in bad air 
to judge of its quality than figures or general remarks. In the work of 
Dr. E. Angus Smith before referred to, that author gives a detailed 
account of a series of experiments he made to test this point. He had 
a small air-tight chamber constructed of lead (about 6x4x8 feet) , which 
was provided with windows and a door, and a couple of small tubes 
were fixed in the wall air tight, through which specimens of the air 
could be drawn off. A table and a chair were placed in the room, and 
when one person was in the chamber with them there were 170 cubic 
feet of air. In this chamber the experimenter staid closely shut up for 
a considerable time, and recorded his sensations. He says : 

Here I am describing feelings which to some persons may simply be fancies. The 
feelings are uncertain, it is said. This is not quite correct ; thoy are to us most cer- 
tain ; but they register so many phenomena at once that they become uncertain 
guides when one only is sought after. For example, we may imagine that they tell 
of increased carbonic acid, whereas they may simply be telling us of diminished diges- 
tion and vigor. 

##•«»#♦ 

The first trial of the chamber was made by simply sitting dovm for an hour and 
forty minutes. This produces about one per cent, of carbonic acid. No difference 
was, to a certainty, perceptible for twenty-five minutes. Then when the air was 
drawn from the top by means of an umbrella, it seemed like a soft wind, and had to 
some extent a pleasant feeling, but was entirely devoid of any faculty of cheering. 
A dull, cheerless air is well known. Here we had it produced at once. The air was 
very moist and deposited water when drawn out through a tube on taking a specimen. 

After an hour the unpleasant smell of organic matter, such as is so well known in 
a crowded school, was perceptible on stepping rapidly from one end to the other or 
on moving the air rapidly. 

It was very decidedly perceived, after remaining an hour, that the air was soft 
when made to move in this chamber. This arose from the moisture, and shows us at 
least that a soft air may be a very impure one. » * » After staying in the cham- 
ber for 100 minutes the air had an unpleasant flavor, or smell, and I came out ; three 
persons entered at once and pronounced it very bad ; I entered after a minute and 
found it extremely bad. It seemed to mo, however, that we are frequently exposed 
to air equally bad, although I have not found any in daily life so much deprived of 
its oxygen as this must have been^reduced, that is, to twenty per cent. 

The second stay in the chamber was continued for 160 minutes. At two hours and 
twenty minutes it was observed that very long inspirations became frequent and 
more agreeable than usual. The air about that time gave a very decided feeling of 
closeness. Standing on a chair it was found less agreeable than below. The amount 
of oxygen was found to be 19.61. Immediately on opening the door two or three per- 
sons entered and again perceived how uncomfortable it was. 

On another occasion, when candles were burnt in the chamber until 
they went out and matches refused to ignite, the persons who entered 
the chamber found no difificnlty in breathing at first. 

But a gradual feeling of discomfort appeared of a kind which is not easily described ; 
it was restlessness and anxiety without pain, whilst the breathing increased in rapid- 
ity. Afterwards gas was lighted and burned with brilliancy. On entering after the 
gas had gone out, candles were extinguished as rapidly and completely as if they 

603 



366 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

had been thrust into water ; nevertheless we still breathed, and although every ono 
was anxious to go out, no very correct description of the feelings could be given. I 
stood on a chair, and then a feeling of incipient fainting began ; but the senses were 
not annpyed by anything beyond a feeling of closeness, by no means so unpleasant 
as a school room or close-end [of a mine]. This is a very important fact, as it point* 
again to the organic matter, of which there was little here, and of which there is 
much in the school room. The lungs seemed to refuse expansion without the senses 
being able to indicate a reason. The actual amount of oxygen when the gas went 
out is not known J but a specimen taken irom the room after the door had been opened 
long enough to allow three persons to enter contained 17.45 per cent. 

# * # « * * » 

All these experiments tend to diminish our faith in the senses as guides under cer- 
tain conditions. The senses are quite unable to measure degrees of closeness, and 
raise as much alarm at a state which may be represented by 0.1 per cent, of carbonic 
acid, as they sometimes do when there is really 4 per cent, with a diminishing pulse 
and a quickening respiration, or incipient gasping for breath. • 

After a while the air really becomes by no means proportionately worse to the feel- 
ings, but the approach of fainting in the case mentioned showed that the lack of 
oxygen or presence of carbonic acid was telling on the moving vital act. 

It is not possible to obtain exact results with the human being at all these varying 
stages without going into the region of statistics, and the argument may be con- 
sidered by some as dependent on that wider range of facts; but for most persons it 
will appear clear that if the loss of 0.2 of oxygen and its replacement by 0.2 of car- 
bonic acid be found to make the air disagreeable and injurious to the extent which 
is attributed by overwhelming evidence to bad ventilation, double the loss of oxygen 
and double the carbonic acid will produce still worse consequences. The senses begin 
the argument, but it takes months or years to show the bad effects of that air which 
they dislike. At the other extremity the vital powers give way, and between these 
two we must have a gradation of effect. 

This is enougli to show thstt a person who is bathed for a length of 
time in air which is constantly deteriorating, loses the power of perceiv- 
ing it, and that some means of discriminating with accuracy between 
different stages or degrees of vitiation is necessary. It has been shown 
that the determination of the carbonic acid of room air recommends 
itself for this purpose, because it really indicates vitiation due to ex- 
halations from the lungs and skin, and because its estimation by the 
Pettenkofer method is a comparatively easy matter. 

This method, as has been explained, consists essentially in collecting 
the air to be examined in a large measured jar provided with an accu- 
rately fitting stopper, pouring into the jar a small measured quantity 
of lime water, the strength of which is known, and then immediately 
stoppering the jar. The strength of the lime water is afterwards meas- 
ured by a dilute solution of oxalic acid of known strength, and the dif- 
ference in the strength of the lime water before and after contact with 
the air in the jar shows the amount of carbonic acid it has absorbed. 
From this amount the proportion of carbonic acid in the air is obtained 
by calculation. The following is a convenient way of collecting speci- 
mens of the air and conducting the analysis : 

Clean and dry thoroughly as many jars as it is desired to collect 
samples of air, say a dozen or fifteen. The jars should hold from 5 to 10 
liters (from 1 to 2 gallons) each ; they should be accurately gauged and 
their contents marked on each with a diamond. They should have well 
ground, accurately fitting glass stoppers, each of which and the jar it 
belongs to should be marked with the diamond to prevent mixing. 
The gauging can be done by filling each jar with water which has ac- 
quired the temperature of the room where the operation is going on, 
from a liter flask or graduate, until the stopper just fits into its place, 
and recording the amount required, or by filling it first and then siphon- 
ing off the water into a liter flask (and finally a graduate), and so ob- 
taining the contents. 

604 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



367 



Having transported the jars to the locality to be examined, they are 
filled with air as follows : A good caoutchouc stopper which fits the 
mouths of the jars has two holes bored in it, through one of which passes 
a short glass tube fitting the hole air tight, and through the other passes 
another glass tube, also fitting air tight, which is long enough to reach 
the bottom of the jar when the stopper is squeezed into its mouth. 
Over the end of the short tube is slipped a jiiece of stout caoutchouc 
tubing, which connects with the air pump or similar contrivance, while 
another piece of caoutchouc tubing long enough to reach to the ceiling 
of the room is attached to the external end of the long glass tube. 
After fitting the stopper tightly the end of this tube can be held in any 
desired place by means of a pole to which it is tied, and the pumping 
commenced. (See Fig. 1.) This operation must be continued long 




Fie. 1. 

enough to make sure that the air originally in the jar has been replaced 
by that of the place where the end of the tube is held. To be certain 
of this, preliminary experiments must be made, such as filling the jar 
with tobacco smoke and counting the number of strokes required to 
completely empty it, or a jar is inverted over water, a glass tube con- 
nected with the caoutchouc tubing of the exhausting apparatus is 
pushed up to its bottom, and the number of strokes necessary to fill the 
jar with water are counted. During this operation the jar must be held 
so that the water is at the same level inside and out. A convenient 
pump for this work is the foot bellows used with blast lamps in labora- 
tories, which can be adapted to the reverse action required of it by 
fitting the hole through which air enters it with a good cork carrying a 
bent-glass tube to connect with the caoutchouc tubing leading to the 
short tube of the jar. In making the collection of air for analysis, 

605 



368 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

pumping should be continued until three or four times as many strokes 
have been given as were found necessary to remove the tobacco smoke 
in the preliminary trials with the particular bellows employed. Care 
should be taken during this operation to keep the end of the tube 
through which collection is being made far enough away from any per- 
son or group of persons to prevent the chance of the air entering it being 
contaminated by the direct breath, because one respiration gives out 
enough carbonic acid to vitiate the result of the subsequent analysis. 

After the jar has been filled in this way with the air to be examined, 
the stopper carrying the glass tubes is removed and 60 cubic centimeters 
of lime water are quickly transferred by a pipette from the bottle which 
is standing at hand to the jar, which is immediately tightly closed with 
its own stopper and a piece of rubber gauze is tied down over the 
latter. The jar is then turned around in various directions a few times 
so as to spread the lime water over its sides and top, and, after a label 
stating the place and time of collection is pasted on it, is set aside in a 
place of about the same temperature as the place of collection for trans- 
fer to the laboratory and examination the next day. During the re- 
moval of the stopper and the manipulation of the lime water the oper- 
ator and his assistant must be careful not to breathe near the mouth of 
the jar or the lime-water bottle. As the transfer only takes a few seconds 
it is easy to hold the breath during that period. 

The temperature of the point of collection, which is essential in mak- 
ing the subsequent calculations of the analyses, is obtained by hanging 
a thermometer on the end of the pole which carries the caoutchouc tube 
and reading it on taking the pole down. The whole operation of filling 
the jar vrith air and taking the temperature of the latter does not take 
more than three or four minutes. The principles of the simple analyti- 
cal process are laid down in .chemical handbooks (it is a simple case of 
volumetric analysis), but it requires some experience in chemical manip- 
ulation to conduct the process properly. Different practitioners prefer 
different modifications, some using lime water and others baryta water 
to absorb the carbonic acid, and different strengths of the solution of 
acid (oxalic) are also employed. 

The following is a convenient solution of acid to use. It was recom- 
mended by Pettenkofer, and is of such strength that 1 cubic centimeter 
exactly neutralizes 1 milligramme of lime. It is obtained by weighing 
off 2.25 grammes of pure, dry, crystallized (uneffloresced) oxalic acid 
and dissolving it in a liter of distilled water. To ascertain the strength 
of the lime water (which varies slightly with the temperature) a quan- 
tity of it (say one liter) sufficient for use for a day or two is rapidly 
poured from the large bottle containing the quicklime, through a filter 
into the bottle in which it is to be transported to the locality to be exam- 
ined. Thirty cubic centimeters of the clear lime water are then taken 
from this bottle by a pipette which delivers exactly that amount, and 
run into a beaker, and two or three drops of an alcoholic solution of 
rosolic acid (or phenolphthaleine) are added to color the solution. A 50- 
c. c. burette (graduated to tenths of a cubic centimeter) has previously 
been filled with a solution of oxalic acid so that the mark on the Erd- 
mann float coincides with the upper or zero mark of the burette. The 
solution is now run into the beaker, the fluid in which is kept con- 
stantly stirred by a glass rod until there is an indication of a change 
of color, when the stop- cock of the burette is turned so as to deliver 
the solution slowly drop by drop. When the color disappears, which it 
does instantaneously, the lime in the lime water has been exactly neu- 
606 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 369 

tralized by the oxalic acid, and as the solution of the latter is of such 
strength that each cubic centimeter thereof is equal to one milligramme 
of lime, on reading on the burette the number of cubic centimeters 
and tenths which have been run out, we know the number of milli- 
grammes and tenths of lime in the 30 c. c. of lime water taken. The 
Erdmann float with its mark renders it easy to read the graduations 
of the burette exactly. This operation should be repeated and there 
should not be more than a tenth difference in two readings. It is nec- 
essary to ascertain the strength of the lime water before each campaign, 
and in preparing fresh quantities, i. e., when fresh quicklime is used, it 
is advisable to throw away the first two or three drenchings in order to 
get rid of the alkalies contained in the lime, although this is not neces- 
sary if time is pressing, because the alkalies do not exert such an in- 
fluence when lime is used as when baryta is employed. (Pettenkofer.) 

Knowing now the strength of the lime water, thirty cubic centimeters 
of the sixty which were put in the jar in the room under examination 
are taken out with a pipette, after rinsing the jar by turning it about 
and letting it stand inclined a few minutes, and treated as above 
described, and the difference in the quantity of oxalic acid needed to neu- 
tralize the lime in these thirty cubic centimeters and that needed for the 
same quantity before exposure to the air in the jar shows the number of 
milligrammes of lime which have been taken up by the carbonic acid 
of the air of the jar. This difference and the temperature which was 
taken in the room at the time of collection give the data necessary for 
computing the proportion of carbonic acid in the air. 

It is impracticable to give a description of the minute details of 
manipulation, which are like those involved in carrying out any analysis 
and which are familiar to all chemists, because they must be learned by 
practice in any case, and it is easier to learn by watching another than 
by trying to understand written directions. The hands can do in a few 
minutes what would require an hour to describe in writing and a long 
time to read and understand, so that a really simple thing seems difficult, 
tedious, and consequently forbidding, to one trying to master it from a 
description. '' The processes [of analysis] can best be learned," says Dr. 
Billings,^ " by spending about three hours a day, for three or four days, 
in a laboratory, working under the directions of a good chemist." A 
person who has once acquired the drill necessary to make these analyses 
can go on with them with great rapidity. 

So much for the analysis itself. The computation is given as follows 
in Parkes' Hygiene : 

After the lime has absorbed the COj of the air in the vessel, 30 c. c. of the solution 
are taken out and tested with the oxalic acid solution as before ; the difference shows 
the milligrammes of lime precipitated by the CO2. Multiply the difference by 0.795, 
the result is the c. c. of CO3 in the quantity of air examined. Deduct 60 c. c. from 
the total capacity of the jar (to account for the space occupied by tiie lime water put 
in) and state the capacity in liters and decimals ; divide the cubic centimeters of CO2 
obtained by the corrected capacity of the jar ; the quotient is the c. c. of CO2 per 
1,000 volumes of air. 

Example. 

The first alkalinity of lime water was 39 for 30 c. c.^ 

After exposure to the air in the jar, it was 33 for 30 c. c. 

Difference, 6, being milligrammes of lime precipitated by CO2 in the jar. 

^ Ventilation and Heating; in the Sanitary Engineer, 1884, p. 22. 

* That is to say, 39 c. c. of acid were required to neutralize 30 c. c. of lime water. 

607 



370 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

6 X 0.795 1 = 4.770 =:total COj in jar, in cubic centimeters. 

Capacity of jar, 4,385 c. c. ; deduct 60 c. c. for space taken up by lime -water; tlien 
tbo net capacity will be 4,325 c. c. =4. 325 liters. 

Then 4.770^-4.325=1.103 c. c. of CO2 per liter, or volumes per 1,000. 

A correction for the temperature of tbe air examined must be made, the standard 
being 32° F., or 0° C, the freezing point of water. If tbo temperature be above this (as 
it will generally be, at least in buildings), the air will be expanded, and a smaller 
quantity, by weight, consequently, will be operated on. On the other hand, below 
32° the air will be contracted, and a larger quantity, by weight, operated on than at 
the standard temperature. This can be corrected by adding 0.2 per cent, to the re- 
sult for every degree above 32°, and subtracting it for every degree below, the reason 
being that air expands or contracts 0.2 per cent, for every degree (or 1 per cent, for 
every 5 degrees) it deviates from the standard. 

Example. — In the preceding example the CO2 was found to be 1.103 per 1,000. Sup- 
pose the temperature to have been 60° F., then 60 — 32 = 28° to be corrected for ; 28 X 
0.2 = 5.6 per cent, to be added to the result, or tlie result must be multiplied by 1 -}- .056 ; 
therefore, 1.103 Xl. 056 = 1.154 per 1,000, the corrected result. Suppose the tempera- 
ture had been 25° F., then 32 — 25 = 7° to be corrected for ; 7 X 0.2 = 1,4 per cent, 
to be deducted, or the result must be multiiilied by 1.00 — .014=0.9y6; therefore 
1.103 X 0.986 = 1.087, the corrected result. 

A correction for pressure is not necessary, unless the place of observation be much 
removed from sea-level ; in that case the barometer must be observed, and a rule of 
three stated. 

As standard height of bar. } . 5 Observed height \ . 

(29.92 in., or 760 mm. S ' I of bar. ^ • • » . ,*-. 

It must be understood that none of the methods hitherto used for the determination 
of CO2 in the air give quite accurate results, but the above is the most convenient for 
ordinary use, and is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. The results differ 
considerably if the quantities of air treated vary ; therefore uniformity in this point is 
desirable. 

From a number of analyses conducted as just described an accurate 
idea of the degree of tlie purity of the air of a room can be obtained, by 
comparing- the amount of CO2 found with the standard of purity pre- 
viously described (p. 361), viz, 1 part in 1,000, or 10 parts in 10,000 of 
air.^ 

"'The factor 0.795 is obtained as follows: The difference between the two alka- . 
Unities expresses milligrammes of lime precipitated by CO2 ; from this the milli- 
grammes of CO2 can be got by calculating from the ratios of the equivalents, thus : 

CaO CO3 Mgm. of CaO Mgm. of CO2 
56 : 44 : : a : x 

X.44 
.•.x = ax^ 

"As 1 c. c. of CO3 at 32° F. (0° C.) weighs 1.9767 milligrammes, the ratio between 

weight and volume is ^ — = — =0..506: .-. a; X 0.506 = cubic centimeters of CO2, cor- 

" 1.9767 

responding to the milligrammes by weight. As 60 c. c. of lime water were put into 
the jar, and only 30 c. 0. taken, the result must be multiplied by 2. Therefore the 
factors combined are g X 0.506 X 2 = 0.795, and this, multiplied by a, the difference 

between the two alkalinities, gives x, the total cubic centimeters of CO2 in the jar." 
«At a slight expense of time an instructive experiment might be made by collect- 
ing material for microscopic examination at the same time that the air for analysis 
is being taken. To do this a wide-mouthed flask of, say, a liter capacity could be fitted 
with a caoutchouc stopper and glass tubes like the jars. A small quantity of water 
should be poured into the flask to the depth of half an inch or an inch, and the stop- 
per fitted, pushing the long tube down until its end almost touches the bottom of the 
flask, and so is well beneath the surface of the water. On connecting the short tube 
with'the bellows, twenty or thirty liters of air should bo slowly pumped through the 
water, which can then be handed to a microscopist. It would, perhaps, be well to 
make the collection at the height of the heads of the scholars and dispense with the 
long caoutchouc tube. The end of the glass tube which dips under water should be 
narrowed in the flame so as to leave a smaU aperture. The microscopic examination 
might give interesting qualitative results. 
608 



(To be made at least twice every montie examination is in progress.) 

Date of examination ^fhat floor? 

On what side of building ? 8.ry ; wet ; windy. Direction of 

wind iitionit (e. g., illuminating gas, 

sulphureied hydrogen, &c.) ,1 





INTERIM ATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 371 

Only a word is necessary for the other two elements of the climate of 
a room, the temperature and the moisture. Both can be determined 
simultaneously by the same instrument — the dry and wet bulb hygrom- 
eter, and both ought to be ascertained in various parts of the room, 
by placing the instrument at the sides, center, and ceiMug. The tem- 
perature of the latter iDlace is found when taking air for CO2 determina- 
tion. The instrument ought to be swung to and fro for a minute or so 
before reading. To ascertain the quantity of air passing out through 
the ventilators or entering through the hot-air inlets, an anemometer is 
used. It should be moved about over the grating so as to measure the 
average current of air passing. Knowing from this instrument the 
velocity of the current, the size of the openings enables one to estimate 
the number of cubic feet which enter or leave the room in a given time 
from those sources. 

All the apparatus needed for actual work in a room consists of the 
jars, the bellows, the rubber stopper with its glass tubes and caoutchouc 
tubing, a bundle of rubber strips to be tied down over the stoppers of 
the jars after they have been filled, a carefully- stoppered bottle of lime 
wa'rer, a pipette delivering 60 c. c, a hygrometer, and an anemometer. 
This apparatus can be packed in a hand cart, or in trays and placed in 
a wagon, and transported to any desired point. 

Last year (1884) the Bureau of Education published a list of inquiries 
upon the sanitary condition of city school-houses, of which the accom- 
panying blank form was a part. It was intended to be filled up in the 
actual examination of rooms. 

The blank was found very convenient in practice and was used in 
examining two schools in the District of Columbia the past winter 
(1884-'85). It was found that fifteen samples of air, collected at different 
times in different rooms, together with thermometer and anemometer 
readings, could be taken during school hours by two persons, and that 
the analyses could be easily made the next day. 

The results of the examinations are given on the following pages in 
tabular form. 

609 









J^. 'M.. 


P. M. 








O 


lo 


11 


13 


1 


•i 


3 


4 


3 


I 

sr 

3 
1 


i 1 1 


























it? 


o 

>1' 


Upper registers opened or close 
Lower refiisters opened or close 
WindowH on the north, east, soi 


d 




















s . 


1 




























"i 


til. and west sides opened or closed. 




















•^ 


pi 




















-4 i 




Door opening into hallway opened or closed 

Door oiJCiiing Into (specify commnnicatlng room) opened or closed . 






















o • 
























E ; ; 


3 


■d 
TO 


Tliormometer <i feet from floor on the four sides of room, not near, 
source of heat. 




















! 1 1 r I- 


w 




















i 1 i s 1 






















\l\^ IP 




Thormonieter 4J feet from floor 






















1 i » 

c- ■* o 

lis, 




























and read at once on taking donn). 




















,5 =• 

" a- 
% » 




! s 




Tlierinometer outside of buildin 






















i ? § 




^ 























i i i 
















B 








. 




















-4- 


i 1 i 




f 
i 


Dry buio. 


VelBuTb. 


Drjbnlb. 


W.iburo. 


Dry bulb. 


W.tl,„il 


Drybu7b. 


Vv'el bulb. 


Drjbulb. 


Wet bulb 


B,jbulb. 


Wetbulb 


Dry bulb. 


wet bulb 


Dry bulir^Wetlnilb 


DrybHbT 


Wet bulb 


-f-'T^ 


: ° es 








































3 E ? 

1 ; ? 

B O S 

t ^ 1 
§• « 1 

B- & ^ 






Hygrometer at sitles of room, In 








































i 1 ^ 










































1 j;. ts 

i z. * 










































III? 1 i 




ITygromotor outside of buiUlinff. 








































B' 2, 






















































1 


































; 3 s 




Temperature of hot air {if nny) s 
Anemometer at bot-air inlets (if 
Auomometer at open registera, u 
Anemometer at open regiatora, I 
























: £ 


















































• t 
























.<» g" o E 
























MM 




Carbonio aold in 10,000 parts . . ■, 






















'a r 
























B 


% 
























E- 




In ho—-:."* 






















1 1 / 


1 



372 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



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INTERNATIOifAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 373 





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374 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

These figures sho\Y, as might be expected, that carbonic acid does not 
sink to the floor of an inhabited room and stay there. They also bear 
out the statement that when Pettenkofer's limit of 10 parts of CO2 in 
10,000 is reached (when the 10 parts contain 4 parts from the outside 
air) the air of an inhabited room becomes noticeable to the senses. The 
ventilating openings at which collections were made in the rooms ex- 
amined were in the walls just above the floor. It is instructive to see 
that as a rule the carbonic acid was higher at those openings than else- 
where. The fact needs confirmation, however, because it may be that 
the direct breath from persons sitting near may have been drawn into 
the openings. In the case where there was a constant increase of car- 
bonic acid from hour to hour it appears that the ventilation was not 
sufficient to prevent the accumulation of vitiated air. 

The hygrometer readings are not considered perfectly reliable, because 
when two instruments were used there was ATioiifyh difference in the 
wet bulb readings to make a difference of 10 per cent, in the relative 
humidity. There was no time to find the cause of the differences. 

Many collections were made in different parts of the rooms with a 
view to determining the best point to obtain what might be called an 
average sample of the room air. The center of the room would seem to 
be a promising place for that purpose. But the increase of carbonic 
acid at the ventilators appears to show a current setting that way, and 
in room 4, Twining School, it would seem that this current extended 
from the windows on the opposite side of the room toward the ventila- 
tor. This point should be settled by making a simultaneous collection 
of air at the ventilators and across the room from them, which could be 
done by a little management, and if the fact is established it might be 
taken into account in selecting the place for ventilators. If the car- 
bonic acid is drawn to the ventilators from all parts of the room, some 
other place than the middle will have to be taken from which to get an 
average sample of air. It is important above tiii [nmgs that the collec- 
tion should be made far enough away from the inmates of the room to 
be sure that no direct breath has been drawn into the jar. 

The column headed " CO2 of vitiation" is left unfilled, because it is not 
known what proportions of CO2 entered the rooms through the windows, 
etc.,* and through the hot air inlets. To determine this a separate exam- 
ination of the air of the empty room would be necessary. 

It is desirable to collect as many analyses of school air as possible and 
compare the quantities of OO2, the temperature, and moisture or rela- 
tive humidity, and obtain, if possible, the sick lists of the same schools. 
But sick lists alone are not enough, since they do not represent the real 
state of health in the schools. Dr. Hertel, in his work on overpressure 
in Danish schools, says that the lists are of no value on this point, because 
they merely show the number of children who are absent on account of 
temporary illness, whereas it is not the number of those temporarily ill 
that is of consequence so much as the number of "sickly" individuals. 
By "sickly" children, Dr. Hertel means those who are unsound, who 
suffer from chronic complaints but are able to attend school regularly 5 
in short, children whose state of health is abnormal, and who require 
special care both at home and at school, A list of complaints taken 
into account while investigating the overpressure question includes 
antemia, headache, nervousness, want of appetite, nose-bleed, and dis- 
eases of the eye. To examine children affected with these complaints 
would require a systematic medical inspection of the schools at stated 
periods, as is done in Europe. If a large number of analyses showing 

612 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 



375 



tlie usual condition of room air, together with medical returns of sick and 
sickly children from the same rooms, could be obtained and discussed 
by some competent physician, it might be possible to ascertain com- 
plaints due to bad air, and separate them from those usually charged 
to overpressure, the cause to which nearly all sickness in the higher schools 
of Europe is now attributed. In this experimental way alone could 
whatever connection that really exists between bad air and ill health be 
discovered, and definite data be obtained for drawing conclusions and 
correcting theoretical or a priori assertions. The following collection of 
analyses of school air is useful as a beginning, and shows the atmosphere 
in which school children pass much of their time in different places. No 
deductions as to the influence of such an atmosphere on health can be 
made, however, because there are no medical returns from the same 
places with which to make comparisons. 

The following figures by Professor Nichols are taken from a paper, 
"On the Ventilation of School-houses," by Dr. F. W. Draper and Prof. 
William Eipley Nichols, in the Third Annual Eeport (1875) of the Board 
of Health of the city of Boston : 



Name of school. 




Eliot 

Brimmer 

Comins 

Chapman 

Lawrence 

Dudley 

Girls' 'High 

Phillips 

Starr King 

Eice Primary- 



General average 



Greatest Least 

amount of i amount of 

CO2 in 10,000 : CO2 in 10,000 

parts. I parts. 



Average 

ofaU 
the rooms. 



The odor of organic matter is entered as soon as 10 parts of CO2 in 
10,000 are passed. The humidity is not given. The temperature varied 
from 54P to 77° as extremes, but the averages were mostly between 65^ 
and 70°. 

Mr. N. T. Lupton examined the schools of Nashville, Tenn., in 1878, 
and the results were published in the Chemical NeivSy vol. 39, from which 
the following table is taken : 



Date. 


Thermometer. 


CO2 

in 10,000 

parts. 


Number 


Contents of 


Per cent, of 
moisture. 


Cubic 
feet of air 


Dryhulb. | Wet bulb. 


1 


per head per 
hour. 


1878. 

Feh. 1 

1 

6 

6 

8 

8 

11 

11 

12 

12 

13. .1.... 
13 


y. 1 j7, 
19 16 
18i 15i 

19 14 

20 14 

19 17 

20 17 
15 13 

18 14J 

19 15 

19 14 

18 i 13J 
18 1 15 


32.42 

29.29 

C 15. S3 ) 

\ 1.5. 83 5 

12.07 

( 9. 14 ? 

^9.71^ 

8.61 

27. 22 

5 22'. 28 \ 

\ 22. 28 5 

C 10. 88 I 

\ 18. 04 5 

5 24. 00 \ 

\ 19.315 

17.47 

14.92 


136 
137 

136 

137 

136 

137 
50 

50 
66 

50 

66 
50 


26, 415 
37, 377 

26, 415 

37, 377 

26, 415 

37, 377 
12, 360 

12, 360 
13, 180 

12, 360 

13, 180 
12, 360 


73 
70 

58 

50 

80 

70 
80 

60 
64 

59 

59 
72 


4.0 

4.5 

9.5 

13.8 

20.5 

23.3 
5.0 

6.1 
9.0 

5.7 

8.6 
10.0 



QVc 



376 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



Date. 


Thermometer. 


CO2 

in 10,000 

parts. 


' Number 
of peTBons 
present. 


Contents of 
room. 


Percent, of 
moisture. 


Cubic 
feet of air 


Dry bulb. 


"Wet bulb. 


per head per 
hour. 


1878. 

Feb. 13 

13 

14 

14 

14 

14 

15 

15 

15 

18 

18 

18 

19 

19 

19 

20 

20 

20 

22 

25 

22 

25 

28 


° F. 
18 
18 
19J 
20 
19 
19 
19 

20 

19^ 
16 
20 

21J 

18 
20i 

20 

19 
21 
21 
20i 

20 

20 

18 

20i 


J" 

15 
15 
17 
18 
16 
16 
16 

17 

15 
11 
16 

17i 

llj 
15 

15J 

17 
17 
16i 
16i 

15i 

16 

12 

14 


22.54 
9.30 
14.84 
19.11 
15.37 
11 08 
21.33 

( 29. 75 ? 

\ 29. 50 5 

17.50 

9.86 

22.61 

S 28. 25 ? 

i 26. 84 5 
13.42 
26.62 

S 16. 14 ) 
• \ 16. 14 i 
13.79 
15.10 
17.68 
14.18 

C 18. 58 I 

\ 17. 58 5 
16.54 
C9.14? 
)9-4l5 

< 10. 97 \ 

\ 14. 60 5 


50 
98 
55 
55 
55 
75 
50 

55 

85 
364 
294 

294 

364 
294 

294 

364 
294 
294 
130 

130 

125 

125 

,5 


12, 360 
17, 680 
10, 3'JO 
10, 390 
10, 390 
20, 150 
10, 390 

10, 390 

20, 150 
61, 660 
61, 974 

69, 138 

61, 660 
61, 974 

69, 138 

61, 660 
61, 974 
69, 138 
30, 050 

30, 050 

33, 850 

33, 850 

15, 326 


72 
72 
76 
81 
73 
73 
73 

70 

60 
54 
64 

57 

48 
45 

58 

80 
63 
61 
62 

58 

64 

48 

49 


6.0- 
20.1 

9.9 

7.2 
10.0 
16.0 

6.& 

4.4 

8.4 
18.0 

6. a 

4.& 

12.2 
5.0 

9.3 

12.0 
9.5 
8.3 

17.4 

7.8 

9.0 

20.0 

15.6 



Figures in brackets represent two samples taken in different parts of 
the same room at the same time. The cubic feet are computed by Ros- 
coe's formula, which will be referred to later. 

Mr. Lupton says: 

It was observed that in every instance where the amount of carbon dioxide reached 
20 volumes in 10,000, or one-fifth of one per cent., the odor arising from other im- 
purities of respiration was exceedingly offensive ; and even when the amount was 10 
in 10,000 this offensive odor was distinctly perceptible. 

The following are the results of the chemical examination of the air 
of schools in Switzerland and Germany. Dr. Carl Breiting examined 
some of the schools in Basle at the request of the authorities, to whom 
complaints had been made of the bad air in the school rooms, overcrowd- 
ing, etc. Dr. Breiting found ^ the extremes of temperature in different 
rooms ranging from 48° to 72°. The CO2 ranged as follows: 

Parts in 
PORBNOON. 10,000. 

Before the session began - 22. 1 

At beginning 24. 8 

End of session - 48. 

After recess 47.0 

Before second recess - 68.7 

After second recess 62. 3 

End of session 81. 1 

11 A. M., empty room 73.0 

AI"TERNOON. 

Before the session 53. 

Beginning of session 55. 

Before recess 76.0 

After recess 64.6 

End of session 93. 6 

4 P. M. , empty room 57. 2 

^Deutsche Viertelj. fur offentl, Gesundh, Bd. 11. 1869. 
614 



INTEKNATIO^AL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



377 



The following table ^ shows the relation between the maximum OOj 
and that of the empty room. Many of the rooms had no ventilation : 



Maxjmnm of COs 
in 10,000 parts. 
a6.6 
93.6 
73.0 
13.1 
9.2 
53.9 
45.8 
26.7 
54.5 
65.3 



CO2 in the empty room 

in the morning. 

20.0 

22.1 

6.3 
6.1 
5.2 
5.2 
6.4 
4.0 



Dr. A. Schottky made a thorough examination of the ventilation of 
schools in Breslau in 1879.2 There were three methods of heating the 
schools he examined, viz, by hot-air furnaces, stoves, and hot water. 
The object was to compare the temperature, relative humidity, and OO2 
in rooms heated by the different systems. He concluded in favor of hot- 
air furnaces. The following is a summary of his results : 



No. of experiment. 


Hour. 


Tempera- 
ture. 


Relative 
humidity. 


CO2iul0,000 
parts. 


1 


9.30 
9.45 

10 

10.30 

10.45 

11 

11.10 
9 

9.5 
9.15 
9.30 
9.45 

10 

10.30 
7.30 
8.30 
9.15 

10 

10.30 


op, 
65 

67 
69 
62 
65 
63 

(Court) 38 
64 
62 
67 
67 
63 
74 

CConrt) 34 
61 
63 
64 
66 
69 


Per cent. 
68.4 
69.1 
75.4 
72.6 
78.5 
65.3 


15.25 

46.4 

44.3 

27.2 

33.2 

12.2 

2.2(3.2f) 
31.4 
27.2 
24.3 
21.4 
42.7 
26.5 

3.1 
19.0 
25.4 
28.1 
26.3 
22.9 


2 


8 


4 


5 


6 , 


7 


8 


68.8 
67.9 
55.6 
62.9 
67.2 
59.8 

61.2 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 




18 




19 







Ninety- three analyses were made and the results were as follows: 

(1) With hot-air furnaces the average temperature ranged from 63° 
to 69°, the maximum being 73° and the minimum 62°. 

(2) With stoves supplied at the top with fuel and self-feeding, the 
average temperature was 72° to 75°, with a maximum of 79° and a min- 
imum of 65°. 

(3) With porcelain stoves {Kachelofen) the average temperature was 
64°, with a maximum of 67° and a minimum of 63°. 

(4) With warm water the average temperature was 66° to 68°, with a 
maximum of 70° and a minimum of 66°. 

The relative humidity in the same classes was, in class 1, average 
56.6 to 74 per cent., maximum 78.5 per cent., minimum 46 per cent. 

In class 2 the average was 56.8 per cent, to 61.4 per cent., maximum 
68.4 per cent., minimum 53 per cent. 



'Bagineky: HandiucJi der Schulhygiene, p. 148. 
'^ Zeitaclirift filr Biologic, Bd. XV. 



1883. 



615 



378 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

In class 3 the average was 66 per cent., the maximum 69 per cent 
and the minimum 61.7 per cent. 

In class 4 the average ranged from 67.5 per cent, to 70.75 j)er cent., 
maximum 74 per cent., minimum 63 per cent. 

The COg averaged 26.91 to 31.4 parts in 10,000 in class 1, with a max- 
imum of 50.8 and a minimum of 16.7. 

In class 2 the average ranged from 25.16 to 42.1, the maximum being 
51.5 and the minimum 15.3. 

In class 3 the average was 32.2, the maximum 46.4 and the minimum 
17.9. 

In class 4 the average ranged from 30.4 to 41.1, the maximum being 
52.5 and the minimum 22.8. 

In a report on the heating and ventilation of the schools of Darm- 
stadt^ is a series of instructive tables, some of which are reprinted here. 

In rooms heated by stoves and not provided with ventilating con> 
trivances the CO2 and relative humidity were as follows: 



Persons 
present. 


CO2 in 10,000 parts. 


Per cent, of relative 
humidity. 


00 


•< 







pi ■ 

iH 


g 


< 
00 


a> 







g 

fi 


pi 


V5 
34 
52 
47 


5.0 
5.1 

'"5.'o' 


38.5 

28.5 

5.5 

so. 6 


47.0 
37.4 
30.5 
41.2 


56.0 
44.8 
46.7 
57.6 


33.5 
29.5 
23.6 
28.5 


7.5 
17.5 
18.8 
23.3 


52 
36 
53 
44 


62 
49 

55 
55 


07 
45 
63 

58 


66 
51 
66 
61 


63 
50 
66 
64 


59 
44 
65 
60 



Here then was a constant increase in carbonic acid and moisture, and 
the authors state that staying in the room at 12 m. was very disagreeable. 

In the following table the upper figures show the composition of the 
air in ventilated rooms heated by hot water, the lower in similar rooms 
heated by hot air. 







CO2 in 10,000 parts. 




Per cent, of relative 
humidity. 


Persons 






















1 
























present. 


00 









r-t 


IM 


00 


■< 


■< 






pi 
1-1 


pi 

ffCI 


47 


5.0 


17.0 


16.0 


15.0 




5.0 


29 


34 


35 


35 




27 


37 


5.2 


15.0 


14.0 


14.0 


5.0 


5.0 


27 


33 


32 


31 


35 


35 


39 


5.5 


13.0 


13.0 


13.0 


5.6 


5.0 


31 


39 


36 


39 


32 


26 


71 


4.5 


19.0 


18.2 


18.0 


5.0 


4.0 


37 




49 


49 


43 


42 


60 


3.5 


21.5 


21.0 


19.0 


6.6 


4.0 


35 


35 


47 


46 


40 


36 


68 


3.8 


23.0 


24. 


22.0 


6.0 


4.0 


46 


54 


53 


50 




39 


60 


3.8 


15.2 


13.4 


15.0 


3.7 


4.0 


28 


37 


41 


38 


33 


31 


65 


4.0 


14.5 


17.0 


15.0 


4.8 


4.0 


28 


43 


44 


43 


35 


33 


60 


3.7 


13.3 


16.2 


14.7 


4.6 


4.0 


29 


39 


41 


41 


35 


33 


60 


4.2 


13.3 


15.4 


13.3 


5.1 


5.2 


34 


40 


39 


38 


37 


32 


63 


4.7 


17.6 


19.5 


17.9 


6.1 


7.6 


49 


48 


48 


46 


40 


41 


60 


4.0 


14.2 


15.8 


16.5 


4.7 


3.8 


45 


45 


46 


46 


35 


35 



^Uiiterauchungen der Heiz- und Ventilaiionsanlagen in den stadtischen Schulgebduden 
eu Darmstadt. By Prof. Dr. Biichner, Dr. Ihle, and Dr. Siegert. 1880. 

616 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 



379 



The following table shows the condition of the air in ventilated rooms 
heated by stoves. 



Persons 

present. 


CO2 in 10,000 parts. 


Per cent, of relative 
liumidity. 


00 


OS 


< 






Ph' 




< 
00 


OS 


g 










50 
52 
32 


4.5 
4.5 
4.6 


12.2 
12.6 
13.6 


14.1 
13.0 
12.1 


13.1 
14.7 
12.1 


8.0 
5.6 
5.3 


5.4 
5.1 


26 
27 
28 


29 
33 
33 


29 
33 
32 


30 
35 
35 


25 
30 
28 


24 
30 

27 



The experiment was tried of interrupting the ventilation by closing 
the ventilators from 9 to 11 and then opening them. The results were 
as follows : 



Persons 
present. 


CO2 in 10,000 parts. 


Per cent, of relative hu- 
midity. 


< 

OS 


< 


< 

1H 


< 



rH 


g 

M 






-< 

OS 


rH 
rH 




0; 


50 
35 
42 
74 


10.4 
12.9 
21.0 
20.7 


31.0 
27.2 
30.8 
32.5 


18.8 
20.3 
2.5.0 
21.3 


17.4 
18.4 
19.7 
18.5 


15.0 
16.7 
18.1 
17.1 






42 
42 
55 
48 


43 

52 
57 
55 


40 
40 
52 

47 


41 


"4.6 
3.6 


5.7 
4.8 
3.8 



If we wish to arrange the foregoing results so as to show the gaseous 
composition of school room air (leaving out the watery vapor and organic 
matter), we have a wide range to select from. Taking Pettenbofer'8 
limit of 10 parts of CO2 in 10,000 of air as a starting point, and assum- 
ing for convenience that the composition of "normal" or standard air 
is 20.96 per cent, of oxygen, 0.03 per cent, of carbonic acid, and 79.01 
per cent, of nitrogen, we should have — 

Oxygen , 20. 89 

CO2 10 

Mtrogen 79.01 

supposing the oxjgen of "normal" air to be replaced by 0.07 parts of 
carbonic acid. Looking over the previous analyses we find 0.20 per 
cent, and 0.30 per cent, of carbonic acid occurring frequently, while 
0.40 per cent, and 0.50 per cent, are not rare, and 0.80 per cent, and 0.90 
per cent, are the extremes. A tabular arrangement gives — 

Oxygen 20.79 20.69 20.59 20.49 20.19 20,09 

CO.2 20 .30 .40 .50 .80 .90 

Nitrogen 79.01 79.01 79.01 79.01 79.01 79.01 

All of which show worse air than Pettenkofer's limit allows. The last 
four show worse air than that of a crowded court room which was in- 
tolerable to a new comer, where the oxygen was 20.6 (if we can use oxy- 
gen as a criterion), and the last two are worse than the average bad air 
of mines. 

The tables above given show the use of carbonic acid as a measure of 
impurity in room air. Ordinarily it is sufficient to estimate the propor 

617 



380 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

tiou of that gas in the air and observe if it is much above Pettenkofer's 
standard of 10 parts in 10,000, but occasionally it may be desired to 
know the degree of ventilation more exactly, and to compute the amount 
of fresh air which has entered the room to keep the vitiation at the 
observed limit. For this purpose various formulas have been employed 
by different persons, two of which are here given. 

In Eoscoe's examination of the ventilation of barracks is one example.^ 
He determined the carbonic acid in a room containing 7,920 cubic feet, 
after 16 men had occupied it 6 hours, and found it to be 12.42 parts in 
10,000. Assuming that a man exhales 0.686 of a cubic foot of carbonic 
acid per hour, sixteen men would give out 65.86 cubic feet in 6 hours. 
Then the question is, with what quantity of air must this 65.86 cubic 
feet of carbonic acid be mixed so that the percentage should be reduced 
to 0.1242, the amount found? Since the external air contains a little 
carbonic acid, more of it would be needed that if it were free from that 



If V represents the volume of pure air which must be added, and a is the fraction 
which the carbonic acid in the air [0.04 per cent.] is of the limit of impurity in the 
mixture [0.1242 per cent.], the volume of air Vi which must be added is found £rom 
the expression 

Vi=V-{-ra-]-ra^+ . . . ra"^. 

In this way it is found that in order to reduce 65.86 cubic feet of carbonic acid to 
0.1242 of the total bulk, we require 76,600 cubic feet of air. That is, in 6 hours 76,600 
cubic feet of air must pass through the room and carry oflf 0.1242 per cent, of its bulk 
of carbonic acid. 

This gives to each man 13.3 cubic feet a minute, which is too little ac- 
cording to Eoscoe's views, who thought 20 cubic feet necessary. Eoscoe 
found 23.71 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000 of air in a school room of 
22,140 cubic feet, containing 164 boys. The ventilation was sensibly im- 
perfect, and the computation showed less than 6 cubic feet per head per 
minute. In another school room of 4,640 cubic feet contents there were 
67 boys. The carbonic acid was 31 pai'ts in 10,000, and the computa- 
tion showed 240 cubic feet per head per hour, or 4 per minute. 

The formula given by Eoscoe was employed by Luptou in com- 
puting the amount of ventilation in the schools of Nashville, Tenn., 
which was given in a previous table. Lupton changed the formula to 

Fi= F| - — J, " as it is an infinite decreasing series." 

To determine, then [he says], the quantity of air in its normal condition which 
must be add^d to one of the rooms [the first in the table], containing 136 persons, so 
as to give in one hour and a half the percentage of carbon dioxide (0.3242 per cent.) 
found, we proceed as follows : if one person exhales 0.6^6 cubic foot of carbon dioxide 
in one hour, 136 persons will exhale 139.944 cubic feet in one hour and a half. By a 
simple proportion we get the value of F, which, multiplied by the fraction in the 
equation, whose terms are known, we get within reasonable limits of the quantity of 
air with which 139.944 cubic feet of carbon dioxide must be mixed in order to make 
the percentage of ihis gas amount to 0.3242, the quantity actually found in the room. 
The calculation gives 49,242 cubic feet of air as necessary to reduce 139.944 cubic feet 
of carbon dioxide to 0.3242 per cent, of the total bulk. ' This allows to each person 4 
cubic feet per minute, which is not sufficient for healthful respiration. 

All the formulas of this kind are based on the assumption which ex- 
periment substantially supports, that the new air mixes with that in the 
room, and does not drive it out bodily volume for volume. 

1 Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, 1858. 
618 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 381 

Kohlrausch's formula is 

(7= -Jj 

in which 

6^= the volume of fresh air in cubic meters which is introduced into 
the room in the unit of time. 

m=volume of the room in cubic meters. 

T=the time between the beginning and end of an experiment, ex- 
pressed in the same units to which G is referred. 

jpi=the amount of CO2 found in the room at the beginning, and 

2>2=the amount of CO2 at the end of the experiment. 

a=the amount of CO2 found in the outside air. 

fc=the volume of CO2 given off by one source of CO2 (or by one 
individual) in the unit of time, and 

w=:the number of such sources (or individuals). 

The formula is obtained as follows : In the first minute the increase 
in CO2 is nlc-{-aG—piG=nTc-\-{a—pi)C. In the last minute it is nk-\-aG 
—^2G=n1c-\-{a—p2)G. Taking the mean during the time T of experi- 
ment, the approximate value would be 

^[nTc+G{a-pi)+n1c-^C{a-p2)]=nJc+GQi-^^^y 
The increase during the time T would therefore be 



le whole room, or the total 



and the ratio of this to the whole room, or the total increase in CO2, would 
be 



m 



If the original amount of CO2 in the room was pi, and the amount at 
the end of the experiment was ^21 the increase would 'bep2—p^. There- 
fore 



[«;i+0(a_^^)]T 



m 
or 



=P2-Pl, 



{P2-Pi)7p-nlc 

C= -, y 

a- 2 
or 

nfe+(_pi-j)2)^ 
0= , -' 

The formula is sufficiently accurate for experiments lasting only a 
short time. In using it, therefore, collections of air for carbonic acid de- 
terminations should be made at intervals of fifteen or twenty minutes. 

619 



382 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Witli longer intervals, say from half an hour to an hour, the formula is 
said not to give such accurate results. The results can be compared 
with those of the formulas given below which express the amount of 
fresh air required to keep the impurity down to a given standard. 

A complicated formula by Professor Seidel of Munich was used by 
Schottky in his examination of the schools of Breslau above referred to. 
He found that there was a ventilation of 5.2 cubic meters per head per 
hour on the average (or 183 cubic feet) with the hot air system, and 
less with the other forms of heating. He thinks the Petteukofer limit 
too low for schools, and refers to Breiting, who sets 20 parts of OO2 in 
10,000 as allowable in school rooms. His own conclusions are that 25, 
and even 30, i)arts of CO2 in 10,000 are not too high. 

If it is desired to compute the amount of fresh air required to keep 
the impurity of room air down to a given limit, the principle employed 
by Dr. De Chaumont already quoted is adopted. The following is a 
summary of the section on the subject in Lang's Natilrliclie Ventilation, 

The problem is to know what quantity of fresh air (7, containing a 
parts of CO2, is necessary per hour in order to keep the proportion of 
OO2 down to a certain limit p, in a room containing n persons, each of 

whom breathes Jc liters of CO2 per hour, or -— — cubic meters. The value 

' 1000 

of h changes with age and sex, varies with the amount of work done, 
and is different at ditterent hours of the day. Thus, according to Pet- 
teukofer, a workman gave out 36.3 liters per hour while at work, and 
only 22.6 liters while resting. Scharling's observations are as follows : 



Boy 

Girl 

Touth 

Young woman 

Man 

Woman 



Age. 


Weight. 


Hourly i 
of 




Pounds. 


Liters. 


9| 


48.5 


10.3 


10 


50.5 


9.7 


16 


127 


17.4 


17 


123 


12.9 


28 


180 


18.6 


35 


144 


17.0 



Cubic inches. 

628 

592 
1,062 

787 
1,135 
1,037 



It is as well to take the production of carbonic acid of an adult for 
scholars over 13 years of age. In gymnasia, fencing scliools, dancing 
halls, etc., the production of carbonic acid by a strong man may be 
taken at 36 liters (2,196 cubic inches). Thus the value of k is given by 
these conditions. 

The value of p varies with the standard established, whether the Pet- 
teukofer limit of 0.0007 to 0.001 for large rooms, or 0.0010 to 0.0015 pro- 
posed by Lang for smaller and tolerably well ventilated rooms, be 
adopted. The amount a of carbonic acid in the incoming air is also 
different in different j^laces, and should be determined each time. In 
Munich the proportion varied between 0.0003 and 0.0004, and 0.0005 
may be taken as representing the amount entering dwelling rooms. 

The computation is simple. According to Vierordt the expired air 
contains 43.34 parts in a thousand of carbonic acid. Each breath may 
be taken at 500 cubic centimeters for an adult. According to Hutch- 
inson's observations the number of breaths is 1,050 an hour. If the 
limit of impurity is 0.7 per thousand, and a is 0.5 per thousand, we have 

43 34 43 34 

^ ' '\, ^ = — -^ — =216.7 volumes of fresh air needed for every volume 
0.7—0.5 0.2 

of expired air. The latter amounts to 525 liters per head per hour, con- 

620 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 383 

seqiiently the amouut of fresh air required for a man is 525 x 216.7 = 
113.8 cubic meters (3,994 cubic feet). 

One could also say : 1,000 c. c. of breath contain 43.34 c. c. carbonic acid. 
Every breath of a volume of 500 c. c. would therefore contain 21.67 
c. c, or 0.02167 of a liter, of carbonic acid. With 1,050 breaths per hour, 
therefore, 22.75 liters of carbonic acid would be given out into the room. 
If the limit of impurity is to be 0.0007 and the carbonic acid of the in- 
coming air is 0.0005, we have, since 22.75 iiters=0.02275 of a cubic meter, 

0*^275 
ononV naf[nf^ ~'^'^^''^^ cubic meters (or 3,992 cubic feet). With a higher 

limit the figure would of course be smaller. 

1c 

The previous formula was C= If we now take into account 

p—a 

the cubic space per head we get another very simple formula. It is 

C= — m, or, C= ''~'^^'^\P~^ ) QYi being the cubic space per head. The 

p—a ' p—a 

formula applies to the time in which the CO2 increases from a to p. 

Example. — Taking the mean of the figures of Pettenkofer, Voit, and 
Scharling for the CO2 evolved per head per hour, viz, 22.6, 16.8, and 
18.6 liters, which is 19.3 liters, we have, without taking the cubic space 

7c 0193 

per head into account, C= -, or-—^^-^^ — ^^^^=96.5 cubic meters, or 

^ ' p—a 0.0007—0.0005 

019S 
-. , ,,,,,; ,,, ^ =38.6 cubic meters, of fresh air per head, according to 

0.0010—0.0005 ' r J & 

the standard of purity required. In a lecture room of 670 cubic meters 
capacity holding 200 adults, m would be 3.4 cubic meters. Using the 

last formula we have 0=-^— ^=96.5-3.4=93.1 cubic meters, or 38.6 

p—a 

—3.4=35.*^ cubic meters per head, according to the limit required. With 
a small cubic space, therefore, the difference in the required ventilation 
is small, but with larger rooms (or larger cubic space) the required ven- 
tilation would be lessened. 

Professor Heymann of Stockholm made an examination of the schools 
of that city in order to furnish a committee of the medical society of 
Sweden evidence of the influence of schools on health.^ He proposes 
a formula for computing the coefficient of ventilation which is thus ob- 
taiued. If it is desired to keep the carbonic acid of a school room down 
to 10 parts in 10,000, the volume of air necessary for that purpose can 
be computed, the carbonic acid of the outer air and of the breath of an 
individual being known. Pettenkofer, Voit, and Scharling have deter- 
mined that the amount of carbonic acid exhaled per hour by persons 
betAveen 8 and 14 years of age is from 12 to 15 liters (732 to 915 cubic 
inches), and for older persons 15 to 20 liters (915 to 1,221 cubic inches). 
This is an average which varies greatly with circumstances. In cities, 
according to Angus Smith, the carbonic acid of the outer air is nearer 
4 parts in 10,000 than 3. 

To compute the coefficient of ventilation it is assumed that the air of 
a school is as pure as the outer air at the outset of the experiment, and 
that the incoming air mixes with that of the room equally. 

The measures are in cubic meters. 

^Annales WHijfjihne Publique, S^ S^r., 6, 1881. 

621 



384 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Let F=the coefficient of ventilation sought. 
'y=cubic space for each scholar=7 c. m. 
ifc=contents of incoming air in carbonic acid=0.0004. 
fci= contents of room air in carbonic acid at outset =0.0004. 
fc2=contents of room air in carbonic acid at end of the hour=0.001 

(=the limit). 
a=quantity of carbonic acid exhaled per head per hour=0.012 

to 0.015. 
w=mean contents of the room air in carbonic acid during the 

hour=M00i+0:051=0.0007. 

Then 

7 X 0.001=7 X 0.0004+0.012+ Fx 0.0004— 7 x 0.0007 

Carbonic Carbonic acid Carbonic Carbonic acid Carbonic acid 
acid at end at beginning, acid ex- introduced. carried out. 

of hour for haled per 

each person. head per 

hour. 

whence F(0.0007-0.0004)=0.012-.7(0.001-0.0004), or F=26 c. m. (=918 
cubic feet) for each scholar. 

The author prefers to use w, the arithmetical mean of carbonic acid 
at the beginning and end of the hour, instead of a value obtained by 
analysis. 

The general formula according to which the amount of ventilation 
can always be calculated when the quantities above indicated are known 
is as follows: 

«fc2='»fci+a+FA;— Fw, or F=^~^l^~~^il 

U K 

The formula shows that the greater fci is and the smaller t?, the greater 
is F; that is to say, the higher the amount of carbonic acid at the be- 
ginning of the hour and the less the cubic space per scholar, the larger 
is the amount of fresh air required to keep the carbonic acid from ex- 
ceeding the limit. 

He uses this formula to compute the cubic meters of fresh air for one 
hour for one person as follows : 



Individual 

space in 

cubic meters. 


For young children ! For older children 
a=0. 012. j a=0. 015. 

1 


Tor adults 
a=0. 020. 


1 
Limits of impurity. Limits of impurity. 

i 


Limits of impurity. 


7 (in 10,000). 


10 (in 10,000). 


7 (in 10,000). 


10 (in 10,000). 


7 (in 10, 000). 


10(inlO,000). 


5 


70 
68 
66 
64 
62 
60 


30 ! 90 
28 I 88 
26 86 


40 
38 
36 
34 
32 
30 


123.3 
121.3 
119.3 
117.3 
115.3 
113.3 


66.6 
54.6 
52.6 
50.6 
48.6 
46.6 


6 


7 


8 


24 


84 


9 


22 
20 


82 
80 


10 





These calculations give the ventilation for one hour if the air is pure 
at the start. The quantity would be greater if the time were longer 
and the air were not pure at the start. 

622 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



385 



In determiniilg the carbonic acid of room air the Pettenkofer method 
was employed in most" of the analyses referred to above. A modifica- 
tion of that method, which is often referred to and which appears to 
have advantages of convenience, simplicity, and rapidity of execution, 
was made by Dr. W. Hesse, and a description of it is given here, taken 
from Winkler's Anleitung zur cliemisclien Untersuclmng der Industrie- Gase. 
The analysis is made in the small flasks in which the air is collected by 
inserting the burette through their rubber stoppers without the neces- 
sity of opening them, and collection and analysis can be made in the 
room nnder examination. It should be said that Pettenkofer, who was 
tlie father of this whole branch of technical analysis, also nsed the 
same llask for collection and analysis, making the titration by a burette 
inserted through the stopper of the flask. ^ His flasks, however, were 
relatively large, holding 3,500 c. c. 

The apparatus employed by Hesse consists (like that of Pettenkofer) 
of the reserve or laboratory portion, and the transportable set. 

A. The laboratory apparatus comprises the following articles: 

(1) A glass jar of several liters capacity, containing concentrated 
baryta water. The solution is prepared by adding 4 to 5 liters of dis- 
tilled water to 1 kilogramme of barium hydrate with 50 grammes of chlo- 
ride of barium. As the solution is used water is added from time to 
time as long as there is enough of the hydrate to saturate it. 

(2) A flask of dilute baryta water, which is provided with a con- 
trivance for freeing the air which enters it from carbonic acid. The 
latter consists of a small flask containing pumice stone saturated with 
a concentrated solution of potash. (See Fig. 2.) The dilute baryta 




Fig. 2. 

water is prepared by adding about 30 c. c. concentrated baryta water 
to every liter of distilled water, ot, directly, by dissolving 1.7 grammes 
of a mixture of barium hydrate and chloride of barium (20:1) in a liter 
of distilled water. 

(3) A flask of oxalic acid solution made by dissolving 5.6325 grammes 
crystallized oxalic acid in a liter of distilled water. One cubic centi- 
meter of this solution indicates 1 c. c. of CO2. 

(4) A small flask of rosolic acid solution, 1 part acid to 250 alcohol. 
B. The transportable apparatus consists of — 

(1) Five thick- walled conical Erlenmayer's flasks of }, i, -J, and -^^ liter 
contents, provided with well-fitting rubber stoppers with two holes bored 



1 Cliem. Soc. Quarterly Journal, Vol. X (1858), p. 294. 
7950 COT., PT. 2 25 



623 



386 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

through them. Each of the first four flasks is marked at the place wliei e 
the end of the stopper reaches when pressed in, and the coutents is 
scratched on the flask with the diamond. (Hesse obtained the coutents 
by weighing- the flasks empty, and filled with water.) Each of these 
flasks has two pieces of glass rod 3 to 5 cm. long, which fit the holes 
in the stoppers. They should have one end rounded in the flame and 
have a small knob at the other^ 

(2) A thick walled 10 c. c. pipette. 

(3) A burette of 10 to 15 c. c. contents, graduated to tenths, having 
a glass stop-cock, with its end drawn out to a length of 7 to 10 cm, 

(4) A flask holding 300 c. c. for dilute baryta Avater, provided with an 
arrangement for guarding against the entrance of CO2 like that de- 
scribed above. This flask is easily filled from the reserve flask in the 
laboratory by using the siphon tube of the latter, as shown in Fig. 2, by 
removing the glass plugs connecting the tubes of each and opening the 
pinch-cocks. Before beginning an experiment a few drops of rosolic 
acid solution are added to the baryta water to color it. The fainter the 
color the sharper the end reaction, but the color should not be so faint 
as to be indistinct. The j)roper depth of color lasts about three days, 
and then fades, so that a few more drops of rosolic acid solution must 
be added. 

(5) A ^-liter flask for dilute oxalic acid. The dilution is made by 
running 25 c. c. of the titrated oxalic acid solution into a 250 c. c. flask, 
and filling to the mark with distilled water. (This solution is therefore 
one-tenth as strong as the laboratory solution, so that 1 c. c. indicates 
^ o. c. of OO2.) 

(6) A thermometer. 

(7) A barometer (small aneroid). 

The solutions allotted to the transportable apparatus are sufficient to 
allow of making 30 separate determinations, or (including the control 
determinations and standardizing) at least 10 experiments. 

With reference to conducting the carbonic acid determination by 
Hesse's method it should be premised tha^every determination is made 
in duplicate, with a different volume of air. According as there is rea- 
son to suspect a greater or less proportion of carbonic acid in the air, 
flasks of one-half and one-fourth, or one-fourth and one eighth, or one- 
fourth and one-twelfth liter capacity are employed to collect the air for 
examination. The flasks are filled with the air of a place by filling them 
on the spot with water which has acquired the temperature of the place, 
emptying them, and rinsing them with distilled water, care being taken 
not to warm the flasks with the hand and not to allow the breath to 
enter them. To absorb the carbonic acid, the 10 c. c. pipette is pushed 
through one of the holes of the rubber stopper which is to close the 
flask, is rinsed with a little baryta water (by removing the plug at a 
(Fig. 2), inserting the tip of the pipette there, opening the pinch-cocks, 
and sucking the baryta water into the pipette), and is then sucked full 
of baryta water to the mark ; the stopper carrying the pipette is then tit- 
ted into its place in the mouth of the flask and the baryta water is al- 
lowed to run in. While this is going on the other hole in the stopper is 
kept partly closed with the finger or a glass plug, so that the air can 
just escape from the flask. Then the glass plug is fitted in tightly, the 
pipette is withdrawn after warming with the hand for a moment while 
the upper end is closed with the finger, to empty it, and the hole it oc- 
cupied is also closed with a glass plug. The same operation is repeated 
with another flask of a different capacity, and both vessels are allowed 

624 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 387 

to stand some time with occasional shaking while the strength of the 
baryta water is determined. 

This is done as follows : by a preliminary trial it is found how much 
oxalic acid solution is needed to exactly neutralize 10 c. c. baryta water 
which have been run directly into a flask for that purpose. Nearly as 
much oxalic acid solution as was found to neutralize the baryta Avater 
in the previous experiment is run into the one-sixteenth liter flask and 
10 c. c. of the baryta water to be examined are run directly into it from 
a pipette, whereby q^ slight coloration is produced (the dilute baryta 
water being tinted with rosolic acid) because the baryta water is in 
slight excess. The exact neutralization is then effected by adding the 
oxalic acid solution from the burette drop by drop, and the volume is 
read off. This way has the advantage that the titration can be made 
with great accuracy even in an atmosphere rich in carbonic acid, be- 
cause the fluid never becomes alkaline enough to take up noticeable 
quantities of that gas from the air. 

In titrating the baryta water which has been shaken with air in the 
flask, the usual separation of the precipitated carbonate of baryta is 
dispensed with and the titration is carried on directly in the flask in the 
following way. One of the glass plugs is removed from the rubber stop- 
per and is replaced by the drawn out end of the burette containing the 
oxalic acid solution. The end should be i:)ushed as far down into the 
flask as possible (see Fig. 3). Then the stop-cock of the burette is 
opened and the acid solution is allowed to run 
into the flask, at first rapidly and finally drop by 
drop. If the pressure in the flask becomes so 
great as to hinder the flow of the solution, it can 
be relieved by lifting the glass plug for an instant. 
As soon as decolorization occurs the quantity of 
solution used is read off on the burette, and the 
baryta water in the second flask is titrated in the 
same way. It is obvious that with small percent- 
ages of carbonic acid the accuracy of the results 
will be greater, the larger the volume of air op- 
erated on, and Hesse accordingly uses a flask of 
f to 1 liter capacity whenever the carbonic acid 
is expected to be below the limit for inhabited 
rooms, as in the open air, or indeed whenever the 
greatest accuracy is desired. The baryta water 
must always be taken in sufficient quantity to 
make sure of an excess of baryta. The small 
quantity of carbonic acid which the inflowing 
baryta water takes from the air it displaces, may 
be disregarded. 

In calculating the analysis the volume of air op- 
erated on should be reduced to 0° C. and 700 mm. 

barometric pressure for th e sake of comparison, by 

the usual formula, which is ^la. 3. 




760 (1+0.003665^) 



where Vo is the volume of air reduced to 0^ C. and 760 mm., v the vol- 
ume of air operated on, h the observed height of the barometer (or read- 
ing of the aneroid) at the time of the exj^eriment, and t the temperature 
(centigrade) at the same time. 

625 



388 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



Example. — If v=556 c. c, 6=740 mm., and ^=16°, tlieu 

556 X 740 

760 (1+0.003665x16) 
When no barometer is available a correction for temperature alone is 



Vr,= 



=511 c. c. 



made by using the formula Vf^-- 



-, in which v^ is the volume 



1+0.003665^ 

corrected for temperature, v the volume of air in the flask, and t the 

temperature (in centigrade degrees) at the time of the experiment. 

556 
Example. — v^= ^ — _____i^ — ^^=525. (If the temperatureis below 0° 0. 
^ 1+0.003665x16 ^ ^ 

,, . , , v&( 1+0.003665^) ^ 
the formula becomes v^= — !^ — ^77^^ •) 

Suppose ■y=223 c. c, ^=19^, 5=739 mm., the quantity of oxalic acid 
which will neutralize 10 c. c. of baryta water =11.5 c. c, and the quan- 
tity found necessary to neutralize the baryta water in the experiment 
=6.2 c. c. Then 11.5—6.2=5.3 c. c, less of the oxalic acid solution was 
needed to neutralize the 10 c. c. of baryta water introduced into the 
flask than 10 c. c. of pure baryta water required, which difference is due 
to the carbonic acid absorbed from the air of the flask by the baryta. 
As the normal oxalic acid was of such strength that 1 c. c.=l c. c. CO2, 
while the dilute solution used in the .experiment is one-tenth as strong, 
the 5.3 c. c. are equivalent to 0.53 c. c. CO2 which have combined with 
the baryta. Then we have the proportioa, the air of the flask (=223 c. c. 
—10 c. c. baryta water run in=213 c. c.) is to the CO3 it contains 
(=0.53 c. c.) as one liter (=1000 c. c.) is to x, the quantity of CO2 in a 
liter, =2.49 c. c, the air not being reduced to 0° and 760 mm. After 
reduction .by the above formula 213 c. c. become 194 c. c. Hence, 194 
c. c, the corrected volume of air, is to 0.53 c. c, the amount of CO2 it 
contains, as 1,000 c. c. is to 2.73 c. c, or the air contains 2.73 parts in 
a thousand (or 27.3 parts in 10,000). 

As the Pettenkofer method and its modifications involve some trouble 
and skill, simpler means have been proposed for estimating roughly the 
degree of respiratory impurity in the air as measured by its carbonic 
acid. Some of these are described here Avithout comment. 

One method is to use a small 
bottle containing baryta water 
connected with a hand ball of 
known contents, so that measured 
quantities of air can be pumped 
through the bottle and baryta 
water until a turbidity is pro- 
duced. The number of pumps 
corresponding to a given amount 
of carbonic acid is ascertained, 
so that the appearance of the 
turbidity indicates at once the 
amount of carbonic acid. 

The details are as follows (see 
Fig. 4). A bottle holding about 
50 c. c. is provided with a cork 
having two holes bored in it. Through one of the holes passes a glass 
tube 5, which reaches nearly to the bottom of the bottle, and to its 
outer end is attached a piece of thin-walled rubber tubing. Through 
the other hole is fitted a bent glass tube which extends only a short 
626 




Fig. 4. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 



389 



distance beneath the cork, and is connected outside with a thick- 
walled rubber tube about a foot long. This tube, which should have 
a short slit made lengthwise with a sharp knife near its end c to act 
as a valve, is connected with a hand ball such as is used for spraying, 
and can be bought readily. The contents of the ball should be 
ascertained by inserting the end of the tube into a measuring glass 
filled up with water, and inverted over water. In some cases it is 
about 28 c. c, but on compression by the action of the hand only 
yields 23 c. c. Seven c. c. of clear baryta water (of a solution of about 
6 grammes to the liter) are introduced into the bottle, w^hich is first filled 
with the air of a place by a few compressions of the ball, and then the 
stopper is replaced, and the bottle is shaken. From the size of the bot- 
tle (50 c. c.) this answers to two emptyings of the ball. Then the small 
caoutchouc tube connected with the long ghiss tube is squeezed together 
by the finger and thumb and the hand ball is compressed. The air es- 
capes through the slit in the caoutchouc tube connected with the hand 
ball, and on releasing the latter and leaving the other caoutchouc tul>e 
free, air enters the bottle through it and the long glass tube (because the 
walls of the slit are closed by external pressure), and passes through the 
baryta water. The bottle is shaken again, and if tliere is no turbidity the 
pumping operation is repeated until it appears. To make the turbidity 
more evident a piece of paper may be gummed on the bottle, having on 
the inner side a lead pencil mark which should be below^ the level of the 
liquid in the bottle. When on looking through the liquid the mark be- 
comes indistinct, the right point has been reached. 

The following table shows the amount of carbonic acid corresponding 
to the emptying of a ball of the above dimensions: 



No. of 


Volumes of CO2 


No. of 


Volumes of CO2 


emptyings. 


in 10,000 of air. 


emptyings. 


in 10, 000 of air. 


4 


22.0 


12 


, 7.4 


6 


17.6 


13 


6.8 


6 


14.8 


14 


6.3 


7 


12.6 


15 


5.8 


8 


11.0 


16 


5.4 


9 


9.8 


17 


5.1 


10 


8.8 


18 


4.9 


U 


8.0 







Angus Smith recommends a hand-ball of two ounces, and a bottle of 
the same capacity + the space required for the baryta water, viz, half 
an ounce. Then when the bottle is filled with the air of a place by one 
or two pumps of the ball before the liquid is put in, that counts for one 
ballful of air. The baryta water is then put in and the operation con- 
tinued. His table is as follows: 



Nnmber of 
strokes 
of the 


Per cent, of 

carbonic acid 

in the air. 


Actual amount of 

carbonic acid 
in the air of the ball 


finger-pump. 


mc. c. 


1 


.444 


.2515 


2 


.222 


.1257 


3 


.148 


.0838 


4 


.111 


.0629 


6 


.088 


.0503 


6 


.074 


.0419 


7 


.063 


.0359 


8 


.055 


.0314 


9 


.049 


.0279 


10 


.044 


.0251 


11 


.040 


.Q229 


12 


.037 


.0209 


13 


.034 


.0193 


14 


.032 


.0180 


15 


.029 


.0167 



627 



390 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



Another application of tbe same principle is a simple apparatus in- 
vented by Prof. Dr. Wolpert, of Kaiserslautern, Germany. It consists 
of a small glass cylinder for holding lime water and a small glass tube 
provided with a rubber hand-ball, of known capacity, for bubbling air 
through the lime water. More in detail, the glass cylinder or tube for 
the lime water is 4J inches long and ^ an inch in diameter, and has a 
white porcelain botfom. On the inside of this white bottom are marked 
in black the figures 1882, which are easily seen on looking down the 
tube. On the side of the tube, about an inch from the bottom, is a mark 
to indicate the height to which clear lime water is to be poured when 
the experiment is made. On taking the handball tube to any part of 
ii room and squeezing the ball the air it contains is expelled, and is re- 
placed by that of the locality when the hand pressure is relaxed and 
the ball recovers its shape. The tube is now placed in the glass cylin- 
der, which is held upright in a small wooden support and has been 
filled to the mark with lime water, with its end against the bottom of 
the cylinder, and its air is squeezed out so as to bubble up through the 
lime water. The operator should regulate the pressure so as not to 
allow any of the lime water to bubble over the top of the cylinder or to 
be sucked up into the hand-ball. This operation is to be repeated 
u«til, on looking down the tube at the black figures 1882, they just be- 
come illegible on account of the turbidity produced in the lime water 
above them by the carbonic acid of the air which has been bubbled 
through it. A printed table accompanying each box of apparatus gives 
the proportion of carbonic acid in 1,000 parts of air corresponding to 
the number of squeezes of the hand-ball necessary to produce the tur- 
bidity above described. Thus, if 20 squeezes of the hand-ball cause 
turbidity enough to obscure the dark figures, there is 1 part of carbonic 
acid in 1,000 of air (or 10 parts in 10,000). Ten squeezes indicate 2 parts 
ill 1,000 (or 20 in 10,000), and so on. If, therefore, from ten to twenty 
squeezes produce enough turbidity to obscure the mark, the air under 
examination is very bad; if more than twenty are necessary, the air is 
tolerable or good, according to the number of squeezes, 50 being the 
maximum number and indicating pure air. 

Blochmann's method for estimating tbe carbonic acid in room air is 
in substance as follows:^ he uses a fiask of 505 c. c, introduces into 
it 5 c. c. of lime water saturated, and of known strength, and three 
drops of phenolphthaleine (1 part in 1000 of 60 per cent, alcohol). 
The flask is then closed with a stopper carrying a long glass tube reach- 
ing nearly to the lime water, and a short bent tube through which suc- 
tion can be applied. He sucks the flask full of air and shakes it two 
or three minutes, and so on, until the phenolphthaleine loses its color. 
Some of the carbonic acid to the extent of 10 per cent, escapes unab- 
sorbed, but a correction is made for this. The following is a corrected 
table: 



Number of 
fillings. 


Volume of car- 
bonic acid iu 
10,000. 


Number of 
fillings. 


Volume of car- 
bonic acid in 
10;000. 


1 


60 


11 


5.5 


2 


80 


12 


5.0 


3 


20 


rs 


4.6 


4 


15 


u 


4.3 


5 


12 


15 


4.0 


6 


10 


10 


3.8 


7 


8.6 


17 


3.6 


8 


7.5 


18 


3.4 


9 


6.7 


m 


3.2 


10 


6.0 


20 


3.0 



628 



'Fresenius: Zeitschrifl fur analyiische Chemie, 23, 1884. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS— PAPERS. 391 

This method was cliecked by the Pettenkofer method, and the follow- 
ing table shows the degree of accuracy it possesses when the two are 
compared : 







Carbonic acid 


ISTumber of 
fillings. 


Carbonic acid 
from preced- 


of the same 
air by the 


ing table. 


Pettenkofer 






method. 


10-11 


5. 5- 6. 


5.8 


8- 9 


e. 7- 7. 5 


7.1 


7 


8.6 


8.8 


6- 7 


8. 6-10 


9.5 


6 


10 


9.7 


5 


12 


11.5 


4 


15 


15 



A compact apparatus for showing the amount of carbonic acid in 
room air has been devised by Mr. F. N. Owen of New York, and is de- 
S(!ribed in the Sanitary Engineer of April 3, 1884, and in Dr. Billing's 
work before referred to. It consists essentially (see Fig. 5) of an aspi- 
rator which is formed of two graduated tiasks placed mouth to mouth, 
connected with glass tubes furnished with stop-cocks, and set in a re- 
volving frame so as to act continuously. On the outside of the box 




Fig. 5. 



containing the frame is fixed a set of glass bulbs containing dilute 
baryta water tinged crimson with phenolphthaleine, and connected with 



629 



392 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the aspirator through, a glass tube. Ou bringing the flask filled with 
water uppei:most and allowing the apparatus to work, the carbonic acid 
of the air ou passing through the iDaryta solution decolorizes it, and 
when this occurs the action of the aspirator is stopped and the quantity 
of air which has passed through the apparatus is read off on the grad- 
uated flasks. Tables have been iDrepared which render calculations 
unnecessary, and show at a glance the proportion of carbonic acid in 
the air which has passed through the baryta water. 
630 



THE ALLEGED INOEEASE OF NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS AMONG 
SCHOOL CHILDREN. 

Report of a Committee of the National Educational Association. 



Mr. President and Memhers of the Congress — Your attention is respect- 
fully called to the facts herewith presented, as transcribed from an 
article on '• School Room Diseases " by Dr. Rudolph Virchow, of Berlin, 
Prussia, and furnished to your committee in August, 1880, by Mr. Charles 
Warren, then acting Commissioner of the Bureau of Education, Wash- 
ington, D. G. 

The first relia.ble facts, based on tlie most tliorougli investigations, were published 
Id 1866 by Dr. Herman Cohn, of Breslau, Prussia. He has examined five village schools 
ill Langenbielaii (a village of Silesia), and the following schools in the city of Breslau : 
Twenty elementary schools, two higher girls' schools, two intermediate schools, two 
realschaJen (non-classical colleges), and two gymnasieri (classical colleges). Of the 
10,060 scholars in these institutions, Dr. Cohn examined 6,059 himself, while the re- 
mainder were examined by teachers according to careful instructions. Of the students 
of the University of Breslau, Dr. Cohn personally examined 410. Among the 10,060 
scholars, * *■ * there are ten per cent, near-sighted, distributed in the following 
manner: 

Per cent. 
School. near-sighted. 

In the village schools 1.4 

In the city elementary schools 6. 7 

In the higher girls' schools 7. 7 ■ 

In the intermediate schools , 10. 3 

In the ' ^ real schools " , 19.7 

In the "gymnasia" 26. 

Of the 410 university students examined 60. 

This shows that near-sightedness steadily increases from the lower grades of schools 
to the higher ones. The same principle of increase may be observed in each of these 
schools, taken separately, showing a gradual increase from the lowest to the highest 
class, according to the following percentage : 



School. 


Per cent, near-sighted by claesee. 


VI. 


V. 


IV. 


in. 


II. 


1 
I. 


Elementary schools. . - 




2.9 
23.7 


4.1 
31.0 


9.8 
41.3 


9.8 
55.8 


G-ymnasia 


12.5 


18.2 





Not only does the number of short-sighted cases increase from one class to the 
other, and from one grade of school to the other, but also the degree of short-sight- 
edness. ^ 

[Thus], in the thirty-three schools of Breslau, including its university. Dr. Cohn ex- 
amined 10,060 pupils of all grades, and found that 1,004 of the number, distributed 
among all the schools, were near-sighted; and that only twenty-eight of these had 
near-sighted parents. Of the children who were yet in their first half-year of school 
life, only 0.4 per cent, were near-sighted. Thence, upward, through seven biennial 

1 Circular of Information, Bureau of Education, August, 1870, pp., 21-22. 

631 



394 EDUCATI05TAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OllLEANS EXPOSITION. 

grades, the percentage increased till it reached 63.6 per cent, of those who had been 
fourteen years at school. The disease was found also to be progressive in degree. 

Eesults bearing a striking correspondence with these have since been reported by 
various eminent European oculists, chiefly the following: of 4,358 examinations by 
Dr. Erisman, of St. Petersburg, in 1871 ; of 1,058 by Dr. Eeusse, of Vienna, in 1872-'75 ; 
of 3,036 by Dr. Conrad, of Kouigsberg, in 1874-'75 ; and of 1,846 by Dr. Pfliiger, of 
Lucerne, in 1876. ^ 

For further facts pointing to the same conclusions, see the report of 
Dr. E. Javal, Director of the Laboratory of Ophthalmia at the Sorbonne. 
This report was read at the International Educational Congress at 
Brussels, in 1880, and valuable extracts were published in the Wew 
Education for February, and in the ISchool Bulletin for March, 1881. 

So much for investigations made in Europe. In America the results 
point to the same conclusions. 

The honor of originating and carrying forward the work in this coun- 
try belongs to Dr. Cornelius R. Agnew of New York. He has been 
ably seconded by Dr. Edward G. Loring, Jr., Dr. W. Cheatham, Dr. 
Peter A. Callan, and Dr. R. H. Derby, of IsTew York; Drs. Prout and 
Matthewson of Brooklyn ', Dr. Ayers and Dr. E. Williams of Cincin- 
nati; Dr. Lucien Howe of Buffalo; Dr. Hasket Derby of Boston; and 
many others. Though the results of these investigations differ in no 
respect from those of Dr. Cohn, yet a few references to them may not 
be out of place in this report. 

Dr. W. Cheatham examined 549 students of New York College, with 
the following results: 

Fer cent. 
Class. ' near-sighted^ 

Introductory 29 

Freshman , 40 

Sophomore 35 

Junior 53 

Senior 37 

In Brooklyn, Drs. Prout and Matthewson examined 300 in the Poly- 
technic Institute. 

Per cent. 
Class. ■ near-sighted. 

Academic , 10 

Collegiate 28 

In Cincinnati Dr. Ayers and Dr. E, Williams examined 630 students. 

Per cent. 
School. near-sighted. 

District ". 10 

Intermediate 14 

Normal high 16 

Dr. Lucien Howe examined 1,003 of the Buffalo public school students 
with the following results : 

Per cent. 
Age of students. .- near-sighted. 

Six years and under 

Seven 5 

Eleven 11 

Thirteen 19 

Eighteen 26 

Over twenty-one , 43 

1 Effects of Study on the Eyesight, by Ward McLean ; Popular Science Monthly,Yol. 
XII, p. 76. 
632 



INTERNATIOML congress of EDtJCAtOES — i*APEES. o95 

Dnrinjv the sninmer of 1876, Dr. E. G. Loring, Jr., of New York, assisted by Dr. E. 
H. Derby, examiiied the sigbt of 2,000 pupils of the Twelfth Street public school and 
the normal school in Sixty-sixth Street, New York. Their ages ranged from six to 
twenty-one years. As in'tho other examinations cited, myopia was found to affect a 
very small percentage of the pupils in their first year, and to increase yearly and 
largely thereafter, to the close of school life ; and that the average degree of near- 
sight increases with the age Tip to twenty-seven years. 

In the fall of 1875, Dr. Hasket Derby, of Boston, commenced a series of examina- 
tions at Amherst College, with the purpose of noting the progress of near sight in the 
same class and in the same individuals. The freshman and sophomore classes — 1880 
and 1879— were required to report to him ; and 27 per cent, of the former and ^8 per 
cent, of the latter were found to be near-sighted. In the fall of 1876 they were again 
examined, when the disease was found to have progressed in one-half the number of 
those previously [examined and] found to be myopic. ^ 

At this point in the. investigation the question would naturally arise 
whether this increase of near-sight is confined to young persons who 
attend school, or will it not be found among all classes of young people, 
whatever be their occupations ? Upon this point the observations have 
not been so numerous, yet enough has been done to make a conclusion 
fairly certain. 

Dr. Cohn examined the eyes of many j>easant children, living in a state of compar- 
ative simplicity, and having little or no occasion to tax or strain the sight, and found 
that hardly two in a hundred of them were near-sighted. Examinations have been 
made also of the sight of young factory operatives in large manufacturing towns of 
Europe, and the results exhibit a low percentage of myopia, corresponding to that 
of the peasant children here cited. 

Dr. Lucien Howe of Buffalo rei)orts as follows : 

Of 213 cases of eye diseases seen during the last year among the paupers of Buffalo 
the record shows only 3-J- per cent, to have been near-sighted. 

Dondus remarked this difference between his private patients, representing the 
wealthy and cultivated class, and his hospital patients : that while over-sight was 
distributed between the two classes in nearly equal proportion, near-sight occurred 
much more frequently among his private patients. 

Dr. Peter A. Callan of l^ew York has made some investigations on 
near-sight among the colored children of that city, which should not be 
neglected in this connection. 

He examined the sight of 457 colored school pupils, aged from five to nineteen 
years, of the New York public schools Nos. 3 and 4, and he found but 2.6 per cent, of 
them near-sighted. This field was selected because it was thought to furnish the 
nearest approach to the normal eye to be found in this locality. The Southern freed- 
meu, he thinks, would aflord the best possible field for this special line of investiga- 
tion. As a class, the colored people of New York, prior to this generation, had very 
limited educational advantages, and the occupations that tax the sight, like en- 
graving, etc., have never been known among them. But as these 457 subjects are 
now receiving the best school-training that the city affords, the superior condition of 
their sight must be referred to their freedom from hereditary tendency to myopia. 

For many of the facts presented above, your committee is indebted to 
a valuable article by Mr. Ward McLean, published in the Popular 
Science Monthly for November, 1877. 

From the vast array of facts here presented, covering about 40,000 
cases, the following conclusions force themselves upon us in a manner 
truly irresistible: , 

(1) That among young persons that have never attended school, and 
among children when they first enter our institutions of learning, the 
percentage of near-sight is very small indeed, it being often impossible 
to find a single case. 

(2) That very soon after entering school some children begin to" show 
symptoms of the disease. 

1 Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XII, p. 78. 

633 



396 EDUCATtONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

(3) That the number of children afflicted, and the degree or intensity 
of the disease, gradually but surely increase through the entire school 
life, from class to class, from year to year, until, when the colleges and 
universities are reached, in many cases more than half the students are 
nearsighted. 

The facts presented and the conclusions that irresistibly follow may 
well cause us to stop and question. Is it necessary that half or more 
of those who get an education must impair their sight in the getting f 
or may this disease be traced to errors that can be corrected ? It is 
hard to believe that Nature makes human beings in such a slipshod 
manner that they can become educated only by the sacrifice of their eye- 
sight, So large a percentage of near-sight, increasing, as it does, the 
farther students advance in their school-work, is strong j)resumptive 
evidence that there is something wrong in our manner of teaching. Are 
our methods Nature's methods ? for here, as elsewhere, Nature is very 
sure to guide us safely. 

Before the child ever sees the inside of a school room, he learns many 
useful things, often more than in the next five years after ; and yet this 
learning does not injure his eyes. All the investigations made show 
that children are free from near-sight at the time of entering school, 
but almost immediately thereafter the disease begins to show itself. 
This is conclusive evidence that the fault, to a great degree at least, is 
in the school. 

Nor need a man be very fully learned in the methods of deductive 
philosophy, to foretell that the results must be substantially as our ex- 
aminations have shown them. Before his school days begin, and while 
the child is really learning, and that too very rapidly, all the knowledge 
he gains is real knowledge of concrete things, gained through the use 
of all his senses and all his activities, by being brought into contact with 
the things he learns about. He is free to sit still or to move; to fix his 
attention upon a thing so long as it interests him, and then to leave It for 
something else. 

But at school nearly everything is unnatural. As often as otherwise 
the child is seated on a hard bench, so high that his feet cannot touch 
the floor, with the back so straight that a comfortable position is impos- 
sible, and with the desk so far in front of him that he cannot use it 
without leaning forward much farther than is good for either his back 
or his eyes. And there, with foul air to breathe, with windows shaded 
improperly or not at alj, with the light coming from the front as often 
as otherwise, and with nothing to make the place look cheerful or home- 
like, he is confined for six hours a day, five days in the week, from 
twenty-eight to forty-five weeks in the year, and for as many years as 
his constitution can stand such abuse or his parents afford to send him. 
In this room he seldom comes into contact with natural things, or even 
with representations of them, excepting his teachers and fellow students, 
and they are usually made as unnatural as possible. Seated on his high, 
hard bench, prohibited from looking to the right or to the left, book in 
hand, he is committing to memory the words of the author ; and this 
they call getting an education ! ! 

" What's in a name?" To go into some of our model city schools and 
see the children sitting there in nice, long, straight rows, all noiseless, 
all motionless, all afraid to move the head or change position, resembling 
rather so many lifeless, waxen dummies than living, feeling, thinking 
boys and girls, a stranger would naturally conclude that those children 
had committed some horrible crime for which they were suffering pun- 
ishment, or that an effort was being made to make over a room full of 
634 



INTEKNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 397 

cliiklren into a room full of blockheads; and in this last conclusion he 
wouldn't be far from right. 

- Your committee received too late to be put into the body of this re- 
port a pamphlet giving- the results of an examination of the eyes of 
the school children of Eockford, 111., made in 1880 by Drs. W. H. Fitch 
and F. H. Kimball. The results are in perfect harmony with those given 
in the first part of this report and need no conameut, but we beg time 
to quote one short passage : 

Auofclier interesting fact was noted during our work. Two of the schools under 
examination, of the same grade exactly, had adopted two different methods of in- 
struction. In one, the Fourth Ward school, text-books were but little used, the teachers 
depending almost entirely on blackboard instruction; m the other, the Chestnut 
Street school, the old method of teaching with text-books was employed. The exam- 
ination of these two schools was made with more than ordinary care and the results 
are perfectly correct. In the Fourth Ward school the total amount of myopi^a with 
both sexes and all ages was but 3.2 per cent., while in the Chestnut Street school the 
total myopia was 7.5 per cent. Here we have the amount of myopia reduced over 
one-half by the employment of a more rational method of instruction. Comment is 
superfluous. 

Your committee is of the opinion that the practice of requiring pupils 
to commit their lessons from books is not only the cause of much of this 
near-sightedness, but that it is a pernicious practice from every point of 
view, and more especially so when much of the so-called studying must 
be done at home evenings. Students under fourteen or fifteen years of 
age should never be required to do much studying out of school hours. 
Fewer hours of study and more rational modes of teaching, less cram- 
ming of mere memory and more healthy development of the intellect, 
will make brighter, healthier, more intelligent students, who will develop 
into stronger, sturdier, more energetic men and women. For such as 
these the practical affairs of life offer many and varied spheres of use- 
fulness, while for the sallow-faced, narrow-chested, weak-eyed, book- 
worm, there is no room in a busy world. 
All of which is most respectfully submitted. 

C. J. BUELL, * "j 

Edward Smith, | 

A. W. Norton, y Committee. 

0. Henry King, | 

W. H. Lbnnon, \ 

635 



O:^ THE CAUSES OF IKCEEASING NEAE-SIGHTEDInESS 
AMONG SCHOOL CHILDEEN. 

Report of a Committee of the National Educational Association. 



Mr. President and Members of the Congress — One year ago a Com- 
mittee on the Alleged Increase of Kear-sightedness among School 
Children presented a report, based upon the results of examinations 
jiuule in this country and Europe, on the eyes of about thirty thousand 
persons of all grades of intellectual attainment, from those who had 
never engaged in study to the highest classes in the universities. 

As a result of these examinations, your committee reported the fol- 
lowing conclusions: 

(1) That among young persons wIlo have never attended scliool and among children 
when they first eater our institutions of learning, the percentage of near-sight is very 
small indeed, it being often impossible to find a single case. 

(2) That A^ery soon after entering school some children . begin to show symptoms of 
the disease. 

(3) That the number of children afflicted and the degree or intensity of the disease 
"gradually but surely increase through the entire school life from year to year, until, 

when the colleges and universities are reached, in many cases more than half the stu- 
dents are near-sighted. 

The human eye is very much like a hollow sphere, with a small open- 
ing on one side through which rays of light may enter. Just behind 
this opening is a double convex lens, through which the rays of light 
must pass on their way into the eye. As the rays pass through this lens 
they are all bent in such a way that they are made to come together at 
one point, called a focus, somewhere behind the lens. At this focus is 
formed a small image of the object, from which the rays of light are 
reilected. In the back i)art, and covering the inner surface of this hol- 
low sphere, is a coating of peculiarly modified nerve tissue, called the 
retina, which is sensitive to light, and which is connected by the nerves 
of siglit directly with the brain. 

Now if the rays of light, which have been bent in passing through 
the lens in the front part of the eye, come to a focus upon the retiua, 
then the impression made by the image is conveyed to the brain, and 
we say we see such or such a thing, whatever it may be, from which the 
rays are reiiected ; but if the rays come to a focus anywhere else but 
on the retina no clear impression will be conveyed to the brain, and we 
will have either no sensation of sight at all or a very imperfect one. 

If the object from which the rays of light come into the eye be placed 
far away from the eye, the more nearly iDarallel will be the rays, and 
consequently the farther forward in the eye will be the place where they 
will be brought together at a focus. The nearer the object is to the 
eye, the farther back will be the focus where the rays converge. From 
this it follows that to be distinctly seen an object must not be too near 
the eye, nor yet too far away, but that it must be in such a position that 
its image will be clearly outlined upon the retiua. 
636 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 399 

It is also evideut that if the eye be so long from front to back that 
the rays come together before they reach the retina, or, if it be so short 
that the rays do not come together till after they reach the retina, then 
in neither case will there be any perfect Image of the object on the 
retina, and consequently no complete vision. 

Again, the more convex the lens by which the rays are bent to a 
focus, the nearer the lens will the focus be ; while the less convex the 
lens, the farther hack will the focus be. Accordingly the lens may be 
either too convex, or not enough so, to focus the raj's on the retina and 
produce distinct vision. 

Thus we see that there are three factors to be considered in order to 
understand the process of seeing plainly : the distance of the object from 
the eye, the length of the eyeball from front to back, and the convex- 
ity of the lens. 

In the eye is a little muscle, called the ciliary muscle, or the muscle 
of accommodation, whose function it is to lessen the convexity of the 
front surface of the lens (see " Physiology and Hygiene", by Huxlej^ and 
Youmans, pp. 262-263), and thus adjust the eye to distant objects. 
When the muscle relaxes, the front surface of the lens becomes more 
convex, and the eye is adjusted to nearer objects. 

In the normal eye the length of the ball and the mechanism of ad- 
justment are such that objects are distinctly seen when placed about 
the natural distance from the eye. When the eyeball is too short and 
the power of adjusting the lens is such that to be plainly seen an object 
must be placed farther away than usual, the eye is said to be over- 
sighted. 

]S'ow, when the ball is longer than usual, or the ciliary muscle is un- 
able to flatten the lens sufficiently to secure distinct vision without 
bringing the object nearer the eye than usual, such an eye is said to be 
near-sighted, and a person whose eyes are in this condition is said to 
sutler from near-sightedness. 

Consequently, it follows that anything that has a tendency to elon- 
gate the eyeball or to adjust the lens to nearer objects, will heli) to pro- 
duce near-sight. 

Perhaps one of the most usual causes is the prolonged straining of 
the eye in reading fine print, or in doing any fine work, by insufficient 
light. The continuous and unresting tension of the muscle of accom- 
modation causes it to lose a part of its elasticity, and consequently to 
weaken its control of the lens. Another effect of a prolonged strain of 
the eyes is seen in " the contraction and consequent thickening of tlie 
ujuscles that pull the two eyes inward so as to focalize the sight upon 
a near object," thus causing a pressure on the sides of the eye and a 
corresponding lengthening of the ball from front to back. "The inoue 
position of the head causes the blood to settle in the eyeballs, increas- 
ing the tension of the fluids, exciting inflammation and consequent soft- 
ening of the coatings, and resulting in permanent distention." School 
desks are usually so low and placed so far away from the scliolars that 
it is necessary to lean well forward and to bow the head considerably, 
]f the desk is to be of any benefit to the user. This could easily be 
remedied and much near-sightedness avoided. 

To study to the best advantage, the light should come, not from the 
Jrout, for then it shines directly into the eyes ; not from behind, for 
then tbe student is in his own light ; but from the sides ; and it is bet- 
ter if the light can come from the left than fi"om the right side ; for the 
right hand, being the one most used, will throw a shadow over the 
work, if -tlLe light come^ from that side. ]\Iany school-houses are not 

637 



400 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

suflQciently lighted ; or, if light enough be admitted, it comes from the 
wrong direction. School-rooms should be placed far enough from other 
buildings so as not to be shaded by them; a sufficient number of large 
windows should be provided ; the school building should stand in such 
a position that as few windows as possible shall admit the direct glare 
of the sun, and then such windows should be provided with translucent 
shades of an agreeable color. The walls, also, of the school-room should 
be of a color pleasant to look at. These precautions on the part of archi- 
tects and school boards would secure proper light for the children to work 
by while in school. 

At home the same care must be taken,. or the effects will still be bad. 
Many people ruin their eyes by reading or doing fine work at the hour 
of twilight. It is astonishing how few people provide themselves with 
lamps properly shaded, and yet lamp shades are not an expensive lux- 
ury. Dim lights, like the old-fashioned tallow candles, are very inju- 
rious to the eyes; so also are any lights that burn unsteadily. Of 
course, the best light of all is diffused sunlight, and any artificial light 
will be injurious just in proportion as it departs from the natural 
standard. 

ISTot only the light admitted to our school-rooms, but also the books, 
slates, and other materials used by students in preparing their lessons 
may have much influence in causing near-sight. The paper used in our 
school books should be so thick that the words will not show through; 
it should not be the clear bluish-white so often used; unbleached is far 
better, for from it the light is reflected less glaringly; the type should 
be large and clear ; the lines well separated and not too long. But 
books made in this way cost more, and we are strongly tempted to. 
purchase such miserable eye-destroyers as are most of the publications 
of the American Book Exchange. Your eyesight is worth far more 
than the difference in price. Near-sight is more frequent in Germany 
than in any other country, and Dr. B. Javal, Director of the Laboratory 
of Ophthalmia at the Sorbonue, considers this largely due to the pecu- 
liar form of the German letters, and to the practice 

among Germans of having their children read a great deal out of school hours, and 
pass the evening hours with an imperfect light, in deciphering Gothic characters 
printed upon a greasy, half-transparent paper. * * * This pernicious influence 
xipon the sight, of reading in the evening, is very perceptible in Alsace, where, since 
the annexation, the number of near-sighted jieople is visibly increased, without our 
being able to hnd any other difference in the regime than the introduction of German 
books into the class-rooms, and the obligation imposed upon the children to use them 
in the eveuings, which is only done exception ally in the French villages. 

Greasy slates should be avoided; also lead pencils so hard that they 
make an indistinct mark. 

Bad ventilation is quite generally regarded as the greatest curse of 
our northern, in-door civilization, but its evil effects upon the eyesight 
may not be so well understood. Dr. E. G. Loring, Jr., of New York, 
uses the following words: 

I am therefore of the opinion that bad air alone, acting as the primal cause, may set in 
train a series of morbid processes, which may, and often do affect, not only the work- 
ing capacity and integrity of the organ [of sight], but which may lead even to its 
total destruction. Thus simple irritation of the mucous membrane of the eye may, 
and often does, pass into actual inflammation, which, increasing in violence, may 
proceed from part to part till the entire organ is involved, and thus the sight become 
impaired or totally lost. 

Surely the average school room is none too well ventilated. 
In their report of last year, your committee referred to the effects of 
different methods of study on the eyesight. Two separate and antag- 
638 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 401 

onistic nietliods of study are employed iu our schools. The one, com- 
monly called the old-fashioned method, because more generally used in 
the past than now, takes the printed page as the basis of all study. It 
seems to take it for granted that the entire structure of human knowl- 
edge was made and finished years ago, and that the principal duty of 
the nineteenth century learner is to accept without question or investi- 
gation the statements of mediaeval writers. Whatever the subject may 
be — mathematics or science, literature or history — the students are set 
to committing a certain number of pages of the text book in use, and 
are expected to recite verbatim what they tJiinTc, perhaps, that they have 
learned. The other, which I shall call the natural method, because it 
is the one that has been employed in getting all first-hand information 
since man became an observing animal, bases education on the use of 
the senses and reasoning powers. It assumes that the child's powers 
of observation are his to use; that only by use can those powers be im- 
proved; that the function of memory is to re-collect and bring back 
into consciousness actual perceptions; that the imagination, reasoning 
iaculties, and powers of generalization should be cultivated in the order 
of their natural development; that mathematics, sciences, languages 
themselves should be studied, rather than some man's words about 
them ; that the idea is worth more than the clothing in which some one 
has dressed it; that books are useful, very useful, for study and refer- 
ence, but not to be committed verbatim; that the child's powers of 
speech should be increased side by side with his stock of ideas and 
powers of mind; and that when proving whether he understands his 
lesson, he should use his own words and not those of some one else. 

We do not wish to be understood to oppose all memorizing — far from 
it; but we think that students can find exercises more suitable for this 
purpose than are any of their regular daily lessons. Selections for 
memorizing should be brief and pointed, containing in few words a great 
truth, a gem of thought, a valuable maxim, or a popular proverb, with 
the name of the author when possible. Such selections are not difficult 
to find, and may be used with great benefit, as witness the results of 
the practice in the schools of Albany. 

In two of the schools of Eockford, 111., the examining physicians 
found these two methods of study in use, with the following results : 
In the school where the text-book method was employed, 7.5 per cent, 
of the students were found to be near-sighted; whereas, in the school 
where the natural method was in use, the near-sightedness amounted to 
only 3.2 per cent. The schools were of exactly the same grade, and all 
other conditions were similar. (See " Eeport of the Examination of the 
Eves of the School Children of Eockford, 111.," by Drs. W. H. Fitch and 
F. H. Kimball.) 

But why should there be this difference, amounting to 2^ times as 
much near-sight in one school as in the other? The reason is not 
hard to find. Most students can get an idea much quicker than they 
can commit to memory the words which some one has used to express 
that idea. Yery often it is only necessary to state the subject of the 
next day's lesson, and many bright students will think out the work re- 
quired without looking into a book or reading a word, and few students 
would have any trouble after reading the discussion of the subject once 
or twice. I have had students who demonstrated every proijosition in 
the first three books of Euclid with no reference to a book, and without a 
hfnt from any one. To commit the demonstrations from the book would 
be a great tax on the eyes, and would not insure either a knowledge of 
7950 coT.j PT. 2-— ^26 ndio 



402 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the subject or any real mental discipline. So with all text-book memo- 
rizing 5 it strains the eyes, requires more time, and secures but poor re- 
sults, at best. We cannot too much insist upon the injury to young- 
students from text-book study in the evening by artificial light. It is 
not alone the eyes that suffer from this kind of work; it is a most fruit- 
ful source of sleepless nights, nervousness, irritability, and a general 
uncertainty and inaccuracy that are the reverse of desirable. 

Where textbooks are used less, more blackboards, maps, charts, etc., 
must be employed. In such cases the charts and maps should be plain, 
and care should be taken that the writing on the board be distinct. 
Inasmuch as near- sight is largely due to the adjustment of the eye to 
near objects, one of the members of your committee. Professor W. H. 
Lennon, of the Brockport Normal School, suggests that by habituating 
the eye to distant objects, near-sight may be prevented or diminished. 
We have the result of no observations on this point, but Professor Len- 
non's suggestion seems reasonable. If this is true, then blackboard ex- 
ercises would rather work against near-sightedness. 

One other matter of the utmost importance claims our attention. We 
quote again from Drs. Fitch and Kimball as follows : 

The most interesting fact connected witli the subject is the age at which this form 
of defective vision first manifests itself. We have divided all the scholars into five 
classes, depending npon age. * * * Each class is made to include two years in- 
stead of one, in order to secure a greater number of cases and a consequent better 
average. Here we have arranged in a tabular form the results of this examination : 

Girls 
myopic. 




Class 1, aged 7 and 8 years 

Class 2, aged 9 and 10 years 

Class 3, aged 11 and 12 years 

Glass 4, ajjed 13 and 14 years 

Glass 5, aged 15 years and over 

We notice thus a, gradual increase in the percentage of defect among the boys until 
wo reach class 5 (aged 15 years and over) ; here a very great sudden increase manifests 
itself. The same gradual increase is noted with the girls until we come to class 4 
(aged 13 and 14 years), and here we find the same sudden increase. Now, what does 
this change mean ? The following seems to be the most rational interpretation of the 
fact. . It will be seen that the increase occurs at about the age of puberty in each sex, 
with the boys during the fifteenth and sixteenth years, and with the girls during the 
thirteenth and fourteenth years, one or two years sooner. At this time all the ener- 
gies, nervous and otherwise, of the system are taxed to the utmost to support the 
physiological changes then taking place. The S3'stem is thus poorly adapted to resist 
any evil influence whatever, and the amount of strain upon the eyes that under other 
circumstances would be resisted now yields its natural fruit in a permanent impair- 
ment of vision. The only conclusion to be drawn is obvious. Greater attention must 
be paid to the hygiene of vision at this time of life. 

At this critical period of youth any sedentary occupation may induce 
morbid trains of thought, and thus lead to undesirable results. Care 
on the part of parents to explain to their children the nature of the 
physiological changes then taking place, combined with some light, 
attractive employment, which will afford plenty of fresh air and out- 
door exercise, would be far better than school work for promoting the 
physical, mental, and moral welfare of young people at this time of life. 
In many cases all school work might profitably be omitted for a year or 
two, if light out-door work be furnished in its stead. 

The only other point which demands the attention of your committee 
640 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 403 

refers to the influence of heredity in the production of near-sightedness. 
We quote from Dr. E. Javal : 

As near-sightedness is more frequent in Germany than elsewhere, and as it is more 
frequently found in the children of cities than in those of the country towns, certain 
authors have concluded that it is often hereditary, and that the degree of civilization 
in a i)eople may almost he measured by the number of near-sighted people it contains. 

These statistical researches which we have made in Paris, quite in agreement with 
those made by Drs. R. H. Derby and Edward G. Loring, of New York, lead us to rele- 
gate to the second degree the influence of heredity upon the production of near-sight- 
edness, an incontestable influence, but a sufficiently feeble one that proper care may 
almost always be enough to prevent the manifestation of in children whose parents are 
afflicted to the highest degree with it ; while on the contrary we often see it produced 
with disastrous fatality in children of parents quite exempt from it, whenever they are 
subjected to influences which favor the birth of it. 

Thus it appears that a very large fraction of the alarming amount of 
near-sightedness found among all civilized people can be traced directly 
to the schoolroom, — to the years of the child's life that are devoted to 
getting an education; that the circumstances that favor the birth and 
development of this disease operate wiih peculiar energy during child- 
hood and youth ; that some of the more powerful of those agents are to 
be sought in bad lighting, impure air, too small type, improper arrange- 
ment of school desks, unnatural methods of teaching, and a consequent 
overstraining of the eyes in the almost useless work of memorizing 
page after page of text- book ; that although the increase of near-sighted- 
ness is continuous from the lowest to the highest grades of school-work, 
yet the progress of the disease is much more rapid at the critical period 
of youth than either before or after ; and that though heredity may play 
a minor X3art in the production of the disease, yet there is no doubt that 
a tendency to near-sightedness may be transmitted from parents to 
children, thus, to a slight degree at least, fixing the disease as a perma- 
nent characteristic of the race. 

But to show the magnitude of an evil and to point out the causes that 
l^roduce it, are two long strides in the direction of its suppression. 
Educated people in all civilized countries are taking an interest in this 
subject fairly commensurate with its importance 5 and we may hope for 
a continuous and intelligent application on the part of architects, school 
boards, and teachers, of those measures which are fitted for preventing 
a further increase of this dreaded evil — near-sightedness. 

G. J. BUELL, ^ 

Edv^aed Smith, | 

C. Henry King, } Committee. 

A. W. Norton, | 

W. H. Lennon, 3 

641 



SCHOOL HYGIENE IN ONTAEIO. 

By D. FOTHERmaHAM, 

Public School Inspector, North Yorh County, Ontario. 



In dealing with a subject so wide and important in an article necessa- 
rily limited in extent, our remarks mast be put in the form of Mntf<, 
rather than an exhaustive treatment of School Hygiene. With this limit- 
ation in view we propose to deal briefly with the following divisions : 

I. The Provisions made in Ontario for promoting the health of the 
school population. 

II. The Progress made in School Hygiene. 

III. What remains to be done. 

IV. Means suggested for overtaking this work. 

I, The Provisions made by the Education Department for the 
physical well being of the youth of the Province are evidence of the 
imi)ortance attached to this department of its administration, and of 
the intelligence and zeal of its promoters. 

(1.) Much thought has been given to, and excellent regulations have 
been framed and enforced for, securing sufQcient healthful accommo- 
dation for all between the ages of five and twenty-one years. 

These regulations give prominence to healthfulness of site, size of 
house and grounds, suitability and sufficiency of furniture and appa- 
ratus, ventilation, lighting, and heating, separate and suitable privacy 
for the sexes, water supply, drainage, etc., etc. 

While the taxpayers, by a majority vote at a legally called meeting, 
have power to locate or change a school site, careful directions are given 
that it shall be healthful, convenient, and large. Where the school 
population is under seventy-five, it may be only half an acre. Over 
that, it must be at least an acre. 

The house must furnish twelve square feet on the floor and one hundred 
and twenty feet of air space for each of two-thirds of all in the section 
or district of school age (5-21). A class room is required for every fifty 
pupils enrolled, with additional recitation rooms for particular work. 
Separate entries and porches, with doors opening outward, 'are also re- 
quired. 

Ventilation, lighting, heating, blackboarding, etc., receive careful 
attention in the regulations, but without exacting special standards 
of sufficiency. 

(2.) For many years the Education Department issued an official 
Monthly Journal, in which, among other matters of importance, school 
hygiene received frequent and prominent attention. Under the au- 
spices of the Department a volume on school architecture was also 
published, and placed in the hands of leading officers connected with 
64Ji 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 405 

the schools.^ In this, great prominence is given to the most advanced 
views on ventilation; and detailed plans are laid down for its introduc- 
tion in schools. 

(3) When a well-defined course of professional training was, some 
ten years ago, made a condition on which any grade of teachers' cer- 
tificate could be issued, physiology, anatomy, and hygiene were in- 
cluded in the course of study and examination ; so that now no teacher 
takes charge of a school without a theoretical acquaintance with the 
principles of school hygiene. At the present time the disposition of 
the Education Department is to require more and better knowledge of 
these subjects at all the training institutions for teachers in the Prov- 
ince. 

Further, the Minister has requested a committee of public school in- 
spectors to collect facts and present suggestions that may help to a 
course of instructions and regulations which will cover largely the whole 
field of school-house erection and hygiene. 

II. The Progress made in school hygiene during the past fifteen 
years has been substantial and gratifying. Fifteen years ago the law 
and regulations were greatly liberalized on the subject of size and 
sanitary arrangements, and a set of executive officers appointed, with 
considerable real authority and large discretionary power, to enforce 
improvements in the accommodation, the management, and methods 
adopted throughout the Province. Then began what may be called a 
real reformation, if not a peaceful revolution, in the conditions, the 
agencies, and administration of primary education in Ontario. 

(1.) E"early all schools now furnish floor and air space considerably 
in excess of present legal requirements, though these are greatly in 
advance of those of 1870. Ceilings are higher. Windows are more 
readily opened or shut, and usually shaded from direct or fierce light. 
The rudiments at least of ventilation are insisted upon; and in the 
cities, towns, and villages, most boards have introduced more effective 
means of purifying the atmosphere. Desks and seats, often very un- 
suitable for school purposes, and seriously harmful to comfort an<l health, 
have been replaced in most older counties by more attractive, conven- 
ient, and comfortable ones. 

(2.) School sites are usually an acre or more in extent, are selected so 
as to avoid unsanitary influences, and not infrequently are graded and 
surrounded by young shade trees with flower-plots in suitable places, 
valuable for shelter and recreation. 

, (3.) Mental labor and relaxation are now made to alternate much 
more naturally than formerly. Calisthenic and kindergarten move- 
ments and songs are asserting and receiving more of their right place 
in the hourly exercises of the school room. 

(4.) Any intelligent observer who saw the condition of school-houses 
and yards in 1870, and sees them again in 1885, cannot but be struck with 
the contrast. The houses now are mostly large, substantial, attractive 
buildings, and the grounds roomy, clean, and suitable for their purpose. 
This impression is confirmed by the fact that upwards of half the houses 

I The followiug is the title of this book : Tlie Scliool-liouse, its architecture, external 
and internal arrangements, with elevations, plans, and specifications for public and 
high school buildings; together with illustrated papers on the importance of school 
hygiene and ventiJation, also with practical suggestions as to school grounds, school 
I'urniture, gymnastics, and the uses and value of school apparatus. Second edition. 
With numerous illustrations. By J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., Barrister-at-Law, 
and Deputy Minister of Education for Ontario. 

643 



406 EDUCATIONAL CONVJENTtONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

are nearly new, and school property Las doubled in value within a few 
years. 

(5.) The teacher is by law constituted a public officer, and is required 
to see that everything about the school premises is in good condition, 
and, if not, must report to the Board, who are at once to remedy defects. 
He is also required to see that no pupil is admitted to, or continues in, 
any of the public schools who has been afflicted with or exposed to 
any contagious disease, till all danger of communicating the same has 
passed, as certified by a physician, 

III. What Eemains to be jOone, however, is very much more than 
has been done. The best educationists and hygienists are hopeful, but 
far from satisfied. Hygienic provisions, now legally required and fairly 
met, are mostly of a negative character.- They have grown out of a de- 
sire to remedy existing evils, more than from any matured and compre- 
hensive plan for the thorough development of the physical nature of 
the child. They are designed to prevent enfeeblement rather than to 
secure the highest physical possibilities— a perfect manhood. They 
are not so comprehensive and radical as to take hold of immature 
or diseased childhood, and lead it on through a systematic and sci- 
entific course of hygienic training and development till it has been 
matured to become the most valuable type of citizen. Such develop- 
ment is now, unfortunately, mostly the result of mere accident. Ample 
and adequate measures are not adopted, much less enforced, to surround 
with, to stimulate and strengthen by, the surest and highest health pro- 
moting influences day by day. While very much has been devised and 
attained towards a healthful and even philosophical development of the 
mind, we are only beginning to realize that hardly second to that in im- 
portance is the necessity of developing the body also to a perfect 
soundness. 

The cubic space of air required for each public school pupil, though 
ridiculously small when compared with that required in hospitals and 
garrisons, may be sufficient, even ample, if entirely renewed by the reg- 
ular and rapid influx of pure and properly tempered atmosphere. Nota- 
bly, however, the change is not so effected. 

The temperature suggested for schoolrooms may be the happy mean, 
but if windows and doors must be thrown open occasionally to change 
the otherwise unventilated, mephitic atmosphere, and the thermometer 
rushes up or down fifteen or twenty degrees in as many minutes, 
hygienic principles are certainly greatly strained. 

If inside air is breathed and heated, then rebreathed and then re- 
heated, or burnt on a stove in the room, it requires no doctor to under- ' 
stand how hurtful such an atmosphere must be. 

When young people, whose bones and muscles are only in the form- 
ative stage, are obliged to occupy, for hours a day, seats Without suit- 
able rests for feet or back, and desks which compel awkward and un- 
natural postures of spine and limbs, it is very evident that a constant 
and heavy tax is laid on the vital forces of the body, which should all 
contribute to the healthful development of form and force. 

When the delicate organs of sight are forced to do duty day by day 
in direct or strongly reflected light, or at small or great distances, it is 
pretty certain that the seeds of weakness and disease axe surely being 
planted. 

When the immature, delicate, susceptible body of a child is deprived 
through the school term of the wholesome and warm noon meal, and, 
instead, is furnished with shortbread, cold pastry, and confections, 
644 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 407 

there remains no room for doubt as to the cause of reduced average 
health and life. 

When the instinct of perpetual motion in healthy childhood, so im- 
portant a factor in physical strength, is repressed if not destroyed by 
hours of enforced idleness and stillness, and exercise is possible only dur- 
ing certain short intermissions of school work, it becomes fitful and vio- 
lent. Is it to be wondered at that in these circumstances blood and 
bile stagnate, cheeks become pale or flushed, and the buoyance of youth 
gives place to hysterical outbursts of temper or will'? 

Considerations like these lead naturally to — 

IV. The Means Suggested for overtaking the necessities of the 
case. 

(1.) Educate public opinion. In common with all important reforms, 
this can only be efl'ected fully by securing the co-operation of those for 
whom the benefit is chiefly intended. On few topics is it more difficult 
to enlighten the masses than on those which influence the public health. 
Hence the indiflerence, even opposition, of the illiterate, to sanitary re- 
form; and hence the indiflerence to hygienic improvements in the find- 
ings and movement of public echools. This, however, must be over- 
come, and in its place must be secured full appreciation of wise and lib- 
eral provision for the development of strong, healthy bodies, as well as 
strong, healthy minds. 

(2.) Require by law, in every school, the introduction of adequate ven- 
tilating arrangements, under the best plans and thorough supervision. 

Till school boards are educated to the true importance of a constant 
and wholesome exchange of atmosphere in the school room, it is useless 
to expect them to make the necessary outlay or arrangements, which 
make no show and to them are of no value. 

(3.) Systematize and enforce almost hourly drill in gymnastics, calis- 
thenics, military motions, etc., for the express purpose of developing 
physical power. Let provisions of this character be as minute and ma- 
tured as those for mental development. 

(4.) Eequire that the grading of seats and desks, and their adaptation 
to the physical necessities and conditions of the child, shall be as favor- 
able as those for mental growth and pleasure. 

(5.) Insist that the direction and quantity of light and color admitted 
into school rooms shall be controlled by the best known principles of 
optical hygiene. Let walls, furniture, slates, etc., be tinted in colors 
that harmonize and rest the eye. 

(6.) Provide time for a regular, deliberate, wholesome meal at noon. 

(7.) Provide for sufficient, natural, and stimulating exercise and amuse- 
ment in stormy, as well as fair weather. 

(8.) Let the sessions of the daily school work be materially reduced, 
so that most preparation may be made apart from the distractions and 
strain of the school room. 

Brief and incomplete as these hints may be, as they come from the 
vantage ground of present experience and attainment, it maj^ reasona- 
bly be hoped they may prove of some practical value. And from the 
rapid advance of the past fifteen years it may safely be i)redicted that 
the next fifteen must witness still more gratifying progress in school 
hygiene, as in all other departments of education. 

645 



SCHOOL AECHITECTUEE IN OKTAEIO. 

By John Deaeness, 

Public Sdhool Inspector, County of Middlesex East, Ontario, Canada. 



So rapidly and recently has this Province been settled and developed, 
that within forty years the number of school divisions or sections, and 
consequently the number of school-houses, have been more than doubled. 
A statute of what was then called Upper Canada was passed in ] 850, 
enacting that — 

It shall be the duty of the trustees of each school section to do whatever they may 
judge expedient with regard to the building, repairing, renting, warming, luruishiug, 
and keeping in order the school-house and its appendages, wood-house, privies, en- 
closures, lands, and movable property, which shall be held by them, and for procur- 
ing apparatus and text-books for their school; also, to rent, repair, furnish, warm, 
and keep in order a school-house and its appendages, if there be no suitable school- 
house belonging to such section, or if a second school-house be required. 

In the Act just quoted it was also made lawful for the Governor-in- 
Council to authorize the expenditure of eight hundred dollars a year to 
procure plans and publications, for the improvement of school architect- 
ure and practical science in connection with the common schools. 

The newness of the country and the difficulties encountered by the 
settlers in making their homes in the forest were not the only causes 
that retarded improvement. 

The townships as a whole were not originally laid out into school 
sections; but according as settlements were made, school-houses — very 
often rude log structures — were built in locations convenient to the group 
of settlers, and the sections were carved out around these nuclei. Such 
an irregular mode of forming sections caused them to be very unequal 
in size, resources, and population. The opponent of the. new school- 
house was always present at meetings to advocate procrastination on 
the ground that the sections must be equalized, and then, most prob- 
ably, the new house would be in the wrong place. 

jSTotwithstanding these obstacles but few of the primitive school- 
houses now remain. Some of them succumbed to the scythe of time 
and decay, others fell into disuse by changes in the section boundaries, 
and many condemned by the good sense of the people gave way to the 
laudable determination, of the majority to have better school accommo- 
dation. 

Improvement in school buildings, furniture, and surroundings thus 
proceeded steadily but slowly until 1871, when a bill was passed by the 
Legislature of Ontario making the duty of providing "adequate ac- 
commodation" imperative upon trustees under penalty of forfeit of the 
government grant, for the loss of which they became personally re- 
sponsible. IJnder that Act the Education Department by regulation 
defined adequate accommodation to be — 

(1.) A site of an acre in extent, but in no case less than half an acre. 
646 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 409 

(2.) A school-house (with separate rooms where the number of pupils 
exceeds fifty), the walls of which shall not be less than ten feet high in 
the clear, and which shall not contain less than nine square feet on the 
floor for each child in tlie section or division, so as to allow an area in 
each room for at least one hundred cubic feet of air for each child. It 
shall also be sufiBciently warmed and ve>:itilated, and the premises 
properly drained. 

(3.) A sufficient paling or fence round the school premises. 

(4.) A play ground, or other satisfactory provision for physical exer- 
cise, within the fences and off the road. 

(5.) A well, or other means of procuring water for the school. 

(6.) Proper and separate offices for both sexes, at some little distance 
from the school-house, and suitably inclosed. 

(7.) Accessary school furniture and apparatus, viz: desks, seats, 
blackboards, majjs, library, presses, books, etc., required for the efficient 
conduct of the school. 

At the same time county school inspectors were apijointed, one of 
whose plainly stated duties was to inquire into and report on the me- 
chanical arrangements and the sufficiency of the accommodation of 
every school, and to urge the local authorities to comply with the law 
and regulations respecting these details as rai)idly as their circum- 
stances would permit. So fully did the most of these officers feel their 
responsibility in this matter, and so well did they discharge their duty, 
that complaints were made against them for undue urgency. The De- 
partment stood firmly by them and, in 1873, issued the following cir- 
cular of instruction : 

SCHOOL PREMISES AND ACCOMMODATIONS. 

"We would request %he attention of inspectors to Note a of Regulation No. 4 of their 
" Duties," in which they are directed to call the attention of trustees to the condition 
of the school premises. In many school sections the school-house has been allowed 
to remain in the same state for fifteen or twenty years and longer, often on a bare 
open space, or on the road-side unenclosed, without a tree or shrub near by to shade 
it, or any j)rovision being made by the trustees for the convenience or health of the 
pupils, or even for their observance of the decencies of life. The Legislature has 
wisely decided that this state of things shall not continue, but that, as soon as possi- 
ble, a remedy shall he applied, where necessary. A reasonable time should of course 
be allowed to trustees in all cases to set things right ; but in the meantime inspectors 
will, we trust, not fail to urge upon trustees the necessity of complying, as soon as 
possible, with the provisions of the law on this subject. 

About the same time the Journal of Education, supplied monthly to 
every school section through the Education Department, rendered val- 
uable assistance. The editor. Dr. Hodgins, who has done much more 
than any other man in the CQuntry to advance the cause of school ar- 
chitecture,^ kept this subject prominently before the attention of the 
readers of the Journal. In 1873, particularly, every number contained 
elevations, plans, and description of one or more fine school-houses. In 
1872, the late Chief Superintendent offered prizes for the best interior 
plans and block plans of sites. The offer drew forth a lively and fruit- 
ful competition. All these causes combined to give a great stimulus to 
improvement of school accommodation in the Province. The statistical 

'J. G. Hodgins, Esq., LL. D., is the author of The School-Jwtise, its Architecture, 
Arrangements, and Discipline, published in 1858. In 1876 he brought out a revised, 
enlarged, and greatly improved edition. Besides treating fnlly of the architecture of 
public and high school buildings, it contains illustrated papers on school hygiene and 
ventilation, and suggestions as to grounds, furniture, and apparatus. Dr. Hodgius 
received awards of merit for these works at the Centennial Exhibition, 1876, and at 
the Paris Exposition of 1878. 

• 647 



410 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

reports showed a sudden and large increase in the expenditure for 
buildings and sites. In 1866 the amount expended for this item was 
only $111,371; in 1870, $207,500; but in 1875 it ran up to $702,330. In 
ten years from the passing of the last mentioned bill the number of log 
school-houses decreased from about one-third of the total to one seventh, 
and, besides, many of the old frame and brick ones were re-built or 
greatly improved. 

l^Tow the great majority of our 5,000 or 6,000 sections rejoice in the 
possession of a good brick, stone, or frame school-house. Some of our 
cities, many of our towns, and even villages can point with pride to their 
beautiful and substantial school buildings. Indeed it is probable that 
our rural and urban school architecture will compare favorabl}^ with 
that of any other country, and yet it is not on the whole a feature of 
our school system of which we have much cause to boast.^ 

Proper veutilation, lighting, warming, and seating are desiderata, the 
importance of which in respect to both the mental and i)hysical welfare 
of the children cannot be overrated. Our law now requires that the 
school-room shall contain at least 120 cubic feet of air for each child. 
Few, if any, schools have so small a quantity. In the writer's division, 
containing over 100 schools, the average per child is 267 feet. The min- 
imum ought to be 300 cubic feet, even where there are ample facilities 
for removing impure, and supplying fresh air of proper temperature. 
But in most of the rural schools there is not provided any effective 
means of ventilation during the time that the weather is too cold to keep 
the windows open. 

" Our own breath is our worst enemy," and until we learn how and 
practice to subdue this enemy in the school-room, our educational sys- 
tems will be greatly hindered in fulfilling their best intentions. 

In respect to lighting we have less to complain of. The windows are 
generally placed in the sides only, and as high as possible; the window 
area varies from one-fifth to one-ninth of the floor area. The common 
mode of heating is by means of the old-fashioned, oblong wood-stove. 

In some schools the stove is partially jacketed by a closely -fitting 
case of zinc or galvanized iron, making a hot-air chamber, into whicli 
pure air is drawn from the outside by a duct. The aii- thus drawn in 
is warmed, ascends, and escapes through the opening made in the top 
of the chamber around the stove-pipe, or is carried up a foot or two 
along the pipe before it is let out. Some rural schools are heated and 
ventilated by means of a furnace in the basement ; in some cases the 
basement is fitted for a gymnasium or class-room. Many schools are 
furnished with modern folding seats and desks, of dimensions varied 
to suit the different sizes of the children. 

Here and there are to be found rural s.chools where most commend- 
able taste has been manifested in the construction of the building and 
planning the surroundings. We are not compelled to draw on our 
imagination to see a pretty country school-house with porches and 

^A new and wide-spread stimulus to the cause of improvement in school-bouses and 
their appendages is expected from the contemplated action of the Hon. G. W. Boss, 
Minister of Education. He has announced his intention of offering prizes for the best 
six or eight plans and specifications of one- and two-room school-houses. The i^rize 
plans, witb general principles and directions for building under varying circumstances, 
and suggestions for improving existing school-houses and surroundings, are to be in- 
corporated into a circular of information similar in some resjjects to that prepared by 
Mr. T. M. Clark for the Bureau of Education, Washington. The pamphlet is to be 
sent to every section in the Province. We expect it will be a valuable guide to trus- 
tees in bnildiug new school-boases, and rich in suggestions as to improvements in 
existing ones. 
648 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 411 

class-rooms furnished with graceful aud comfortable seats and desks, 
supplied with wide blackboards on the end and sides, a good stock of 
well-mounted wall maps and charts, globe, clock, thermometer, and mis- 
cellaneous apparatus, and surmounted by an ornamental belfry, in which 
is hung a good bell that can be heard all over the section ; the building 
is erected on an eligible site of rather more than an acre, which is well 
fenced, supplied with the necessary sheds and outhouses and a good 
well, and ornamented and jjrotected by rows of evergreen and decid- 
uous trees. 

Too generally, expense for adornment is regarded as little better than 
wasted. Many people do not consider that the '•' shield of beauty thrown 
over property checks and often finally eradicates the rudeness which 
is stimulated to destruction by deformity." They lightly value the ex- 
cellent influence exercised upon the tastes of the children by archi- 
tectural beauty in the building in which they spend so much of the 
formative period of their lives. 

649 



A. L. A. CATALOG. 

By Melvil Dewet, 

Chief Librarian, Columbia College, New TorJc. 



Every close student of libraries finds two pre-eminent difficulties 
staring him in the face. The first is the great expense of making the 
catalogs, which to the casual observer seem to absorb a portion of the 
funds out of all reason as compared with the cost of new books. The 
second is the unsatisfactory character of these catalogs after they are 
made. * 

To the high cost, those familiar with such matters very soon get ac- 
customed. They see beyond doubt that, at whatever cost, catalogs 
must be had, or the library loses much of its value ; and as the ablest 
men, who have studied this subject; for years, have found no cheap Br 
way of making them, they accept the immense expense as a necessary 
evil. The more thoughtful always hit upon the scheme of co-operative 
cataloguing, and many an eloquent essay has been written on the 
enormous saving that will be effected when the book will be catalogued 
once for all as a part of its publication, no more leaving each of the 
thousand libraries that buy it to go through all the processes, than 
leaving each to make his copy of the work itself as the monks copied 
their Bibles before the invention of printing. Toward this ideal we are 
slowly but steadily working. 

The completion of the great " Poole's Index to Periodical Literature" 
by the co-operation of fifty libraries, showed how much might be saved. 
Hundreds of libraries that were spending much time and money in 
making MS. indexes to a few sets, now have, at the most trifling frac- 
tion of the cost, a fall index in print of all the leading serials. 

The American Library Association, whose first work was to carry 
through this scheme under Mr. Poole's able leadership, have been con- 
stantly preparing the ground for other co-operative measures. A great 
number of libraries have adopted the recommendations of the standing 
co-operation committee and are using cards of identical size for their 
card catalogs, filling them after the standard model and by the standard 
rules, using the same abbreviations, and, in short, doing hundreds of 
things in harmony, thus making practicable through co-operation what 
in the old diversity was simply impossible. 

For several years this Association has been maturing a plan for a 
select catalog of the best books, to be made and kept under constant 
revision by the co-operation of the leadings. authorities. In this work 
there were more important considerations than the great money saving. 

Some functions of a library catalog are very like those of a city 

directory. If a stranger goes to Few Tork and wishes to find John 

Jones, plamber, he has only to look in the directory under Jones till he 

finds John, plumber, and, he can go at once to his street and number. So 

650 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 413 

when one goes to the library and wishes a specific book by a specific 
author, it is comparatively easy to make a finding index that will serve 
him as well as the directory ; and with mor^ labor the index, or catalog, 
as it is called, can be made to serve as well for specific titles, though 
the author is not known. But the greater function of the ideal catalog 
is to tell which are the best books on any given subject, and this is the 
main question before the trustees in l)uying, before the librarian in 
answering the demands of readers asking advice, and before the reader 
himself when he uses the catalog. 

To return to the directory. If our stranger wishes to know what 
plumber in New York will be the best for him to employ, what can he 
do? He goes to the business directory and is confronted by the names 
of hundreds. If he tries to select by referring to their various adver- 
tisements, he remembers constantly that these are all written to bring 
customers rather than to state the exact merit of the advertiser. If he 
asks the advice of some acquaintance, he must allow for his prejudices 
or personal interests, and for his probable ignorance of this particular 
subject. So, if his work is important, he will make inquiries of builders 
and property owners of long experience, and from general agreement 
among them he will learn what plumber he can best employ for his 
work if it be in a cottage, or what other had best be consulted if it is 
in a great hotel. 

The subject catalog, or bibliography, has the same difficulties as the 
directory. A reader has heard of three books on this subject, and is in 
doubt which he had best consult. He goes to the catalog to help him 
decide, and finds three hundred instead of three to choose from, with no 
direct clue as to which will best serve him 5 a,nd often, after all the ex- 
pense lavished on making the lists, the last state of that man is worse 
than the first. If he goes to the publishers' lists, it is advertising aud 
he distrusts the statements ; no one is interested in pointing out the 
faults as well as the merits. If he ask a friend he must mate large 
allowance for his meager knowledge of the subject and for his personal 
equation. The most of the books which propose to help are open to one 
or both these objections : they are colored by the interest of the pub- 
lishers or by the i)rejudices of the editors 5 and yet for the buying com- 
mittee, for the library, and for the reader, there is nothing more im- 
portant than guidance of just this kind. If every reader had several 
wise friends familiar with each subject in which he became interested, 
to Avhom he could go for advice, he would feel great confidence that he 
was selecting the best books. The scheme which this paper presents is 
the result of seven years' study how to provide for this infinite number 
of readers, interested in an almost infinite range of subjects, such wise 
guidance. 

In these years of discussion the Association and its special commit- 
tees on the A. L. A. Catalog concluded that certain things were essen- 
tial to its highest success. The difficulty of meeting these conditions 
has delayed the preparation and publication, till the way now seems 
clear and active work has been commenced. The plan adopted and 
outlined below will show how fully the difficulties are met, and how well 
the work will answer the many questions for which it is designed. 
Some of the essential features are as follows : 

(1.) Such help can be available to all only by printing. Oral or MS. 
advice, however good, is exceedingly limited in its field. 

(2.) No man or half-dozen men can furnish this advice on all subjects, 
aud this guide must be made by the co-operation of a large number of 
librarians^ scholars, and specialists, in order to give the needed confl- 



414 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

dence in its accuracy, reliability, and freedom from personal idiosyn- 
crasies. 

(3.) To secure such co-operation from our best authorities in prepai- 
ing and keeping the work revised up to date, and to remove all preju- 
dices against it as being in the interests of any special publishing house, 
it must be printed without the regular publishers, none of whom would 
be likely to undertake it guaranteeing that its revision and handling 
should be determined by the amount of good it would do rather than 
the amount of profit it would yield ; and it must be without copyright 
or royalty to any editor. In short, no one should have a pecuniary in- 
terest in the work, for that might modify its character, either now or in 
the revisions. 

(4.) It must be limited to a selection of the best books on each sub- 
ject, for at present a universal catalog is practically an impossibility, 
and even were it possible would be less useful to 99 per cent, of its 
users than the condensed list from which all but the best had been 
omitted. 

(5.) At present ib is practically better to limit it almost entirely to 
books written or translated into English. 

(6.) Most books need some indication of the grade of readers to whom 
the book is best adapted, whether for scholarly, popular, or juvenile 
reading. The " best book" is a relative term, meaningless till we know 
for what, and for whom, it is best. 

(7.) There must be brief notes, for the titles alone are often mislead- 
ing, and the chief value of the work will consist in such advice as one 
familiar at once with the subject and with each special book could give 
to a reader who took it for the first time. There are many books too 
good to be omitted from the choicest list, but yet colored by some prej- 
udice or motive of their authors, and a timely word would be invalua- 
ble. Many historical and biographical works are written from the 
standpoint of a partisan or a " hobby rider," and the young reader 
ignorant of this fact gets a distorted idea of his subject. Such a note 
as "From a Eoman Catholic standpoint," or "Intensely anti-Koman," 
appended to certain titles might be worth a week's time to a student 
ignorant of the author's motive. 

Kotes would indicate the scope of certain books; e. g., "Scott's Tal- 
isman. A. D. 1193. Third crusade in Palestine. Eichard (Cosur-de- 
Lion) and Saladin." 

For most historical works, where the title page does not fully describe 
or indicate it, the time and space included by the author should be noted. 

" Should be read with [giving title], to which it is a rejoinder," 

or the real names of persons often worked into literature under other 
names, or references to specially important reviews of the work that 
ought to be read with it, are other types of useful notes. 

Other notes will make clear the character and purpose of different 
prominent editions of works published in many forms. And so on, with 
hardly a limit to the kinds of most useful' information that may be 
packed into the fewest possible intelligible words and added to the 
title, so that in all the libraries of the land each reader using the cata- 
log will receive with his book that concise advice that a wise friend, 
specially qualified, would give if lending him the book with his own 
hand. The notes are to be as brief as is consistent with clearness; and 
though it is expected that the work will average twenty titles to the 
page, yet no Procrustean limit will be made for notes, but space will be 
given for all necessary points. The successful completion of this select 
list will doubtless be followed by a similar lireatment of current iiev( 
652 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS ^PAPERS. 415 

books, so that the libraries using tlie catalog may receive regularly a sup- 
plement mentioning whatever has been published during the preceding 
month that ought to be included in the annotated catalog. 

(8.) The catalog must be classified' by subjects, in order that these 
notes may be more economically, compactly, and intelligibly given. If 
scattered through a dictionary, miany notes would lose half their mean- 
ing utfless much was repeated from notes on books just above or below 
in the classified arrangement, but in the alphabetical widely separated. 
General notes on whole classes, divisions, or sections thus become prac- 
ticable, and in the use of the catalog a much clearer idea of the rela- 
tion of the subject to other subjects is gained from classification. This 
plan is also necessary in order that class lists may be x)rinted and cir- 
culated separately; e.g., a library may wish one hundred or one thou- 
sand copies of the notes on Historical Fiction, while it needs only ten on 
Speculative Philosophy. This plan also allows of preparing the work 
in sections and ])rinting each as completed without waiting for the whole. 

(9.) The catalog must be kept under constant revision by the members 
of the Library x\ssociatiou and all others interested in its great educa- 
tional value, and suggestions for omissions, additions, or changes, are 
to be sent to the editor-in-cljief whenever they occur. As each edition 
runs low, all these suggestions will be carefully collated, and sucb alter- 
ations as will improve the work or bring it more nearly down to date 
will be made. It is hoped that the wide-spread interest the catalog 
will awaken will result in so much critical examination of the lists and 
notes that later editions will reach the highest standard as reliable 
guides. In many cases new editions or new works will appear that 
without question supersede at once those last given, and the change 
will be made; but for those where authorities differ as to merit both 
titles will be given with indication of the fact. Each edition is to be 
considered as proof under revision, and each reader as in honor bound 
to help in every way to perfect so valuable a work, in which no one has 
a selfish interest. 

(10.) We propose to start a catalog on a basis of the five thousand 
best books in the English language for a general library, with notes 
explanatory only, colored by no personal opinions whatsoever, but tell- 
ing the leader what he needs to know and what no one will contradict. 
It is hoped and exj^ected that the extent will be gradually increased in 
each edition, and that the separate sections will become the authorita- 
tive brief bibliographies on all topics of general interest. 

ITS USES. 

Such a list, so made, will command the confidence of all users, and 
will be of service in many different directions, among which we note: 

1. As a guide to book-buyers, whether for private or public libraries. 
It is not uncommon for a library to pay some single individual hundreds 
of dollars for making a list representing merely his individual choice 
of books, not only on subjects with which he is familiar, but also on the 
much larger number of which he knows practically nothing. 

A copy of this catalog will be vastly more valuable, wilt be in print 
instead of MS., and several duplicates can be checked up for getting 
estimates and for other purposes at trilling cost. 

2. As a guide to readers in choosing what books they had best take 
from the library or from their own shelves, for few men with a collection 
of books do not feel at times that it would be a great saving if they 
could ask of some competent authority the very questions which this cat- 

653 



416 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

alog will answer. Perhaps this guidance to the individual reader is 
the most important of the many uses of the new catalog. 

3. A.s a inanual to teach the younger and prompt the older librarians 
or booksellers in answering most wisely the constant question, "What 
is the best book on my subject"? 

4. To take the place of the printed catalog in small public libraries. 
This will contain in print all the books most used. Those in the library 
and not on this catalog can be catalogued in MS., or printed cheaply 
as a supplement. The location number of all books included in the 
library can be written on the margin, thus showing at once that the 
library has the book and where it can be found, and the unmarked 
titles will be the best conceivable list for early purchase. Or, better 
still, the special location numbers of the library could be printed beside 
the electrotype plates of the A. L. A. Catalog, thus making from these 
plates at trifling cost an annotated catalog, far excelling in usefulness 
the costly efforts that so cripple the finances of most of our public 
libraries. 

Catalog printing is more costly than common book-work. When 
printed very few copies can be sold, even when offered at half the cost 
price. Practically the entire investment is charged up to loss. The 
edition becomes out of date in a few montfis and revision is prohibited 
for years by the gTeat cost, while the A. L. A. Co-operative Catalog can 
be frequently revised, because of the large number using it. 

An ordinary catalog of five thousand titles will cost for composition, 
at an average of $2.00 per page of twenty titles, iSOO. Press work, paper, 
and binding will cost as much more for five hundred copies, making a 
total of $1,001), besides a much greater outlay in salaries for time spent 
in preparation ; and when all is done the result cannot be compared for 
usefulness with the annotated A. L. A. Catalog, which would supply 
the demand at one- tenth the cost. These reasons apply with the greatest 
force to the smaller libraries, because as a rule they buy substantially 
the same books, and because they specially need to save the money. 

5. As the most convenient form of catalog for most private libraries. 
An edition printed with very wide margins or interleaved would admit 
of adding other titles in MS., and thus completing in convenient classi- 
fied form the list of one's private library. 

6. As a check-list of books read, with personal notes. Here again the 
wide margins and interleaves would be useful. To the young, especially, 
such a check-]ist of the best books with, notes so carefully ijrepared 
would be simply invaluable, and a copy marked with the time and place 
of reading and the reader's impression of the book would have rare 
value in shaping the reading habit. 

But further illustrations of its manifold use are needless. They will 
occur to every thoughtful mind. Its chief interest to the American Li- 
brary Association, which is its godfather, is in its direct helpfulness to 
libraries. The work is the most important, undertaken through co- 
operation. It will remove the necessity of that greatest terror of libra- 
rians and finance committees of the smaller and poorer libraries, the 
printed catalog. In spite of everything that may be done, a printed 
catalog will cost much money, much time, and, after it is printed and 
subjected to the critics, much regret. ISo expense incurred by libraries 
is more unsatisfactory. It is a necessity to the best work; but that the 
labor should be repeated over and over again for each library, seems 
little less than a crime. This time of the completed co-operative cata- 
log has been looked forward to by the most thoughtful librarians of 
every country as a kind of library millennium. 
654 



iNTfiENAtloMAL COi^GKESS Oi' EDUCATORS— fAtfiES. 417 
PREPARATION AND PUBLICATION. 

The material for this work has been largely prepared. The famous 
annotated catalogs of Boston and Quincy, with the scores that have 
followed, as far as they have been able, in the same direction, have 
given a great body of notes from which to select, condense, and edit. 
Many eminent specialists have already contributed lists of books and 
notes. A half-dozen lists of the " best books," made by as many differ- 
ent persons, some of them of very great ability, have been printed and 
can be utilized in bringing together matter for the first edition. Copies 
will be marked with colored pencils indicating omission or doubt or 
approval. These will be consolidated by the editors, and the first list 
made of the books generally approved. This list will again be sub- 
mitted for revision, aiid then put in type to be submitted to the larger 
circle of proof-readers who will take up the first small edition. By this 
plan the judgment of a large number of competent associate editors can 
be secured without too great calls on their time, and once in print it 
will be easy to consolidate the criticisms and suggestions for each re- 
vision. 

All interested are cordially invited to send titles or notes suitable 
to be included, and proofs will be sent to those who are willing to read 
them critically. 

The editor will also gladly receive suggestions of names of compe- 
tent associates who will be likely to take interest in the work. All 
communications concerning the Catalog should be marked "A. L. A. 
Catalog", and addressed " Melvil Dewey, Chief Librarian, Columbia 
College, K Y." 

The problem of publication without reducing the work to a commer- 
cial plane has been happily solved by the U. S. Bureau of Education, 
which recognizes a most potent educating force in such a printed 
manual, and will print and distribute an edition where it will awaken 
new interest in the People's University. We believe that this catalog 
will not only help readers but will tempt them to read, by a direct lead- 
ing from the first reference to allied matters of interest; that it will 
transform many libraries from mere storehouses where, through much 
weariness of the flesh, information may be found, to aggressive centers 
of culture, whose influence will be felt like that of a vigorous school ; 
in short, that they will be no longer cisterns, but fountains. 

7950 COT., PT. 2 ^27 655 



LIBRARIES AND THE LIBRARY SYSTEM OF ONTARIO. 

By John Hallam, 

Cliairman Toronto Public Library. 



TOWNSHIP AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 

The school library system of Ontario had its origin at a period of the 
provincial history seemingly little favorable to the initiation and accom- 
plishment of so landable and public-spirited a project. When the scheme 
was launched Upper Canada, as the Province was then termed, had only 
just emerged from the political disturbances incident to the passing in 
Parliament of the Rebellion Losses Bill. Political reforms and material 
prosperity were at the time matters of more concern to the people of the 
Province than educational advancement or any means by which the 
intellectual well-being of the masses might be secured. Agriculture 
and' the development of trade were then the all-absorbing topics of in- 
terest, and the resources of the country were being strained to aid com- 
merce in extending its sway. The St. Lawrence Canals had just been 
completed, and the railway era was about to set in. Yet the intellect of 
the period (we are speaking of the beginning of ISoO) was not wholly 
unmindful of the country's higher needs. 

From an early period the idea of purchasing and circulating books 
through the machinery of the schools seems to have been present to 
those who had to do with education in the Province. Though grammar 
schools had been founded in 1807 and common schools in 1816, it was 
not until 18:^2 that a Board of Education was created for educational 
purposes and for the management of university and school lands in 
Upper Canada. Two years after the establishment of this Board, an Act 
was x)assed by the Legislature authorizing $600 a year to be expended 
by the Provincial Boards of Education in the purchase and circulation 
through the District Boards of Education of books and tracts designed 
to afford moral and religious instruction. In 1834 this grant was, how- 
ever, discontinued. In 1840, in a Report of an educational commission, 
a recommendation was made that a fourth of the fees of each school 
should bo applied to the maintenance of a school library. Whether 
this practical recommendation was ever acted upon, and if so, how long 
it remained in force, it is difficult from the history of the time to make 
out. This is the first mention, however, of any movement in aid of school 
or municipal libraries in Upper Canada. 

In 1841 legislative provision was made for re-establishing common 
schools, and this was shortly followed b.v a more efficient system of 
public instruction. Three years afterwards the public school system of 
Ontario was originated by the Rev. Dr. Egerton Ryerson, who had 
been appointed Chief Superintendent of Education, and who for the 
long period of over thirty years was to become its watchful guardian and 
wise administrator. In the functions of his office Dr. Ryerson was for 
656 



tlae whole period of his administration ably assisted by Dr. John George 
flodgins, his zealous deputy and active co-operator in the management 
of the Educational Bureau of the Province. 

To assist the founder of the school system in his laborious task, the 
Government, in 1846, called into existence a board of education, styled 
the Council of Public Instruction. One of the important functions of 
this council was to examine, and at its discretion to recommend or disap- 
prove of text- books for the use of schools, or books for school libraries, 
Mhen these adjuncts to the educational system of the Province came to 
be introduced. 

The first we hear of the latter is in 1848, when Dr. Ryerson submitted 
to the Government the draft of a Bill proposing to make an annual grant 
of $8,000 for the purpose of founding and maintaining a system of pro- 
vincial township libraries. In furtherance of this project we find the 
Chief Superintendent addressing a letter in the following year to the 
Provincial Secretary, in which he warmly urges the adoption of the 
scheme. In this letter Dr. Eyerson remarks that — 

There can be but one opinion as to the great importance of introducing into each 
township of Upper Canada as soon as possible a township library, with branches for 
tiie several school sections, consisting of a suitable selection of entertaining and in- 
struciive books in the various departments of biography, travels, history (ancient 
and modern), natural philosophy and history, practical arts, agriculture, literature, 
])o]itical economy, etc. It is not easy to conceive [the Doctor goes on to say] the 
viist and salutary influence that would be exerted upon the entire poi)ulation, the 
young ])ortion especially, in furnishing useful occupation for leisure hours, in im- 
proving the taste and feelings, in elevating and enhirging the views, in ])rompting to 
varied and useful enterprise, that would flow from the introduction of such a fountain 
of knowledge and enjoyment in each township in Upper Canada. 

In the School Act of 1849 provision was partially made for carrying 
the libraries scheme into effect; and by the years 1853-'54, through the 
liberality of the Legislature, we find it in full w^orking order. The ])ro- 
visions of the scheme were that any municipal or school corporatiou 
might, on raising a certain sum and remitting it to the Department of 
Education, obtain library and prize books, approved by the Council of 
Public Instruction, to double the amount of the sum transmitted. Some 
years later the same facilities were given by the Department for the 
purchase of maps, apparatus, charts, and diagrams by school boards ap- 
plying for the same. It was further provided, with obvious good pur- 
pose, that no work of a licentious, vicious, or immoral tendency, and no 
works hostile to the Christian religion, should be admitted to the libra- 
ries. By the preparation of catalogues of suitable collections of books 
imported by the Department, checks were placed on the introduction 
into the libraries of all books of a hurtful character, as well as "of con- 
troversial books in theology and works of denominational controversy." 
]n respect of all other literature, with the exception of fiction, the field 
of choice was liberal and wide. It may here be said that, some fifteen 
years later, namely, in 1868, the Council of Public Instruction, respond- 
ing to a generally expressed wish for a judicious selection of standard 
works of fiction which would supersede the use of pernicious literature 
in the country, consented to authorize a selection of the better class of 
novels to be placed on the catalogue. 

This, in brief, was the scheme which, as we have said, was in fidl and 
satisfactory operation in the years 1853-'54. Within tea months of the 
library project going into effect, statistics show that no less than 63,000 
volumes were issued by the Department; while so fraught with good 
was the enterprise that Lord Elgin, the then Governor- General of Can- 
ada, in a report to H. M. Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies, 

657 



420 EDUCATIONAL C0NVJ5NT1ONS AT NEW ORLKAkS EXf 061T10N. 

chara(?terizes the township and county libraries feature of the educa- 
tional administration as "the crown and glory of the institutions of the 
Province." And well may it have been called so, for scarcely a greater 
service could be rendered to the country than that which Dr. Eyerson's 
public-spirited project had secured to it. With the material growth of 
the country no statesman could fail to see that it was of equal impor- 
tance to make provision for the concurrent intellectual development of 
the masses; and well was it for Canada that there was a man at the 
head of the educational system who had the foresight to devise, and the 
energy and unremitting care to expend, on so beneficent a scheme as 
that of township libraries. The Government, it is only fair to sa,y, 
gave the project a hearty and enlightened support, and the Legislature 
cordially voted adequate sums annually for the furtherance of the object 
in view. The wide scope of the scheme will be better understood by a 
quotation Irom the School Act, which sets forth the various classes of 
libraries the Department had in view to create, and succeeded in large 
measure in creating. 

Under the regulations of the Department [such are the provisions of the School 
Bill] each County Council can establish /oii>- classes of libraries in their municipality, 
as follows: City, town, village, and township councils can establish the first three 
classes, and school trustees, either of the first or third classes. 

(1) An ordinary Common School Library in each school-house for the use of the chil- 
dren and rate-payers. 

(2) A General Public Lending Library, available to all the rate-payers of the munici- 
pality. 

(3) A Professional Library of books on teaching, school-organization, language, and 
kindred subjects, available to teachers only. 

(4) A library in 'duy public institution under the control of the municipality, for the 
use of the inmates, or in the county jail, for the use of the prisoners. 

For the uses of these various libraries the Education Department 
opened, and for nearly thirty years maintained, a depository for the 
importation and sale of library books, secular and religious, school text- 
books, prize-books, maps, charts, diagrams, and other requisites, which 
were supplied at cost to the municipal and school corporations, plus one 
hundred per cent, in kind of the amounts raised and forwarded to the 
Department. This depository was, in 1881, abolished, having served 
its purpose while the facilities for obtaining books, etc., through the 
regular channels of trade were few or non-existent. 

The bulk of the operations of the depository, it is proper to be said, 
was in school prize-books; though, obviously, the service rendered to 
the youth of the country in the dissemination of a wholesome literature 
of reward books, was no unimportant one. The statistics of the Depart- 
ment show that the annual "out-put" of library and prize-books had 
risen from some 23,000 volumes in the year 1853 to over 61,000 in the 
year 1869 ; while the moneys sent to the depository by trustees and 
others during the period for books and requisites was close upon 
$.300,000. The total number of books, of all kinds, despatched during 
the whole period of the depository's existence, viz, from 1853 to 1881, 
amounted to 1,407,140 volumes. The number of the latter that found 
their way into the township and school libraries up to the period of the 
closing of the depository was 307,743 volumes, the net cost of which was 
over $183,000 — an amount which was partly contributed by the Govern- 
ment and partly by the local boards. To the above book dissemina- 
tion has to be added 35,400 volumes issued during the same period to 
mechanics' institutes and Sunday-schools. The balance of the total 
issue of 1,407,140 volumes, consists of prize-books. The number of 
libraries,exclusiveof sub-divisions, supplied during the period was 1,566. 
658 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS —PAPERS. 421 

The classification of the books issued by the Department to the town- 
ship and school libraries from 1853 to 1880 is as Ibllows: History, 49,048; 
zoology and physiology, 17,019 ; botany, 3,069 ; phenomena, 7,030 ; 
physical science, 5,236 ;"geology, 2,499 ; natural philosophy and manu- 
factures, 14,414; chemistry, 2,701; practical agriculture, 10,609 ; litera- 
ture, 29,244 ; voyages, 27,545 ; biography, 33,071 ; tales and sketches 
of practical life, 83,500; fiction, 5,041; teachers' library, 8,118. 

In the above classification some 9,500 volumes, issued in the last year 
of the depository's existence, are not included. The total of all is 307,743 
volumes. 

With these statistics we must leave the subject of the township and 
school libraries, which, at a period in the annals of Ontario when it was 
of the utmost importance that the intellectual wants of the community 
should be provided for, did good service in putting in motion a stream 
of wholesome literature which was to irrigate and enrich the land. That 
they contributed, in some fair and satisfactory measure, to stimulate 
the thought, direct into beneficent channels the brain-power, and diffuse 
refinement and mental culture among the people of the Province, must 
have been the result of their initiation and long maintenance by the 
Education Department. This much with all justice may be said, what- 
ever need was shortly to manifest itself, in the growth of the country, 
for other and more efficient modes of contributing to the mental appetite 
and the intellectual advancement of the Province. 

mechanics' institutes. 

We now turn for a little to work at another agency, set in motion 
by the people themselves, for literary recreation and intellectual self- 
advancement, which, with township and school libraries, also received 
from an early period in the history of the Province substantial and 
ever-increasing aid from the State. We refer to the mechanics' insti- 
tute associations and the libraries founded by their agency. The aims 
of these associations seem to have been anticipated in the year 1835, 
when the two chief cities, Toronto and Kingston, received grants from 
Parliament for the purchase of books and philosophical apparatus to be 
intrusted to the care of the literary and scientific societies founded in 
these towns. It was not until 1847, however, that a mechanics' institute, 
so-named, was legally organized. In that year the Toronto Mechanics' 
Institute was incorporated by a special Act of the Legislature for the 
purpose, as it was expressed, "of forming a library and reading-room, 
and of organizing a system of instruction by means of lectures and 
evening classes." Two years afterwards the city of Hamilton secured 
an Act of incorporation for the Hamilton and Gore Mechanics' Institute, 
the design of which was "to diffuse scientific and literary knowledge 
by a library of reference and circulation; by the formation of a museum 
of specimens in geology, zoology, or other subjects of nature, science, 
or manufactures; by lectures; by philosophical apparatus, conversa- 
tions, etc., etc." 

An Act was passed by the Legislature in 1851 to provide for the in- 
corporation and efficient management of literary associations and me- 
chanics' institutes, and a scale of government aid, based upon the 
amounts locally raised, was drawn out. Under this Act many institu- 
tions were called into existence, and much good was accomplished. In 
]859 an amended Act was embodied in the Consolidated Statutes of 
Canada, which Act, we may say, is still in force for the incorporation 

659 



422 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

and mauagement of these aud other iiterature institutes. Two years 
before the passing of the latter Act the Board of Arts and Manufact- 
ures was incorporated, with the design " of co-operating with mechanics' 
institutes and of promoting the development of mechanical talent, by 
disseminating instructions in mechanics and kindred sciences." The 
government grant to the mechanics' institutes was distributed through 
the agency of this Board of Arts and Manufxictures, and under its di- 
rection a healthful stimulus was given to the establishment aud opera- 
tion of libraries and reading-rooms. 

At Confederation this Board, which previously had had independent 
powers, though nominally under the administration of the Department 
of Agriculture and Statistics for Canada, was abolished, and the Asso- 
ciation of Mechanics' Institutes of Ontario was incorporated in its place. 
This Association was placed under the supervision of the Department 
of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Public Works lor Ontario, and 
legislative aid was granted through it to mechanics' institutes to the 
extent of one dollar for every dollar raised from local sources up to a 
maximum amount of two hundred dollars. In 1869 twenty-six insti- 
tutes were in operation, and received government aid to the extent of 
$3,300. In 1870 an amendment to the statute under which the incor- 
porated Association of Mechanics' Institutes was working, passed the 
Legislature, by which the maximum to each institute was increased from 
two hundred to four hundred dollars. In this year the number of insti- 
tutes receiving legislative aid rose to forty-three, and the money grant 
was increased to $12,600. In 1877 the statute was further amended by 
authorizing school inspectors to audit the financial affairs of the insti- 
tutes, and instructing their boards of management to forward to the 
Government their annual reports, and a statement showing how the 
legislative grant had been expended. In 1880 the Association of Me- 
chanics' Institutes for the Province was transferred from the supervis- 
ion of the Commissioner of Agriculture to that of the Minister of Edu- 
cation, and in that member of the Government its affairs are now vested. 
In the same year the number of institutes receiving legislative aid was 
seventy-four, and the amount disbursed by Government close upon 
$23,000. 

These institutes spread broadcast over the Province are important 
agencies for the diffusion of useful knowledge, and most helpful in giv- 
ing facilities to the artisan classes in making themselves proficient in 
the principles and methods of their industries and arts. While con- 
tributing to this practical work, and giving invaluable aid to the manu- 
facturing industries of the Province, they are at the same time doing 
much to enlarge the mental possessions of the people, and to enrich the 
intellectual resources of the country. 

FREE PUBLIC LIBRARIES. 

We now arrive at a new stage in the record of public library progress 
in Ontario — an era which saw a great stride taken in engrafting popular 
education on municipal government. Something more was wanted than 
the voluntary effort, on the part of the few, to originate and maintain 
mechanics' institute libraries and reading rooms, and to bring to the 
masses the facilities and beneficent influence of a free and readily ac- 
cessible public library. This want found expression in the spring of 
1882, when an Act to provide for the establishment of free libraries was 
l)as8ed by the Provincial Legislature. The provisions of that Act gave 

060 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES — PAPEES. 423 

opportunity to the people of any incorpora/Ced city, town, or village, to 
vote upon a by-law for the founding* of a free library, and to assess 
themselves for its support, in a sum not exceeding half a mill on the 
dollar, the amount to be levied as other rates and assessments are levied 
for municipal purposes. Permission was also given in the Act to raise 
money by the issue of debentures for the erection of necessary buildings 
and for the purchase of books. The libraries, news-rooms, and museums 
established under the Act, it was provided, shall be open to the public 
free of all charge. In an amendment to the Bill, passed in the following 
year, provision was made for transferring the library, reading-room, 
buildings, and other property of existing mechanic's institutes, to the 
Board of Management of any free library that may be established under 
the Act, and for securing to the said free library board the annual grant 
given by the Legislature to mechanics' institutes. Among the first cities 
to take advantage of the passing of the Act was Toronto, the provincial 
capital. 

Toronto.— In the case of Toronto we have an instance of a mechanics' 
institute, one of the oldest and most successful in the country, merging 
itself into the larger life of a free public library. The by-law submitting 
the projected library to the rate payers was passed by a large majority 
vote on the 1st of January, 1883, and a board was shortly afterwards or- 
ganized in accordance with the statute. The board presently proceeded 
to work; raised $50,000 by debentures ; altered and enlarged the old 
mecbanics' institute building ; furnished and equipped the library and 
reading-room; and appointed its oflScers. The library was formally 
opened, with considerable ceremony and enthusiasm, on the 6th of 
March, 1884, and shortly afterwards two branch libraries, in other parts 
of the city, were furnished and opened to the public. The result of the 
experiment is exceedingly gratifying, and the library has been put on 
its feet with the happiest auspices and with great promise of usefulness. 
The number of books iu the central and branch libraries up to the end 
of 1884 is in the neighborhood of 35,000. Their cost, exclusive of do- 
nations, was close upon $25,000. The total number of books issued to 
the public for the portion of the year during which the library was in 
operation, viz, 229 days in 1884, was 179,503, or an average daily issue 
of 783 books. It is estimated that some 400,000 persons visited the 
reading-rooms during the above period. 

Guelph is another city iu Ontario that has taken advantage of the Free 
Libraries Act, and in 1883 commenced its operations. It is of course 
on a more modest scale than the Toronto library ; but with its popula- 
tion of only 12,000 the experiment may be said to be highly successful. 
It has a collection of books amounting to 3,776 volumes, classified as fol- 
lows: Biography, 370; fiction, 926; history, 380; voyages and travels, 
341; general literature, 308; poetry and the drama, 98; periodicals 
(bound), 420; theolog^^ and religion, 177 ; science, 220 ; industrial science 
and art, 211 ; works of reference, 121 ; illustrated books, 90. The num- 
ber of householders using cards of admission to the library is about 
1,400, and the issue of books exceeds 23,000 annually. Its reading- 
room is well supplied with newspapers and periodicals, and is a profit- 
able place of resort — it is admitted — to the thousands who take advan- 
tage of the institution. 

Brantford (population, 12,] 67) and St. Thomas (population, 11,157) 
have also opened free public libraries under the provisions of the Act, 
and have been most successful in the experiment. The former has 
6,300 volumes in the library, and the latter 2,674. 

661 



424 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 
UNIVERSITY AND OTHER LIBRARIES IN ONTARIO. 

Besides the four different series of libraries we have treated of in the 
preceding pages, there are collections of books, of greater or lesser ex- 
tent, in the libraries of educational and other institutions in the capital 
and other cities in the Province of Ontario. The total number of 
books in these various libraries cannot be short of 320,000 volumes. The 
Dominion Parliamentary Library, at Ottawa, is the chief of these col- 
lections, and is rich in all the important works in French and English 
literature, and especially in the departments of Canadian history, biog- 
raphy, jurisprudence, parliamentary government^ and miscellaneous 
literature. Appended is a list of these various libraries, with an ap- 
proximate estimate of the number of books each contains : 

Parliamentary Library, Ottawa, including works in Canadian 

archives, say 125, 000 

Parliamentary Library, Toronto 18, 000 

University of Toronto, Toronto 26, 000 

Canadian Institute, Toronto 5, 000 

Law Society of Upper Canada, Toronto (Osgoode Hall) 18, 000 

Toronto Baptist College, Toronto 7, 500 

Education Office Library, Toronto 6, 500 

Knox, Trinity, and Wycliffe Colleges, Toronto, say 20, 000 

Queen's University, Kingston (Presbyterian) 15, 000 

Victoria University, Coburg (Methodist) 7, 000 

Agricultural College, Guelph — a nice library of works on ag- 
riculture and chemistry 2, 700 

662 



THE EISE OF COLLEGE GYMNASIA IN THE UNITED STATES. 
By Edward Mussey Hahtwell, Ph. D., M. D., 

Associate in Physical Training and Director of the Gymnasium, Johns HopJcins University, 

Baltimore. 



Montaigne has well said, "Our work is not to train a soul by itself 
alone or a body by itself alone, but to train a man ; and in man soul 
and body can never be separated." In accordance with a more or less 
clear ai)i)reliension of this idea, a considerable number of collejjes and 
universities in the United States have established departments for the 
systematic training of the body. In connection with these departments 
gymnasia and playgrounds have been provided, as well as lectureships 
on personal hygiene. In several instances the heads of these depart- 
ments are college-bred men, who have taken also a medical degree; and 
it is their business to counsel and direct students in regard to exercise 
and regimen, such counsel and direction being based upon a careful ex- 
amination into the peculiar needs of each individual. 

It is the main object of this paper to describe the aims and methods 
of the best organized of these departments of physical training, after a 
preliminary historical sketch of the growth of this branch of educational 
work in the United States. 

In order to understand why the claims of the body have been so often 
ignored or contemned in collegiate and university education, it is nec- 
essary to recall briefly some of the doctrines concerning the nature 
and relations of body and mind. Educational schemes have been con- 
trived and administered too often by men who believed that body and 
mind were distinct entities at war with each other. 

The Greeks, indeed, Mith their keen insight into the laws of symmetry 
and their surpassing love of the beautiful, recognized the worth of 
bodily as well as of mental perfection. Careful nurture and training of 
the body jilayed a very considerable part in the education of Grecian 
youth — ill the education of the schoolboy and the university pupil no 
less than in that of the soldier and the professional athlete. 

Although the early Fathers of the Christian Church viewed with 
horror and detestation the gladiatorial sports of the pagans, yet, as 
defenders of the faith against the heretical doctrines of the Maniche- 
ans and Gnostics, they could not do otherwise than champion the 
dignity and worth of perfect, or at least perfectible, bodies. But 
under the influence of those saints, who looked and longed for the 
speedy extinction of mankind and the end of the world, during the first 
thousand years of our era, the most debased asceticism gained sway; 
and mcrtitication of the flesh, to the extent of rendering the body en- 
feebled and impotent, was preached and practiced as a means to attain 
to mental and moral excellence. It was distinctly held that bodily 
weakness was a i^rime requisite to mental strength and to the soul's 
salvation. 

663 



426 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

With tlio Eenaissance and the rise of chivalry came a sharp challenge 
of the monkish ideal ; and though bodily exercise, as a means to secure 
grace, vigor, and skill, came to be deemed indispensable to the educa- 
tion of all youths of gentle blood, still ecclesiasticism was too dominant 
in the colleges and universities for the enlightened care of the body to 
form any considerable part in the training of a scholar. Knightly ex- 
ercises found but little favor with the heads of colleges, and " honest 
sports," far from being promoted, were scarcely tolerated by them. 

In modern schemes of education the part allotted, or allowed, to 
bodily training and to recreation has been determined chiefly by the do- 
minion exercised, singly or in combination, over the minds of faculties 
and boards of trust by the Greek, the monkish, or the knightly ideal of 
manly excellence. The Germans, under the head of Guts Muths and 
Jahn, the father of the lamous turnvereins, have been enamored of the 
example of the Greeks, and have striven in an elaborately systematic 
w^ay to embody Greek gymnastics in modern forms. France, appar- 
ently out of respect for Prussia, has recently given physical training 
a prominent place in its revised educational code. 

In England, where there is more or less of aversion to systematic 
efforts to train the bodies of scholastic youth, gymnasia exist chiefly as 
private ventures, or in connection with the recruiting serWce of the 
army; they are but rarely maintained or regulated by the great educa- 
tional foundations. Certain national sports are considered by the edu- 
cated classes to be an important factor in British supremacy; and, in 
spite of the marked survival of mediaeval ideals and forms in the organ- 
ization and administratioji of Oxford, Cambridge, and the public 
schools, chivalric notions as to bodily force and grace are clearly trace- 
able in the sober passion of the British schoolboy and undergraduate 
for athletic games and manly sports; which, it should be renjembered, 
are regulated almost entirely by the force of custom among the pupils 
themselves. 

When we recall the fact that our oldest American colleges, like their 
early British models, were established primarily to furnish trained re- 
cruits to the ranks of the clergy, there remains no ground for wonder 
that physical training has been slow to win recognition as a necessary 
part of a sound education. American educators were long ruled by 
British notions as to curriculum and discipline, which notions have 
never been in favor of systematic physical training. Certain national 
sports, however, have long been considered by the educated class as 
constituting an important bulwark of the British constitution; accord- 
ingly American collegians, those who were not too serious to play, 
disported themselves after inherited British fashions. 

The means afforded students a hundred and fifty years ago were de- 
cidedly meager, if we may judge from the only mention concerning 
them in the "Ancient Customs of Harvard College Established by the 
Government of It," in which " Custom 16" reads thus: 

The Freslimen shall furnish bats, balls, and foot-balls, for the use of students, to be 
kept in the Buttery. 

The first President of Dartmouth College, Dr. Wheelock, admonished 
his students in 1771, two years after the college was opened, ''to turn 
the course of their diversions and exercises lor their health to the prac- 
tice of some manual arts, or cultivation of gardens and other lands, at 
the proper hours of leisure and intermission from studies and vacancies" 

ii. e., vacations]. We learn from a letter written by Dr. Benjamin 
iush, of Philadelphia, in 1790, on "The Amusements and Punishments 
664 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 427 

proper for Schools," in which, by the way, he commends the Methodists 
for " wisely banishing every species of play from their college," that 
tbe experimeut had been tried, •' with the happiest effects," of intro- 
ducing the care of vegetable gardens as an amusement " in the Meth- 
odist college at Abiiigton in Maryland." He also says that all the 
amusements of the children of the Moravians at Bethlehem, Penn., " are 
derived from their performing the subordinate parts of several of the 
mechanical arts; and a considerable portion of the wealth of that worthy 
and happy society is the product flf the labor of their little hands." 

Forty years later manual labor societies came into vogue in several 
of the New England colleges, but, proving failures as a means of putting 
wealth into the hands of their members, they fell into desuetude as 
educational agencies. In some colleges the authorities used to grant 
holidays " for the purpose of fostering in the students the habit of 
physical labor and exercise, so essential to vigorous mental exertion," 
which holidays were devoted to " raking off the chips and clearing the 
grounds, and graveling the college walks." 

When such notions and practices obtained with our forefathers, it is 
hardly strange that the first impulse to a physical training deserving 
of the name should have come from without. As a matter of fact, it 
came from Prussia, where, during the last fifteen years of the eighteenth 
century and the first two decades of the nineteenth, Guts Muths and 
Jahn accomijlished a great work in reviving physical education. 

The first gymnasia in this country were constructed out of doors, in 
bold imitation of Grteco-German models, and a very considerable, 
though, as it proved, a very transient interest in gymnastics was evoked 
by the German exiles; Drs. Beck, Pollen, and Lieber were foremost in 
the matter. In 1828 there was published in Northampton, Mass., "A 
Treatise on Gymnasticks, taken chiefly from the German of F. L. Jahn." 
This translation was by a pupil of Jahn's, Dr. Beck, who had in 1825 
been instrumental in establishing a gymnasium at the Kound Hill 
School, at Northampton. On page iv of the Preface Dr. Beck states 
that — 

The School of Messrs. Cogswell and Bancroft, in Northampton, Mass., was the first 
institution in this country that introduced fjymnastick exercises as a part of the reg- 
ul^ir instruction, in the Spring of 1 B25. 

I am greatly indebted to the venerable Dr. George C. Shattuck, of 
Boston, who was a pupil at Eound Hill, for the following account of 
this gymnasium : 

Dr. Beck, the teacher of Latin, afterwards the Professor of Latin in Harvard Univer- 
sity, was the first teacher of gymnastics. A large piece of ground was devoted to 
the purpose and furnished with all the ai)paratns used in tbo German gymnasia. 
The whole school was divided into classes, and each class had an hour three times a 
■week for instruction by Dr. Beck. At the same time there were a dozen riding horses, 
and classes for riding three times a week. Gardens were assigned the boys, in which 
they raised jdants and vegetables. A piece of land was set iiside for bnilding huts. 
Base-ball, hockey, and foot ball were the games. Thoiagh the school had only an ex- 
istence of twenty years or less, and failed from the want of pecuniary support, I be- 
lieve that its influence has survived. Developing the bodily powers and strengthen- 
ing the constitution were there firat recognized as of great importance in the educa- 
tion of boys. 

Dr. John 0. Warren, who for forty years was Professor of Anatomy 
and Surgery in the Harvard Medical School, was about this time in the 
habit of delivering annual lectures to the students at Cambridge on 
the preservation of health. He was the first President of the Tremont 
Gymnasium in Boston, in the establishment of which, in 1825, he took 

665 



428 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

a prominent part. It is a matter of interest that Dr. Warren attempted 
to secure the services of "the distinguished philosopher and gymnasi- 
arch, Professor Jahn," who could not be led at the salary offered " to 
abandon his own country and establish himself in ours." Dr. Francis 
Lieber, who later attained such eminence as a publicist and as a pro- 
fessor in the Columbia Law School, was for a time connected with the 
Tremont Gymnasium. In 1826 Dr. Follen, who, like Dr. Beck, was a 
teacher at Kound Hill and finally became a professor at Harvard, es- 
tablished a gymnasium at Harv£frd College, being seconded in his 
efforts by Dr. Warren and others of the "Medical professors." One of 
the unoccupied commons halls was fitted up with various gymnastic 
appliances, and other fixtures were erected in the Delta, i. e., the col- 
lege play-ground. In the same year, 1826, the corporation of Yale Col- 
lege voted the sum of $300 for the fitting up of a gymnasium in the 
College Green. Dr. Warren states that " small gymnasia were estab- 
lished in connection with most of the schools, academies, and colleges, 
male and female." The following extract from the published works of 
Dr. Warren — though I am uncertain whether it was originally penned 
in 1830 or 1845 — affords good evidence that the interest in gymnastics 
became feeble after the first teachers of the art became ordinary college 
professors: 

The establishment of gymnasia [says Dr. Warren] through the country promised 
at one period the opening of a new era in physical education. The exercises were 
pursued with ardor so long as their novelty lasted; but, owing to not understanding 
their importance, or some defect in the institutions which adopted them, they have 
gradually been neglected and forgotten, at least in our vicinity. The benefits which 
resulted from those institutions, within my personal knowledge and experience, far 
transcended the most sanguine expectations. The diversions of the gymnasium 
should constitute a regular part of the duties of all our colleges and seminaries of 
learning. 

It would appear that no well-considered and systematic course of 
physical training was maintained for any considerable length of time 
in the period extending from 1826 to 1860, in any American college. It 
may be possible that the University of Virginia presents an exception 
to the above statement, inasmuch as there was a large out-of-doors gym- 
nasium maintained on the grounds of that institution from 1852 till the 
outbreak of the war. A competent gymnast and fencer had it in charge ; 
but in order to support himself he was obliged to eke out the small sums 
received from the students by cultivating a kitchen garden and keep- 
ing a Eussian bath house. 

Although in the period from 1855 to 1860, under the Combined influ- 
ence of the example and writings of Dr. Winship, Dio Lewis, and 
Thomas Hughes, much interest, especially among young men, was 
awakened in gymnastics, feats of strength, and athletic sports, still, 
prior to 1859, no college in the country possessed a commodious and 
well-furnished building devoted to the purposes of physical training. 
In the year 1859-'60, however, Amherst, Harvard, and Yale erected 
gymnasia which cost respectively $15,000, $10,000, and $13,000. These, 
for their time, were costly, elaborate, and well-furnished. Those at 
Amherst and Harvard, having been outgrown, have recently been re- 
placed by more costly and vastly improved structures, of which we shall 
have occasion to speak further on. 

Amherst College, situated within ten miles of the site of the original 
Eound Hill School gymnasium, was the first college in America to es- 
tablish a department of physical culture. This it did in 1860. That it 
did so was chiefly owing to the wise suggestions and zealous endeavors 
of the late Eev. W. A. Stearns, D. D., then its president. President 
666 



IJftEiiNATWNAL CONGRESS 6P liDtlCATOltS — I'At'ERS. 420 

Stearns had argued, in 1854, on the occasion of his inauguration, " that 
no course of education is complete without devoting special attention 
to secure a good development and healthy state of the physical sys- 
tem." He returned again and again to the subject in his annual reports 
to the trustees of the college. In his Eeport for 1859 President Stearns 
said : 

By the time junior year is reached many students Lave broken down their health, 
and every year some lives are sacrificed. Physical training is not the only means of 
preventing this result ; but it is the most prominent of them. If it could be regu- 
larly conducted, if a moderate amount of physical exercise could be secured as a 
general thing to every student daily, I have a deep conviction, founded on close ob- 
servation and experience, that not only would lives aud health be preserved, but 
animation and cheerfulness and a higher order of efficient study and intellectual life 
would be secured. It will be for the consideration of this Board, whether for the 
encouragement of this sort of exercise the time has not come when efficient measures 
should be taken fo^ the erection of a gymnasium and the procuring of its proper aj)- 
pointments. 

He concluded with the statement that two of the most promising stu- 
dents in the senior class had just died, and that their deaths had prob- 
ably been occasioned by the violation of the laws of health during their 
life in college. Other students, moreover, were fast breaking down their 
constitutions and seemed likely to follow them. 

The trustees acted immediately, and voted that it was expedient to 
erect a suitable gymnasium; and, provided a certain amount could be 
raised by subscription, they recommended that an equal amount beaj)- 
propriated for that purpose from the treasury of the college. The re- 
sult was, that a building of stone, two stories high, fifty by seventy two 
feet, was completed in the summer of 1860, at a cost of $10,0<»U. An 
additional sum of $5,000 was expended for its apparatus and fittings. 
It contained on the ground floor two dressing-rooms, an ofSce for the 
director, and four bowling alleys. The second floor contained the gym- 
njisium proper, a well-lighted hall open to the roof. 

Having finished the gymnasium, the Amherst trustees voted — 

To establish a department of physical culture in this college ; and that the duties 
of its professor shall be: (1) To take charge of the gymnasium, and give instruction 
to the students in gymnastics. (2) To take general oversight of the health of the 
students, and to give such instruction on the subject as may be deemed expedient, 
a,nd under the direction of the Faculty like all otlier studies. (3) To teach elocution 
so far as it is connected with physical training. (4) He shall give lectures from time 
to time upon hygiene, physical culture, and other topics pertaining to the laws of life 
and health, including some general knowledge of auatomy and physiology. (5) The 
individual appointed to have charge of this de])artment shall be a thoroughly edu- 
cated physician, and, like other teachers and professors, shall be a member of the col- 
lege Faculty. It is distinctly understood that the health of the students shall at all 
times be an object of his special watch, care, and counsel. 

J. W. Hooker, M. D., a graduate of Yale College, was appointed the 
first Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education. He was forced by 
ill health to resign his position before he had held it a year, and E. 
Hitchcock, M. D., a graduate at Amherst and of the Medical School of 
Harvard University, was appointed on August 8, 1861, to the vacant 
professorship. Dr. Hitchcock still holds the position. 

Originally ail able-bodied students were required to practice both 
light and heavy gymnastics, but after a few years' trial it was decided 
to require practice only in the light gymnastics. Each of the four 
classes meets at an appointed hour in the gymnasium four times weekly 
for thirty-one weeks. The required exercise consists of a series of con- 
certed movements made with a pair of wooden dumb-bells, weighing a 
pound each. The movements are executed simultaneously by the entire 
class, their " time " being regulated by the music of a piano. The class 

6fi7 



exercise occupies from twenty to thirty minutes 5 such as choose to may 
then exercise upon the heavy gymnastic machines. Each class has its 
distinctive uniform, consisting of a loosely fitting shirt and trousers of 
heavy flannel, and no member of the class is allowed to engage in class 
exercise without his uniform. 

In 1881 Dr. Hitchcock published a " Eeport of Twenty Years' Expe- 
rience in the Department of Physical Education and Hygiene in Am- 
herst College." It contains a lull account of tbe organization of the 
department and the means em])loyed to secure the interest and attend- 
ance of the students. It is only possible to refer here to the claim set 
forth therein to the eifect that the Amherst system has proved itself 
equal to improving the carriage, physique, and health of the students 
trained under it; and to note the fact that certain interesting anthro- 
pometric observations have been regularly made by Dr. Hitchcock 
since 1861. 

In the fall of 1861 [lie says, p. S, Joe. cit.'] I took measurements of all the college 
students in seven particulars, and have faithfully made these examinations of almost 
ever-y sound man since connected with the college. The measurements are made of 
the Freshmen soon alter entering, and are repeated upon them near the end of each 
year of the course. Thus every man who goes through college has been observed live 
times. These observations during the first year were the age, weight, height, chest 
girth, arm girth, fore-arui girth, and body lift. The second year the capacity of the 
lungs was added, and for the last years tlio linger reach and the chest expan&iou, and 
for the last two years the comparative streugtli of the two hands. 

Six highly interesting statistical tables are appended to the report. 
It should be said that the duties of the professor are still substantially 
those originally laid down by the trustees, except that he does not teach 
elocution. 

It was not until 1879 that any marked odvance was made beyond the 
principles embodied in the Amherst system of physical training. That 
advance was made when the Sargent system of developing exercises 
was introduced into Harvard University on the completion, in 1^79, of 
the Hemenway Gymnasium, which is by far the finest in the United 
States. 

The Hemenway Gymnasium, at Harvard University, is named after 
Augustus Hemenway, Esq., of Boston, Mass., and a graduate of Har- 
vard in 1876, who gave $110,000 for the erection of a new gymnasium. 

A descrii)tion of it, condensed from the Harvard Register, is subjoined : 

The building is built iu the colonial style of architecture, of brick with trimmings 
of sandstone. The roof is covered with red slate, and is surmounted by a, cupola, the 
top of which is 98 feet from the ground. Tho building is 125 feet long and 113 feet 
wide. Over the main window the coat of arms of the college is carved in freestone. 
Tho exterior is very attractive, and is a great ornament to the city of Cambridge. 
The main entrance is by way of an elaborate porch. There is an outer and an inner 
vestibule. From the latter is a flight of stairs made of North River bluestono, with 
iron balusters. On the right is a reception-room finished w^ith enameled bricks. 
Opening Irom this room is a dressing-room 10;i feet long, with numerous lockers, 
through which steam pipes pass for drying the clothing. On tho same side of the 
building are two large bath and toilet rooms; and between these is ix room arranged 
for vapor and needle baths, with appliances for giving a lateral, vertical, and de- 
scending shower. Three doors open from the dressing-room into the main hall, over 
which extends an iron frame-work arranged with sliding eyebolts and beams, so that 
the swinging apparatus can be suspended from any point. On the left side of the 
hall is an apartment for developing apparatus, and a isemicircular room intended for 
an armory. The main hall is very elegant, the walls being of red and yellow bricks, 
and the woodwork of hard pine. It is 113 feet long, and in the widest part 90 feot 
wide, with an open roof, having hard-pine, open-timbered trusses resting on large 
brackets. On the second floor there is a room for the exhibition of trophies and for 
committee meetings, and also the rowing room, shut in by a high wooden screen, and 
containing sixteen rowing machines. Around the hall is a gallery which can be used 
668 



lis a ninnintr track; On this floor is tho offlco of tlie director, tbe nieasuriug room, 
tho janitor's room, etc. In the basement are eiglit bowling alleys with suitable ap- 
purtenances. The whole nor(h end of tho basement under the main hall is reserved 
for base ball, lacrosse, and tennis practice, and is enclosed by heavy wire netting. In 
the basement are also sparring and fencing rooms, and a boiler and store room. The 
whole building is heated by steam and thoroughly ventilated. 

Concerning the apparatus introduced into the Hemenway Gymnasium, 
Dr. D. A. Sargent, its inventor and the director of the gymnasium, says: 

Everything has been planned and arranged to meet the probable wants of tho aver- 
age student, and to satisfy the claim of the greatest number. The old-fashioned gym- 
nasia are filled with crude appliances that have been handed down in stereotyped 
forms for several centuries. To use this apparatus with benefit it is necessary for one 
to have more strength at the outset than the average man possesses. When it is con- 
sidered that only one man in five can raise his own weight with ease, the need of in- 
troducing apparatus to prepare one for the beneficial use of the heavy appliances 
becomes quite apparent ; it was the realization of this need that led to the invention 
of the numerous contrivances that have been introduced into the Hemenway Gymna- 
sium ; the desire to strengthen certain muscles, in order to accomplish particular 
feats on the higher apparatus, was the original motive of these inventions. The re- 
sults which followed were so satisfactory that the same ajipliances were afterwards 
used as a means of attaining a haruioniousdoveloi)nieut. For this last-named ])urposc 
each machine has its own use. Each is designed to bring into action one or more 
sots of muscles, and all can be adjusted to the capacity of a child or of an athlete. 
Easy adaptation to the capacity of the individual, and facility of ay)pIication tor rem- 
edying local defects and weaknesses, are the distinguishing characteristics of tho appa- 
ratus. Local defects and weaknesses axo only to be discovered through i)hy8ical exam- 
inations. By means of these examinations the i)hysical condition of th<! individual 
is accurately ascertained. The relative proportions of the dift'ercnt parts of the body ; 
the undue development of certain muscles, and the relaxed and enfeebled condition 
of others; tho comparative size of body and limbs; variations of height, breadth, 
weight, and muscular strength, from the normal standard for a given age, — must all 
be taken into account in prescribing any useful course of physical training. This 
information, together with a variety of facts concerning personal history, bone and 
muscle measurements, and acquired or iuherlted tendencies to chronic or functional 
disease, shows at once the immediate needs of the pei'son under advice. The.sc needs 
having been ascertained, the proper amount of exercise on the proper machines is 
then prescribed. 

The chief characteristics, then, of the Sargent system of training as 
originally introduced at Harvard are as follows: 

1. It is based on careful physical diagnosis. 

2. Exercise, diet, etc., etc., are prescribed in the light of such physical 
diagnosis. 

3. Besides the ordinary light and heavy gymnastic appliances, ma- 
chines designed to produce certain definite localized eifects in develop- 
ment can be employed to insure symmetry, and remedy specific defects, 
or departures from the normal standard of strength or development. 

It may be well to remark in passing that the anthropometrical obser-r 
vatious made at Amherst were not used to determine the needs oi the 
individual examined ; that every member of the chiss was subjected to 
tlje same kind of exercise; and that the Sargent system of measurements 
has been adopted at Amherst. 

The era of gymnasium building which opened in 1800 may be divided 
conveniently into three periods, viz: First period, 1850- '60 to 1870 in- 
clusive; second period, 1871 to 1880 inclusive; third period, 1881 to the 
present writing (February, 1885). A table showing the date and cost 
of construction of tho gymnasia built during each of these periods is 
given on the following page. 

6G9 



432 EDtJCATlONAL CONVENTIONS AT NeW OfeLEANS EJ£:t'OSlTION. 

FIRST PEEIOD. 



Institution with which gymnasium is connected. 



"When built. 



Cost. 



(o) — Institutions for superior instruction. 



Amherst Collego, Ma."i8achnsett.<( 

Dartmouth Colle;ce, New Hiimpsbiye . 
Harvard tlBiversity, Massacbusotts . 

Princeton College, New Jersey 

"Washington University, Missouri 

Wesleyan University, Connecticut ... 

WiscODsiu University. Wisconsin 

Talc Collojie, Connecticut 

Pennsj'lvania College, Pennsylvania.. 



(6) — Institutions for secondary instruction. 

Claverack Collogo, New York 

Allen's English .ind Classical School, Massachusetts 

Williston Seminary, Massachuiiotts 



1859-'60 


$1!), 000 


1860 


24, 000 


1860 


10,000 


1869 


38, 000 


'< 


7,000 


1863 


5, 000 


1868 


.5, 000 


1860 


33,000 


1870 


3, 000 




120,000 


1861 


6,000 


1860 


500 


« 


a20, 000 



Total for the first period. 



146, 500 



a Estimated. 



Williams College in Massachusetts and Bowdoin College in Maine, 
for young men, and Vassar College for women, in New York, each fitted 
up a gymnasium during this period in a building since devoted to other 
purposes. 

SECOND PEEIOD. 



Institution with which gymnasium is connected. 



Institutions for superior instruction. 



Beloit College, Wisconsin , 

University of California, California , 

Harvard tJniversity, Massachusetts , 

Smith College, Massachusetts X • 

Vanderbilt University, Tennessee - 

Newton Theological Seminary, Massachusetts 
Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut J . 



Total for the second period . 



When built. 



1874 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1879 
1876 
? 



Cost. 



$5, 000 
12,000 
110,000 
a4, 000 
22, 000 
4,000 
a8, 000 



165, 000 



a Estimated. 
THIRD PERIOD. 



(a) — Institutions for superior instruction. 

Amherst College, Massachusetts t 

Bryn Mawr College, Penn.sylvania { 

Cornell University, New York i 

Dickinson College, Penn.iylvania 

Johns Hopkins University, Maryland t 

Lafayette College, Pennsylvania J 

Lehigh University, Pennsylvania}: 

Massachusetts Agricultural College, Massachusetts* 

Univeisity of Minnesota, Minnesota* 

Na.ohville" University (State Normal College), Tennessee^.. 

National Deaf-Mute'College, District of Columbiat X 

Tufts College, Massachusetts 

University of Wooster, Ohio 



(6) — Institution for secondary instruction. 
Shattuck School, Minnesota. 



Total for the third period ... 
Total for the second period 
Total for the first period 



1880 



1883-'84 


$6.->, 000 


1884 


18, 009 


1882-'83 


40, 000 


1884 


8,000 


1883 


10, 000 


1884 


15, 000 


1882 


40, 000 


1883 


6,000 


1884 


34, 000 


1884 


5, 500 


1881 


14, 600 


1882-'83 


10, 000 


1882-'83 


4,200 



20, 000 

290. 300 
165, 000 
146, 500 



601, 800 



* Used at present for military drill. 

tThis is unique among our college gymnasia, as it contains, on the ground floor, a swimming pool, 
which is 40 by 20 feet, 6 feet deep, sloping upward to a depth of 3 feet at the other end. 

} At the institutions whoso names in the above list are marked thus J the Sargent system is in vogue 
to a great extent. 

070 



IMf ERNATICNAL CONGRESS OP EDtfCAl^ORS — tAtERS. 43B 

CONCERNING SCHOOL AND COLLEGE GYMNASIA NOT OCCUPYING AN 

ENTIRE BUILDING. 

The following list comprises the names of a few of the more important 
colleges and schools known to possess gymnasia. In some cases a 
special building exists ; in the greater number a hall has been fitted for 
the purposes of gymnastic exercise. It is impossible, owing to the 
meager returns to our inquiries, to state accurately the amount of money 
expended for buildings and apparatus by institutions not noted in the 
above lists; but we may safely " guess" that $150,000 have been ex- 
pended on the class of gymnasia under consideration, since 1860, in 
addition to the $000,000 accounted for above. 

Augustana College, Illinois. 

Boston CTniversity, Massachusetts.* 

Carleton College, Minnesota. 

Haverford College, Pennsylvania.* 

Hamilton College, Kew York. 

Hobart College, New York. 

DePauw University, Indiana. 

Iowa College, Iowa. 

Kansas State Agricultural College, Kansas. 

Ken>on College, Ohio. 

Marietta College, Ohio. 

Kashville University (State Normal College), Tennessee.* 

Oberlin College, Ohio. 

Seton Hall College, New Jersey. . 

Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania.* 

Union College, New York. 

Vassar College, New York. 

Wellesley College, Massachusetts.* 

United States Military Academy, New York. 

United States Naval Academy, Maryland. 

Bellevue High School, Virginia. 

Boston English High and Latin Schools, Massachusetts.* 
, Concordia Seminary, Missouri. 

Connecticut Literary Association, Connecticut. 

Cushing Academy, Massachusetts. 

Morgan Park Military School, Illinois. 

Mt. Holyoke Seminary, Massachusetts. 

Pennsylvania Charter School, Pennsylvania.* 

Phillips Academy (^.ndover), Massachusetts. 

St. Paul's School, New Hampshire. 

The gymnasia whose names in the above list are followed by an 
asterisk, are chiefly .fitted with the Sargent appliances. 

Funds are either in hand or are being raised for gymnasia at Phillips 
Exeter Academy, New Hampshire; Michigan University, Michigan; 
the University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania ; and Williams College, 
Massachusetts. 

New gymnasia are projected at the United States Military and Naval 
Academies. 

It ai)pears from the Eeport of the Commissioner of Education for 1873, 
that out of a list of 119 normal schools in tlie United States, only 17 
claimed to possess a gymnasium in 1873. The Commissioner's Report 
for 1882-'83 shows that 19 out of 119 public normal schools, and 16 out 
of 114 private normal schools, had gymnasia. As regards preparatory 
schools, the same Report notices the fact that 56 out of 157 of them 
had gymnasia. 

7950 COT., PT. 2 28 on 



434 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



One of the most potent factors in bringing about the revival, in recent 
years, of an interest in games, exercises, and training, was the war. 
With the war came a genuine appreciation of the worth of a good phy- 
sique and of the educational value of bodily training. After the war 
the youth of the country engaged more actively, enthusiastically, and 
intelligently than ever before, in athletic sports ; and collegiate and inter- 
collegiate contests in great variety gained unexampled prominence and 
favor in the estimation of the general public as well as of the college 
world. I do not propose to enter into the discussion of the vexed ques- 
tion of athleticism in colleges. My belief is that in the larger colleges 
the athletic spirit has gained such headway that no college can afford to 
crush it ; that it ought not to be crushed, and that under control it is 
susceptible of being turned to the utmost advantage of the students. 
The spirit of intercollegiate rivalry should be kept within reasonable 
limits, and every tendency towards professional methods and practices 
should be discountenanced. 

A few facts concerning the play-grounds of Harvard, Yale, and Prince- 
ton, and the sums raised and expended in a single year, may serve to 
indicate how highly developed an interest that in athletics has become ; 
and it should be remembered that it has been developed and organized 
chiefly by the students and alumni of the last twenty years, who have 
contributed munificently towards the erection of our finest gymnasia. 
Dr. H. J. Bowditch, in his Centennial Address on Hygiene in America, 
in 1870, predicted what is in a measure already fulfilled. " Meanwhile," 
he said, in speaking of hygiene in colleges, " although the instructors 
of the colleges thus neglect important duties, the youths of their own 
free will, and at times, lately, with the aid and counsel of the college 
governments, have commenced athletic sports. This will gradually force 
the colleges to take, on their own parts, a higher position." 

The playing fields at Harvard, on grounds belonging to the college, 
embrace about ten acres of land in the heart of the city of Cambridge. 
Within two years about $6,000, of which the college contributed $2,000, 
have been expended. in improving them; so that the facilities for ball- 
playing, tennis, lacrosse, bicycling, and running are ample and excel- 
lent. The new Athletic Field at Tale will, by the time it is ready for 
use, have cost about $56,000, which sum was chie% contributed by 
students and graduates of the college. " It will embrace a quarter- 
mile cinder track, two ball-fields, a foot-ball field, and a cricket-field. 
It has on it a $6,000 grand stand, and is inclosed by a wire fence, sur- 
rounding nearly thirty acres of laud." The Director of Field Sports at 
Yale, who was in college distinguished both as a student and as an 
athlete, was appointed a year ago by the graduate and undergraduate 
athletic interest at a salary of $1,200, toward which the Faculty paid 
nothing. Both Harvard and Yale have large and valuable boat-houses. 
Princeton has an athletic field of nearly ten acres, well api)ointed for 
field sports. The following table shows the financial condition of the 
athletic departments of Princeton, Harvard, and Yale, for the year 
1882-'83. 



'Name. 


Numbers. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


Income for 
1882-'83. 


Harvard... 


1428 

500 

1050 


$15, 542 44 
4, 252 17 
17, 476 04 


$18, 056 82 
4 293 78 


Princeton 


Talo 


18, 048 03 






Totals 


2978 


37, 270 65 


40,398 63 







672 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATORS — ^PAPERS. 455 

It may be said iu passing that but a tithe of the attention given to 
athletic sports at the Northern colleges is discernible in those of the 
South. Military drill is the favorite form of physical training at the 
South. Since the war, military schools for boys have multiplied at 
the North, and all State colleges, organized under the Morrill Land 
Grant Act, are obliged to teach military drill. A few have evaded 
this provision, but most are glad to secure the services of a specially 
detailed officer of the TJ. S. Army as Instructor in Drill and Tactics. 
Military drill is well adapted for preparatory students, and has worked 
well in many new institutions ; but he should be a bold man who would 
undertake to make it compulsory at Harvard, Tale, or Princeton. Pa- 
ternal government is breaking down in our best colleges, and military 
discipline cannot be erected on its ruins. 

Unquestionably the best considered and most successful experiments 
made to secure physical training in this country are those which have 
been carried out at the II. S. Military Academy and at the TJ. S. Naval 
Academy ; and it is eminently desirable that the recorded experience of 
those institutions, touching the physique, health, and longevity of their 
cadets and graduates, should be made available as an example and 
stimulus to the managers of our scholastic youth. I am convinced that 
no class of our students, with the possible exception of the picked ath- 
letes, will bear comparison with the West Point and Annapolis cadets, 
as regards mental and bodily vigor. 

There are probably not far from fifty college gymnasia or drill halls 
in the United States. Of these the best are the Hemenway Gymnasium, 
costing $110,000 ; the Pratt Gymnasium at Amherst, just completed at 
a cost of $65,000, named from C. S. Pratt, Esq., of Brooklyn, and a 
graduate of Amherst in 1879, who gave $38,000 toward its erection ; the 
Lehigh University Gymnasium at Bethlehem, Pa., built out of univer- 
sity funds in 1882 at a cost of $40,000. These three gymnasia are far 
superior to any others iu the country. The Harvard, Amherst, and Le- 
high Gymnasia are all sightly and elegantly furnished structures, fitted 
with the most recent gymnastic and sanitary appliances. Each has a 
running track, commodious dressing rooms, generous bathing facilities, 
and convenient offices for the directors. Each has several bowling 
alleys ; and those of Amherst and Lehigh have billiard rooms, with 
tables. The gymnasia at Amherst, Cornell, Harvard, and Johns Hop- 
kins, are in charge of regularly educated physicians. 

There are new gymnasia just completed at Bryn Mawr College for 
women, Dickinson College, and Lafayette College — all in Pennsylvania, 
and a new gymnasium is projected at West Point. These will cost 
upward of $40,000, it is estimated. 

The colleges are, however, not yet emerged from the building stage 
of development, as regards their departments of physical training. It 
is easily susceptible of proof that the best of them has not yet reached 
such a highly organized and differentiated state as to promise the best 
results. More generous endowments are needed, and a fuller comple- 
ment of teachers is called for. There is a crying need for scientific 
medical direction on the one hand, and for competent teachers of gym- 
nastic specialties on the other ; but there is reason to hope that this 
need will be met before many years elapse. 

Before ph^^sical training shall constitute a part of the regular course 
of instruction in the public schools of even the most enlightened States, 
a vast number of trustees, committee-men, teachers, and physicians 
must be educated, as they are not now and never have been, in regard 

673 



436 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

to Personal Hygiene in all its branches. As a rule, the medical schools 
make almost no attempt to teach those who bear away their diplomas, 
how to recognize a normal man or woman; and so long as the avera<^e 
medical man is indifferent to or ignorant of the subject of physic*al 
training, which in the last analysis is a training of the nervous system, 
we cannot expect teachers, either in school or college, as a class, to 
have intelligent practical notions on this subject. 

674 



PLAN AND AERANGEMENT OF PEIMARY SCHOOLS. 
By M. Edouard Louis Charles Josse, 

Member of the Dunois Historical and ArchaioJogical Societi/, Foundation Member of the 
French Society fvr the Aid of Wounded Soldiers, etc. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 

When a school building is to be erected the first thing to be consid- 
ered is that the locality be healthy, easy of access, and not near a cem- 
etery. If the soil is malarious let it be well drained. The size of tbe 
grounds should give at least 10 square meters (about 108 s([nare feet) 
to each pupil. The school and the teacher's lodgings siiould be in sej)- 
arato buildings, so that the one is entirely independent of the other. 
The school-room and the covered play-room should be connected, and 
both receive air and light from opposite sides. This arrangement is 
favorable to health, and also admits of a general oversight of the class 
during the hours of recreation. 

SCHOOL-HOUSE AND TOWN BUILDING. 

Commune of Autels- Villevillon, Department of Eure-et-Loir. 

(See Plate I at close of Paper.) 

School-room large enough for sixty pupils; dimensions as given in 
Fig. 6. The materials used iu building should not be permeable to 




flu. o. 



water ; all substances which, like unbaked bricks, retain moisture, should 
l)e excluded, IJach locality fuynishes tUe materials best adapted for 
_ " 075 



438 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

use therein ; in some it will be found advisable to use stone, either 
dressed or in the rough ; in others, brick. The style of building, too, 
must be often made subservient to the amount of funds available. 
The lighting of the school-room should be a matter of profound study. 
It is absolutely necessary that the following suggestions be carried out 
as far as possible : 

1, Light enough for all purposes. 2, Suitable proportions between the 
height of windows and size of room. 3, Apertures (3 feet 4 inches by 
6 feet 8 inches) should be made opposite to the windows, so as to admit 
both light and air during the absence of the pupils. Such apertures 
should never be opposite either pupils' or teachers' desks. 

lleference is also made to the following plans, which are subjoined 
to this Paper: 

Plate II. Boys' school, Commune of Gasville. This school cost the 
commune about 33,500 francs ($6,565). 

Plate III. Mixed school and town building, Commune of Maisons. 

Plates ly and V. Mixed school and town building, plans, sections, 
and elevations. Commune of Corancez. 

Open Play-ground or Court. 

The size of the play-ground should be at least 5 square meters (about 
54 square feet) for each pupil, and not less than 200 square meters (2,152 
square feet) in all. The surface should be sandy and not paved or cov- 
eted with asphalt. Trees, should not be planted nearer to the school- 
rooms than 6 meters (19 feet 8 inches) at the least. The best plan is not 
to plant too many trees, as they interfere with the exercises and games 
of the children. Around the grounds at different points should be ar- 
ranged benches with open-work seats, the supports of which should not 
interfere with sweeping. 

The Gymnasium. 

Attached to every school there should be a gymnasium ; this is rather 
impracticable in a poor community, but there ought to be at least a cov- 
ered gallery with proper gymnastic apparatus. 

Schools which are able to provide a gymnasium hall will find it of 
great service as regards the preservation of the apparatus, and par- 
ticularly in that it permits the exercises to be carried on in all sorts of 
weather. 

Covered Play-room. 

In addition to the school-room there should be a covered room where 
the pupils can eat their lunches or take their recreation. They can 
gather here, too, prior to the opening of school, or while awaiting the 
return of their comrades from lunch at home. Also in case of stormy 
weather they can have their recess here. 

Urinals and Water-closets. 

Each school ought to be provided with four water-closets for the first 
hundred pupils and two for each hundred following. The seat, of stone 
or cement, should stand about 8 inches high, and form an inclined plane 
towards the orifice. There should be as many urinals as water-clgg^ts. 
divided by partitions pf sj^t§ OV otb^r imp©rm?^1?le m^t^rial, 

m 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



439 



THE ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS, LIBRARIES, 

AND MUSEUMS. 

As will be seen by the following plans and diagrams, France is not 
only tryiiig to ameliorate the lot of the teachers, both in city and in 
rural schools, but also to imjjrove the condition of the schools them- 
selves. Appended are some forms of desks, etc., used in the newer 
buildings. 

Seats and Desks. 

Fig. 7 represents a seat and desk for two pupils, used in the public 




Fig. 7. 

schools of Paris ; the seat proper of beech, the tablet inlaid in the desk 
of oak, stained black and waxed. The whole costs about 22 francs 
($4.24). 

In Fig. 8 is shown the form of seat and desk used in rural schools, 
also for two pupils ; base of beech ; sides, seat, etc., of fir ; top of desk 
of fir, stained black and waxed. Approximate value, 18 francs for the 
whole ($3.47). If the top of desk be of oak stained and waxed, it will 
cost nearly 2 francs (38.6 cents) more than if of fir. 

According to ministerial decree of June 17, 1880, the dimensions of 
desks and seats of the above models are as follows : 



Kumber. 



Height of pupil J 

Height of desk-edge next to pupil 

Length of deak for one pupil 

Length of deak for two pupils 

Height of seat 



1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


3 3.4 


3 7.7 


3 11.6 


4 5.5 


to 3 7. 3 


to 3 11.2 


to 4 5. 1 


to 4 11 


1 5.3 


1 7.3 


1 9.7 


2 0.4 


1 9.7 


1 9.7 


1 11.6 


1 11.6 


3 3.4 


3 3.4 


3 7.3 


3 7.3 


10.6 


11.8 


1 1.3 


1 3.3 



Ft. In. 

4 11 

and over. 

2 3.6 
1 11.6 

3 7.3 
1 5.7 

"677 



440 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT. NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 




Fig. 8. — Desk for rural schools. 



The accompaDying diagram (Fig. 9) sbows the interior arrangement 




Fig. 9.— Interiop arrangement of lioys' school, p,, Master's ciiair. b, Pupils, p, Moflitpp, 

G7d 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 441 

of the boys' school, CommuDe of Aulnay-sur-Auneau, Department of 
Eure-et-Loir. The schoolroom has accommodatioDs for eighty pupils. 
A space is left purposely between the desks so that the master or the 
monitor may have an opportuuity to watch each ])upii, in order to pre- 
vent disturbance in the scbool-room. The aisles H may be occupied by 
desks, if it is desired to provide for more pupils. Back of the master's 
cbair there is a platform for the pupil to stand on when called to the 
blackboard or maps. This enables the pupils to see clearly what is 
being done by those reciting. By means of such methods the pupil be- 
comes accustomed to reciting in a loud voice, and in time he acquires 
sufficient confidence in himself to pass an examination at the close of 
the year. 

Libraries, 

Each of our schools has a library and a museum. The library is made 
up of the usual classic authors and works in science, mathematics, 
chemistry, and physics. It is also advisable that the young should have 
a knowledge of ancient and modern literature; so the communal authori- 
ties provide for the purchase of works of history, biography, voyages, 
and travels. 



Fig. 10.— School library. 

If there are wealthy property owners in the community efforts are 
made to obtain from them gifts of similar works. It is impossible to 
pay precisel;^^ what a library should contain ^ as the character of th§ 



442 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 



contents depends somewhat upon the wealth of the canton. The gov- 
ernment, however, endeavors to furnish aid to school libraries as far as 
possible. 

Museums. 

The abundance of minerals, ruins of human habitations, and autedi- 
luvian objects to be met with in France, furnishes an opportunity to the 
French instructor to teach his pupils geology, archseology, and history. 
Each department preserves all records of the physical and political 




III r\i/^-«;^^irrjp 

ijil 






I|siii'';,,;i4;|«ffii 



1 '■* 



iin 



!: I 



SJJ 




t ll '! '» 

ji T^ I] ^1 1; 

Jn If irif " 



rTiii;i!iniM 

r.i unpi iiin-n^=in[iii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijn 



i| iiPl If irt 



iwm 



Fig. 11.— School Miisenni. 

changes which have taken place on its territory. In certain districts 
can be followed step by step the changes which resulted in the dying ont 
of great families of animals. In others, we can arrive at a knowledge of 
the Stone Age, when man seemed a giant by reason of being able to 
work, without tools, flint, marble, etc., making weapons and other sharp- 
edged implements. The skill and genius of the Eomans is shown by the 
instructor to the pupil, while analyzing the rude' defense of the Frank 
and the Gaul. The different Eoman roads found throughout France 
are evidences of the great public works executed in the time of Julius 
Csesar. Thus by degrees we come insensibly to the present epoch, and 
at each step the earth yields up some valuable object for our study. 
Museums of rural schools therefore are often made up of objects which 
would be of no special value to the outsider, but which aid the instruc- 
tor in giving interesting and valuable information, 
680 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS ^PAPERS. 443 

I will not dwell on the form which the library or museum should 
take. In rural communities it is well to group their contents in the 
school-room, unless, as in the large cities, there is a room esi)eciallj^ set 
apart for a library and museum. 

In this brief resume I have endeavored simply to call attention to the 
means of instruction which are made use of in the smallest of the 
French communes, and will leave the more pretentious academies and 
colleges to parties more competent to treat of them. 

SCHOOL HYGIENE. 

Each school should have gymnastic apparatus, in order to develop 
the muscles of the child and render them flexible. One hour at least 
should be devoted each day to various exercises of this kind, under 
chaige of a monitor. Provision should be made for the future military 
needs of the country, and patriotic sentiments inculcated iu the minds of 
the youth. Instruction tending towards this end is comparatively 
easy at present, as each commune of Frauce has its school battalion, 
well equipped, and ready for maneuvers similar to those of the regular 
troops, it is necessary to accustom the children to obedience and dis- 
cipline, so that, in case of war, all will be ready to take up arms against 
the invader. 

HOURS OF STUDY. 

As for hours of study, from 8 to 11 A. m. and from 1 to 6 p. m., 
with an hour for gymnastics in the middle of the afternoon session, 
Avould seem amply sufficient, and such an arrangement would not 
fatigue the student too much. On each Thursday afternoon it would be 
well for the teacher to accompany the boys on a ramble, during which 
he should talk with them about the physical features of the land, its 
plants, &c. He should question the pupils from time to time, and then 
explain how trivial is man as compared with the great immensity around 
them. 

THE CHARACTER OF THE TEACHER. 

After having given of its resources in the construction of school 
buildings, the commune has a right to inquire into the character of the 
jjerson who is to hold the position of teacher. It is necessary that the 
teacher should have certain marked qualities, among them patience 
and an even temperament. 

Happily many who intend to become instructors realize early in life 
the high mission to which they are to be called ; they rival each other 
in their zeal for the educa.tion of youth, and hold out bravely against 
the sarcasms of their pupils, who axe too apt to forget how sacred is the 
teacher's calling. 

To those comprehending the mission of the teacher I send this expres- 
sion of my devotion to their calling, and, in defending them, I glorify 
them as ''Apostles of modern civilization." 

681 



SECTION F— MISCELLANEOUS. 

683 



EESPEOT FOE AUTHOEITY DEVELOPED IN THE SCHOOL- 

EOOM. 

By Brother Justin, 

Of the Christian Brothers. 



Man is a rational being. He has ideas of right and wrong. This is 
brought home to him in childhood. He obeys his parents; he depends 
on thi'm for all his wants and he looks to them for instruction. He 
never thinks of questioning their right to command. He is too young 
to know the why or the wherefore. He does this and he does not do 
that, because such is the will of his father or mother. That is the law 
for him, and this is true of all orders of society, of the child of the 
savage, as well as the child of the civilized and' cultured man. He does 
not know what doubt is; he trusts implicitly in his natural protectors; 
his nature, his instinct draws him to them; he prefers them to all others ; 
he loves them as only the child can and obeys them unhesitatingly. 

And as he grows up and his reason begins to develop, he finds evi- 
denceof submission and dependence everywhere; he sees it in the mutual 
relations of confidence and reliance that he observes wherever he goes. 
In the school-room he has both the theory and practice of the principles 
of authority, of government, of society, of equality, of justice, and of 
mercy. In his tender years he admires beauty of character more than 
beauty of form ; or kindness and gentleness have more effect on his young 
mind, than physical beauty and comeliness of person. In school he sees 
that the good and industrious pupils are held in esteem, while the idle 
and rude are not. The latter fill none of the posts of honor ; nor do they 
receive any of the privileges givenfor good conduct and successful efltbrt. 
Sometimes they may be deemed unworthy of the society of their com- 
panions and are required to withdraw. 

All this brings home more clearly the distinction that exists, and that 
must be made to exist in every well-ordered society, between the child 
or the man amenable to discipline and order, and those whose life ap- 
pears to be a constant struggle against the principles on which society 
is based. As the boy grows into the youth and enters on the broader 
theater of the busy world, he is surprised at the deep earnestness and 
restless activity that are visible in every department of life. He soon 
realizes more fully, as he sees more clearly, the necessity of choosing his 
course. He needs no proof to be convinced that success in whatever he 
undertakes demands attention and constant application, with a proper 
respect for those in authority, no matter in what department. 

Does he carry the brief of his employer to the court ? He sees the 
judge on the bench, the jurors in position, the officers each in his place. 
Acase is called, the lawyers begin, and the trial proceeds. On the issue, 
the life or death of the prisoner may depend. Bitter words are some- 
times exchanged, excitement characterizes the proceedings, the judge 

685 



448 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIOKS AT NEW ORLliJANS EXtOSlTlOK. 

calls to order; and such is the respect ingrained in all classes of the 
people that if any lawyer fails to respect his authority, no matter bow 
pure his character, how high his standing, how long his honorable 
practice at the bar, he is condemned for contempt of court, and he can 
I)lead there no more until he has repaired the injury done to the au- 
thority he has offended. 

The judge may not be an able man; may not be a popular man ; the 
reverse may be the case. It is not the man that is here in question ; it is 
principle ; it is respect for authority. 

We read in the hisCory of England that the Crown Prince insulted 
Judge Gascoigne in open court. The judge ordered the Prince under 
arrest. When the King heard of the incident he said, "Happy the 
King who has a judge Avho understands his position, and who has the 
courage to exact respect for authority; and still happier in having a 
son who knows his duty, and gives evidence of due respect in cheerfully 
submitting to the officer of the /ate." 

The young man now finds himself face to face with responsible public 
life. He is a member of society ; he has duties to fulfill ; and in their 
I^erformance he is compelled on many occasions to forego the gratifying 
of his natural inclinations. He depends on this man for one thiugaiid 
on that one for another. He has needs and is not himself able to sup- 
ply all of them ; but he is provided with faculties by means of which 
he can ask for what he wants. In turn he supplies his quota to the 
common fund and thus does his duty to society. 

All this supposes the existence of certain modes of action, customs 
of society, founded on principles that are universal and immutable. 
Among these we everywhere find the principle of authority; therefore 
it is necessary for the well-being of society, and being necessary, it 
is easy to prove to all intelligent minds, that its sanction is unques- 
tionable. Since it is necessary, the reason for its existence is found in 
its very nature. It is the outcome of the natural law, ibr it inheres in 
it, as dominion and supremacy are by virtue of the natural law. But 
the natural law is the law of reason, and emanates immediately from 
the Sovereign Keason — God. But reason is essential to man's nature, 
to his personality. The principle of authority then being by a law above 
and anterior to man has not its sanction from man. It therefore does 
not depend on hitn, and therefore government, which is the application 
of this principle to society, is divine in its origin and has God for its 
author. This principle being admitted, society has the right to select 
the form of government that best suits its wants. The celebrated Car 
dinal Bellarraine says: "Particular forms of government are by the 
law of nations, and not by divine law, since it depends on the people to 
select kings, consuls, or other magistrates, and for a legitimate reason 
to remove them.'' 

History tells us that in all nations and among all peoples however 
rude the principle of authority was not only acknowledged, but held in 
great respect. The case of the prophet Daniel is very interesting as an 
illustration of how far this was carried. He had disobeyed a decree of the 
King Darius. The king would gladly have passed over the violation of 
the decree, but he was reminded by his nobles that it was a thing un- 
known among the Medes and Persians that a decree of a Persian king 
once issued could be recalled. 

When St. Paul was reminded that he should not speak too freely to 

the High Priest, his answer was, "It is written, 'the Prince shall be in 

honor among the people.'" The people were, from time immemorial, 

taught to respect authority in the persons of those in whom it was 

686 




:^^tb^k^^$^ W:^=^^:^l^':0:}<^^k^ 



FRi 






GROUND 
No. 6, '65_Face back of Plate II 




i><^kt3J^M>l'^^^^-M^ 



)NT ELEVATION. 



SCHO 




T.j«ii *" jtaay--':'!- . 



Plate IV. 




Ed. Cir. No. 6. '85— F.inn Impl,- ,rf Pi.,t„ ir. 



SCHOOL 

TC 
Con 




SCHOOL FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, 

AND 

TOWN BUILDING, 
Oommime of Coranceii. 




FROlf r ELEVATION. 





SECTION THROUGH SCHOOL- BOOM 



LONGITUDINAL SECTION. 




[MJiAs]MJUm 



Kil. Cir. No. i;, 'i5— Face back of Plalc IV. 



GIRLS, 




Ell. Cir. No. 6, 'S,'>— Face v. 44;!, Part II. 




Plate I. 



SCHOOL- 
Conc 



i I 



Plate n. 




Ed. Cir. No. fi, 'd5 -Face b.ick of Plate I. 



9 



"^"KS^^SB?!! 






£ah\dii 



I 



n 






A 



JJSai.;.,,.;. .^.^ 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 449 

vested, aud they could not and would not tolerate its violation. This 
is evident from the remark, " Speakest thou to the High Priest tbus?" 
The Romans, so remarkable for their code of laws, were no less remarka- 
ble for tbe vigor with which they punished its violation. In the early 
days of the Eepublic under the elder Brutus, you will find examples of 
their inexorable justice. i?^o stronger j^roof of this truth can exist than 
the execution of his own sons by the decree of the Consul, their father, 
because they had been convicted of conspiring against the newly estab- 
lished government. 

The most enlightened nations of antiquity,— the Babylonians, the 
Egyptians, the Greeks and Romans, all provided to a degree that is 
scarcely credible, for the education of their people in all that regarded 
their respect for the law and obedience thereto. Not only the nations 
of antiquity, but modern Christian nations have done the same. 

Has not the common law of the civilized world made the person in 
whom the supreme power is vested sacred ? We all recall the shocking 
outrage perpetrated on society by the atrocious assassination of onr late 
lamented President, Mr. Garlield. 

Great, however, as is the dignity of rulers, great as is the authority 
they wield, sacred as are the functions of their position, equally great 
is their responsibility. ''By Me kings reign," says Almighty God. 
Reigning in God's name and as God's representatives in the human or- 
der, their obligations to administer the sacred trust confided to them can- 
not be overestimated. Rulers, magistrates, or princes, are the ministers 
of God for good. When they are faithful to their charge, their rule is 
a blessing to society, authority is in respect, prosperity grows up about 
them, peace characterizes their administration, or if war come, it is prose- 
cuted with vigor and brought to a speedy and successful issue. The con- 
dition of all classes is satisfactory. The just claims of the poor are 
recognized and attended to equally with those of the rich. Justice 
reigns aud man's sense of right is as fully realized as human institutions 
can malje it. Thus the name of Alfred is honored to-day not only in 
England, but throughout the world. He was a noble prince, a good 
rulei\ He loved his people and devoted his great energies to improve 
their condition ; he encouraged education, and was himself a hard and 
successful student. This did not prevent his subduing the enemies of 
his country, and giving to the administration of justice among his peo- 
ple such vigor that crimes against person and property became unknown 
during his reign, and tradition has attributed as the fitting monument 
to his memory, the great, the world renowned Oxford. 

Charlemagne was a ruler of the same type. He, too, was as success- 
ful in war as he was glorious and happy in i3eace. Having subdued his 
enemies at home and abroad, he everywhere established courts for the 
administration of justice among the people ; he opened schools through- 
out his dominions, he invited scholars from foreign countries to his 
court, he opened an academy in the royal palace, and with his sons at- 
tended the lectures of the professors whom he honored as the lights of 
tte world. We need not go to England or France nor to the remote 
past for examples. There is not in the world's history a nobler name 
than that of our own Washington. 

Here were men in whom the i^rinciple of authority was not only recog- 
nized, but revered and loved, and their names are a sacred heritage to 
the race. While too much praise cannot be given to those who admin- 
ister wisely and successfully the authority with which they are vested. 
We cannot too severely condemn the infamy of unjust and tyrannical 
rulers, who are worse scourges of humanity than either pestilence or 

7950 COT., FT. 2 -29 687 



450 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION 

famine, and whose names are a synonym for infidelity and baseness. 
Contrast the conduct of a Eehoboam, a Nero, a Eobespierre, with an Al- 
fred, a Charlemagne, a Washington. The latter made it their delight 
to redress the grievances of their people, the former were infamous. 
See it in the division and subjugation of Israel ; in the burning of Eome; 
in the innocent victims of the guillotine. 

Take our own case: George III and his Parliament were most re- 
spectfully petitioned for a redress of grievances by a loyal and brave peo- 
ple. The petition was spurned with contempt. It is unnecessary to point 
to the consequences ; we, at least, may be permitted to say, if any people 
ever coifild, Happy fault, which has led to such magnificent results ! The 
old bell that hangs in yonder hall tells more eloquently than any efibrt 
of man can, the grandeur of the achievements that followed the Declara- 
tion it tolled out on the air from Independence Hall more than one hun- 
dred years ago. 

Authority, wherever respected by rulers and people alike, has been 
productive of the happiest results to society ; and the contrary has been 
the case where either people or rulers have failed in recognizing its due 
importance, and faithfully carrying into effect its just requirements. 

The principle of authority can never be revered nor honored as the 
needs of society imperatively demand, nor can it have its proper and 
necessary influence with the young, unless its high origin and sacred 
sanction be fully unfolded, and the reason for its existence, usefulness, 
and necessity pointed out. This cannot be done without explaining 
clearly what are the rights and duties of men in society in their rela- 
tions with one another. 

God is the author of society. It comes from Him, and without Him it 
cannot live. But God has certain attributes or perfections, such as jus- 
tice, truth, wisdom, mercy, which are characteristic of His nature, the 
law of His being ; and in creating man — the unit of society — to His 
image. He impressed this law on his heart; and this law, thus divinely 
impressed, becomes the standard of right and wrong; the ultimate rule 
against which no man is ever justified iu acting. This law is defined 
by St. Augustine as the Divine Eeason, or the will of God commanding 
the observance, forbidding the disturbance, of the natural order of things. 
This is indeed high sanction, and establishes on the firmest of all foun- 
dations the principle of authority. St. Thomas, in speaking of this funda- 
mental law, says it is the impression of the Divine Light in us, a partici- 
pation of the eternal law iu the creature, iu man. Cardinal Goussel says 
that it is the supreme rule of actions, thoughts, words, and acts ; all that 
man is — is subject to the dominion of the law of God, and this law is the 
rule of our conduct by means of conscience. 

Tills law is in all men, and therefore all men have ideas of justice, 
truth, goodness, and duty; if, then, we would perpetuate our institu- 
tions tLironghout all time and make them loved and cherished by the 
people, let us see that in all things they are found to be iu conformity 
with the natural law, the law of God, the ideals of which are iu the 
minds of all, — and fix the truth of this so firmly in the miuds of the 
young that it cannot be shaken. In doing this we convince them of 
their responsibility to an infinitely just God, of the priceless value of 
integrity of character and of uprightness of conduct. On this base, the 
heritage of liberty is secure ; and the conviction that these principles 
are based on eternal truth will so captivate the mind that not only will 
they accept it, but will, if true to the conviction, be always ready to de- 
fend it, and if necessary sacrifice life for its preservation and perpetua- 
tion. On thisj the foundation of permanency rests secure. CJnity is the 
688 



INTERNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 451 

corner-stoue of'tlie edifice, Justice is the cement that binds the parts 
together, and as Society is the creation of God, for man's benefit, His 
blessing- must rest upon it. But where are we to teach this? Every- 
where, when the circumstances will permit. What is the sanction for 
if? The highest, the best ; read it in the Holy Bible: 

" And these things which I command, thou shalt tell them to thy 
children ; thou shalt meditate on them — and thou shalt bind them as a 
sign ou tliy hand — and thou shalt write them on the doors of thy house." 
He that builds on any other foundation, builds in vain. Lycurgus 
made himself the victim of his code for the benefit of his country, but 
his code is no more, and why ? Because it was not in conformity with 
the Divine Law; and so it is with all the codes of the ancients; the 
Mosaic only survives, and that because it is of God. 

There can be no stability in error, for weakness is of it ; and strength 
is impossible without virtue. Corruption falls by its own weight ; decay 
is in it, and the period of its existence is short. History, the memory 
of the world, brings before us a sad record of the changes of dynasties, 
of the disease and death of nations. 

On the tomb of each it has written its appropriate epitaph. It tells 
why the pyramids live while the Egyptian is a slave ; why the Greek 
wears the Turkish turban, the badge of a servitude more degrading than 
that of the galley slave ; it points out that because they had forgotten 
the conditions of rational life, morality and justice, liberty perished, 
and they have been crushed by a tyranny as base as it is vile. 

Thus, wherever men have forgotten God and ignored His law, degra- 
dation has come upon them and slavery is their lot. Look at the 100,000 
Romans, refined, educated, fastidious — women as well as men — in the 
amphitheater, crying out for the blood of their fellow creatures, '' Give 
the Christians to the lions," and this for a Eoman holiday! We shrink 
with horror from the contemplation of such a spectacle, and why ? Be- 
cause we know more clearly than they our rights and duties ; we recog- 
nize in a fellow man a brother and the image of our God, and conse- 
quently a life that is dear and sacred tons Why to-day does the 
South Sea islander kill and eat his prisoner of war, while with us he 
is treated as the victim of misfoitune, not of crime, and his wants and 
even comforts are attended to by societies of educated and refined 
women "? Why is there such a difference between a Gladstone and a 
ruler of Burmah "? The one, though a ruler of one of the greatest nations • 
of the earth, knows that he cannot injure With impunity' the least of his 
fellow creatures ; the other butchers them without a scruple. The one is 
educated under the influence of an admirable public conscience, and he 
is conscious that he is amenable to the bar of an enlightened public 
opinion ; the other heeds no conscience, but the impulse of passion, nor 
does he recognize any public opinion he is bound to respect. In a word, 
the one is brought up under Christian auspices, the other under Pagan. 
Would we escape the fate of the Egyptian, of the Greek, of the Roman? 
Then we must show our gratitude for the priceless blessings that a 
kind Providence has bestowed ujwn us ; we must give our youth a 
standard worthy of their high origin, their noble destiny ; we must de- 
velop in their minds by proper training the germs of those principles 
that know no decay, that never die, that are ever buoyant, ever true, 
ever good, ever beautiful. 

Many of the primary truths are in the child. They grow with his 
growth and develop with his years. He has a conscience. It is the 
voice of God, his Father, in his heart. Its formation in accordance 
with truth and justice is of the utmost importance. He loves the truthj 

689 



452 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION, 

it is the object of Lis intelligence. His mind rests in it and is satisfied 
with it. To develop his intelligence in any direction is either to bring 
a ue\y truth home to it, or to |)erfect his knowledge in a truth already 
known in part. To do this successfully, it is necessary to proceed in 
accordance with his aptitude, his years, and his acquirements. 

He knows some things because he sees their truth ; and until he sees 
their truth, he does not know them ; for to know anything is to see it, 
as it is. When his intellect sees a truth for the first time it is a reve- 
lation of joy ; it is a triumph ; he feels it ; he sees in it an advance, and 
the realization of this fact gives a strong, a new impulse to the will to 
acquire more. The love of knowledge begets the desire to know, and 
as the desire grows inthe.proportion in which knowledge is assimilated, 
it not un frequently happens that a strong love of study is engendered. 

Love, being the preference of an object on account of the good, real 
or imaginary, in it, attracts in the degree in which it appears desirable. 
The love of knowledge is the love of intellectual culture ; it is the love 
of truth, the love of the good ; and the good being the object of the 
will, its possession is fruition, is happiness ; and here begins the culture 
of the heart. 

The moral nature of the child grows strong and vigorous as his in- 
tellect expands under proper development, and the growth of both under 
happy, intelligent, virtuous auspices i^ the formation of his character. 
To the child so brought up it is easy to bring home the truth that evil 
is the absence of good, and where good is not, happiness is not and cannot 
be ; union, harmony, justice, and liberty are not, and cannot be; but 
disorder, and anarchy, and injustice are, and must be, and they are the 
very worst enemies of society. These truths gradually developed in 
the mind, the love of good increases, and as it increases the will grows 
stronger in the preference of all that is good and in the resolve to be 
faithful to what it feels and knows is its duty. Pessimists will tell us 
that this is utopianism. But we know it is the truth. We have made 
the test; we have tried and experienced the correctness of what we 
state. We have proved it to be the truth ; it commends itself to our 
judgment ; and the conviction remains that it is not only the best mode 
of procedure, but the surest road to success in the most impor tant work 
ever given man to perfect. History proves that in all civilized nations 
great care has always been taken that those who were called to the ad- 
ministration of public trusts should be qualified, and for that purpose 
they generally underwent a long course of preparation. In a democ- 
racy every citizen takes a part in the government, and therefore should 
be educated in such a way as to do so intelligently. "There can be no 
doubt," says the late Archbishop Spaulding, " that whenever the char- 
acter of the people can bear it, a well-regulated democracy is i>referable 
to all other forms of government." In a democracy all have a share in 
the government ; the people select the rulers in accordance with the 
constitution or fundamental civil law of the land ; hence the necessity of 
self restraint, of self-government, of intelligence and integrity, to be in 
a position to fulfill so grave a duty fittingly. The case is our own — we 
have no standing army, no privileged classes ; we do not fear conspir- 
ators. Why should we ? Whence would they come ? What their 
object? Would they destroy our government? How could they do 
that *? There is no reason for such a course ; every man has his share 
in the government — it is his own. He is therefore, and must be, inter- 
ested in upholding it. If a true man, he loves it and is ready to peril 
l)rosperity and even life for its preservation. 

But to do this a man must be virtuous; he must be a man of high 
690 



■mM 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 453 

principle; aud tliis in general he will not be, unless lie has been properly 
educated. Good goNcrnment implies restraint, and there are times and 
occasions when this restraint is of a nature to call for great sacrifice of 
feeling. If the government rests for support on the moral power of the 
people, it is clear that that moral power must be 'of no uncertain char- 
acter. Were it otherwise the gravest interests might at any moment be 
compromised, the right of property would not be respected, the sacred- 
ness of person would not be secure, and life would be at the mercy of the 
mob. Then what guarantee would there be for the permanency of our 
institutions and for the preservation of our liberties? The consequences 
are too appalling to contemplate; immediate loss of confidence, our 
name a by-word among the nations, business unsettled, legitimate en- 
terprise abanddfied and general discontent growing out of universal dis- 
tress, would be everywhere ; riot antl rapine, bloodshed and incendiarism, 
would be the order of the day. Is there, can there be, any danger of 
such things as these coming ujion usf Any one who has read the pro- 
ceedings of the late socialist meetings in Chicago can hardly doubt that 
there is a dangerous element abroad, small, thank God, and of little in- 
fluence, but still it exists; and it grows bolder with impunity and utters 
blasphemies of so horrid a nature, that we wonder that such things are 
possible among enlightened men and in our day, where there is not the 
slightest shadow of an excuse for such intamous proceedings. 

Our people are law abiding and hold these men and their shameless 
proceedings in utter contempt. Their sound, practical sense and cool 
self-reliance in the hour of danger are our immediate and certain guar- 
antee against any and all disorders coming from such people. 

The school, however, is the radical cure for the ills of the social, the 
political body, because it is in a gr^at measure in the school that char- 
acter is formed. 

The child of to day is the man of to-morrow. He goes to school at 6 
or 7 years of age and stays until he is 14 or 15, and some longer. Day 
after day, and while his mind is so easily imi^ressed, he is under the 
influence, good, indifferent, or bad, of the teacher. How necessary 
then to the well-being of society is the selection of teachers. They should 
be equal to the mission and realize its importance. No work is more es- 
sential to the common good than theirs. They are the architects of the 
living temple of the Republic; they are the wise and j)rudent men that 
are chiseling its pillars and polishing its columns. To-day it is a Mar- 
shall, to morrow a Lincoln. Honor them, and enable them to give their 
time and talent, their best energies to the perfecting of methods and the 
carrying into daily practice systems that will bring about good results. 
Do not compel them after 8 or 10 years of successful service, when they 
understand the work and have by diligent study and careful practice 
become familiar with its difficulties and mastered them, to seek in other 
fields of labor a recognition and compensation that they deserve and 
which all interests demand that they should receive. At no time and 
in no country was this ever more important than in our day and in our 
country. Our wealth is untold; our resources are immense, the enter- 
prise and energy of our j)eople is unparalleled. In the race for success 
they dare anything and everything; they are fearless and self-reliant, 
generous and independent, and nothing in the human order appears 
impossible to them. The spirit of a Jones, a Wayne, a Decatur, is seen 
in the boldness with which works of magnitude are undertaken. Our 
mines, our railroads and other enterprises are proof of this. To control 
this spirit, to give it a true and right direction, is in a large degree the 
work of the teacher. Surely then his selection is a matter of real con- 

691 



454 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

sequence, the issues that depend upon it being so weighty and so varied. 
The promise of good that it contains for society; the evils to be foreseen 
and avoided; the means to be given; the motives that most strongly 
appeal to the mind, and that are best adapted to influence the young- 
heart rightly and wisely in its course — all these are in the bands of the 
teacher. It is essential, then, that he knows well what he is to teach; 
and no less essential — indeed it is much more — that his life is blameless, 
his character unimpeachable, and his record without a stain. He should 
be refined in character, gentle in his treatment of his pupils, firm in ex- 
acting duty; he should understand character, know how to develop it, 
and withal be able to realize the importance of giving his best efforts 
to the development and perfection of his work. If he does this, he can- 
not fail to gain the respect, the admiration, and even*the love of his 
pupils; his word will be law to them; his advice will be cherished and 
never forgotten; his views, his sentiments, his principles, imperceptibly 
grow into the life of his disciples; they learn to think as he thinks and 
to act as he acts, and to give a direction to their conduct in accordance 
with the principles they daily imbibe. Had the brave but unfortunate 
Arnold such a teacher, one who would have won his confidence and 
warned him against the danger of the punch bowl and gambling table, 
he never would have been a traitor, and his name, instead of being in- 
famous, would stand on the roll of fame beside that of the immortal 
Washington. Had the brilliant but wretched Byron been kindly treated 
in early life, he would in all probability have lived longer and would 
have blessed the world by the splendor of his genius. 

But, if the teacher be narrow-minded, exacting in trifling matters, 
pedantic and selfish, snappish and unkind, or indifferent in moral char- 
acter, he can never be worthy of hfs profession, nor fulfill its high re- 
quirements with credit to himself or profit to his charge. What a mis- 
fortune to the youth placed under his direction! How can he educate? 
How form the heart? He has none. The genial sunshine of love and 
confidence never enters his cold soul, and out of it come bitter words 
and sarcastic criticism, that kill the fairest germs of thought. Though 
this man be as well versed in mathematics as l^ewton, as acute in phil- 
osophy as Leibnitz, and in theology as profound as St. Thomas, he will 
never acquire the ascendency over his pupils essential to the happy 
and successful formation of their character, nor will he be in a position 
to aid them in becoming good and useful citizens. He may make clever 
scholars; they may excel in their studies; but the grand base of all 
useful and profitable knowledge, moral character, will be wanting. He 
has no moral influence, and he cannot communicate that which he has 
not. 

Here we come to the practical application of the preceding remarks. 
Tou, gentlemen, represent the teaching element of the civilized world. 
In your hands in no small measure is the destiny of nations. I know 
this is saying much, very much, but not too much. A good teacher is 
a true missionary ; he lays the foundation of the social edifice. You 
know it, your experience is world-wide, and your reading, study, and- 
labors entitle your opinion to great weight. 

If, then, you believe that the duty of the teacher is so important, would 
it not be well for all, where the interests are so vast, each one in his 
own sphere and in accordance with his convictions, to endeavor to 
bring the matter home more nearly to the miuds and hearts of all con- 
cerned ? 

A good government is one of the greatest earthly blessings; a good 
education is one of the chief elements in procuring and preserving it; 
692 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 455 

then withont donbt this truth is worthy our most serions consideration. 
The position of the teacher should be hedged in, all around, M-ith every 
security. The interests at stake are so vast that none should be al- 
lowed to enter the precincts of the school, to exercise its functions, 
unless thoroughly qualified for the work. To secure teachers baving 
all these qualities may seem difficult, but the difficulty is not very great. 
The profession of teaching has risen very high within the last few years 
in the estimation of all men of thought, and just in proportion to the 
respect it commands, is it desirable as a calling, to good and able men. 
Eemove the temptation of this class of men to use it as a stepping-stone 
to something better, something higher, something deemed more honor- 
able, and you secure the best and ablest talent of the land for the 
school; and out of such schools will come high character, sterling in- 
tegrity, morality, and patriotism, the elements most essential to the 
preservation and happiness of society. 

693 



LITERAKV^ AND SOrENTrinC HABITS OF TUOUGHT: A COM- 

PAKATIVE STUDY. 

By Brother Azarias, 

lioolc Hill College, EllicoU City, Md. 



The pliiloHophical problems that come up for sohition at the present 
(lay are v<Ty aiieieiit. Wc find them all debated in Plato; and in the 
li^lit of iiioclei n iwnnes his pa^(\s become instinct with life. Wiiether we 
sit with H()<;rat<!H in the forum and listen to iiiiii discMissinj;' with Thc^uite- 
tus I he limits of s(;ien(5e and the relativity of knowh'dj-c, ; wlx'thcr we 
re<!lin(i with him under the lofty and wi(l<!-spreadinj4' ])lane-tree by the 
cool (onntain, whilst he talks with Phsedrus of love and art and beauty, 
and the soul in its relations in these thinjj;s; whetluT we iaii^h at the 
inimitable irony with whi(;h he brinj>iH (leor^ias aiul his di8ci[)Ies to (;on- 
fiision I or wiiether with bated breath we listen to his sublime discourse 
on innnortality d(!liv(;red to his devoted followers in tluj prison in whicli 
he is about to drink the poisoned (;up; be t,he occasion when it may, wc 
still meet with the same questions that face us to-day. • Now, as tlien, 
it is the huma.n intellect beatinfij apjainst the bars of its limitations ami 
scekin^j^ to compass the unattainable. It is the ever-i'ecurrinj^ luoblem 
of knowinj?, in which rruMi forpjet the very circumscril)ed limits within 
which thought moves. And after traversinji^- a <lreaiy waste of contro- 
versy with wrecks of systems s(;at(er'ed throujjh the paycs of Plato arul 
the Schoolmen, of Locke, and Berkeley, and Hume, and Kant, and of 
Herbert Si)encer in our day, we inquire, what is the outcome of it all 'i 
We ha,V(^ ^otte-n ru) m^ai-er to the solution. And in all eai'uestness w(!i 
ask, is ther-e a, solution at all, or rather, is there a ])robIetn to be solved'? 
We know; and after- we shall have Icnown how we krjow, we still only 
know. There is no ^^oin^ ba.ck of this. The mental labor of five and 
twenty centuiics has l)een exixMuled on that one problem of knowiufj;'; 
ouyht this not sulliceif How lonj?, maelstrom-lik(^, will it contiruie to 
whirl within its eddy all issues'? To our mind, the only ]>ractica.l solu- 
tion to this ])robIem — if ])roblem tlu;re be — is, as hint(Ml at in the follow- 
in/4' papci", to a-c(!e[)t f hiiifjjs as they are, to take u[)on trrrst our faculti(\s 
with all their shortcoming's, and to recognize both shortcomings and 
limitations in all our thiirking. 

I. 

There is a wide difference between the habits of thought engendered 
by literary pursuits and those begotten of scientific stinlies. The differ- 
ence is as marked as ar'e tluMli verse obJe(5ts of thought. Ijit(sratur'(i we 
know to be per-sonal in its natures, in its UK^thod, and, to a gi'cat extent, 
in its object. S(M(mce is imper'sonal, both in its sirbjectrnatter arid in 
its treatment. Liter-atur-ci deals with jxu-sons and things, so far as they 
allect our humanity; every piece of written composition that appeals 
to the emotional element in our nature may be regarded as literature. 
094 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 457 

Science deals with persons and thing's as they are in themselves, or iii 
co-ordinated relations. It examines, investigates, discusses from an 
impersonal i>oint of view ; utterly regardless of individual bias, it gropes 
its way through the entanglements and environments of a subject mat- 
ter, and cautiously passes from the known to the unknown. Science, 
in a word, is concerned with the true as true. Its object is truth. Lit- 
erature, on the other hand, ranges over a wider field. It may be per- 
sonal and impersonal, subjective and objective, as best suits its itielina- 
tiqns. It acce|)ts the true and the false, the good and the evil, the 
beautiful and the defornu^.d, and molds them all to its own purposes, 
ultimately with the view of acting upon man's feelings — now arotising 
his curiosity, now exciting his wonder and admiration, again working 
upon his sympathies and stirring his soul. Its object is the ideal of ail 
that is sublime nnd beautiful in nature. 

Entering the interior of the thinking subject, we may note the pro- 
cess the mind goes through in developing a definite course of thought 
upon some object. Is the ol)ject one of a scientific nature? See how 
cautiously the mind proceeds. It lays down its postulates, it runs over 
the principles that it holds within its grasp, it casts about among the 
laws nnd facts ah'e;idy demonstnited and recognized as certain truth; 
these it groups together into classes and sub-classes; it compares them 
with one another; it considers their various properties; it views the 
nu)(les and properties and behavior of other facts or groups of facts in 
the light of those well known and well understood; it api)lies to them 
its demonstrated fornrula, and draws its conclusions. Throughout this 
process the scientific mind remains unimpassioned, and regards persons 
and things as labeled abstractions, rather than concrete realities. It 
works within narrow and closely defined lines. It grows impatient of 
all that does not bear ui)on the question under consideration and rejects 
it as a distraction. The habit of mind thus developed is rigid and ex- 
clusive, and unfits its possessor for grasping and treating with facility 
other subjects than those upon which it has had life-long practice.^ It 
lacks in extension what it gains in comj)rehension. 

Is the object of thought one of a literary nature? Here the mind 
follows a process the reverse of that employed in a scientific pursuit. 
Its first effort is to grasp the conclusions and work backward to the 
starting i)rinciples. Nothing comes amiss to it. The thought ai)piir- 
ently farthest removed from the main idea may throw upon it additional 
light. All that science, or art, or nature can contribute, the literary 
mind makes its own, not for the sake of science, or art, or nature, nor 
by way of determining some unknown truth, or reaching some scientific 
discovery, but as so many illustrations drawing out, exemplifying, 
clearings up more vividly the ideal which it has grasped, and which it 
labors to express. Against every literary mind may be made, and 
made as little to the purpose, the reproach that the sophist Callicles 
addressed to Socrates: "By the gods, you never stop talking about 
shoemakers, fullers, cooks, and physicians, as though our discourse were 

' Since writiiijij tlio above, I find a Htriking confirmation of its truth by the experi- 
ence of Professor Tynclall. Speaking of his student life in Germany, about the year 
iH7)l, he thus describes the state of his mind : "In those days I not unfrequently found 
it necessary to subject myself to a process which I called de])olarization. My brain, 
intent on its snl)jects. i^sed to acquire a set resembling the rigid polarity of a ste*;! 
niiignet. It lost the pliancy uecdtul for free con vensal-ioii, and to recover tills I used 
to walk oecasi(mal]y to Charlottenl^urg, or elsewhm-e. Fi<nn my experiences at that 
time I derived the notion that liiird ibinking atid ileet talking do not run t/Ogetlier." 
My Schools and Schoolmasteis, in t lie Popular Science Monthly lor January, 1885. 

695 



458 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

of these." ^ All such illustrations are the material out of which the lit- 
erary mind constructs a body for its conception. Literature is an art, 
and the process of literature is the process of all art. Note that process. 
The soul conceives a thought. The thought grows into a central idea, 
around which group other subordinate ones. It becomes for the soul 
an ideal. That ideal is nourished by reading, or reflection, or study, or 
experience, or all of these combined, and quickens into life, and waxes 
strong, and takes possession not only of the intellect, but of the whole 
man, and gives him no rest till he finds for it an adequate expression 
according to the bent of hig" genius, be it that of a poem, a novel, or an 
historical study, a painting, a statue, or a musical composition. 

In all this the literary mind experiences with a thoughtful writer, 
"how hard it is to think one'sself into a thing and to think its central 
thought out of it.'' 2 It is not the work of a few days or a few weeks. It 
is a slow and elaborate process. At the age of four Goethe first wit- 
nessed the i)uppet-show of Faust. He was still a child when he read 
the legend.^ From that start, the idea enters his soul and takes 
possession of it, grows into a thing of life; and forthwith it becomes 
the ruling idea of his life, and he makes it the inspiration of his activity, 
and molds upon it in many respects both thought and conduct, and 
picking up all the traits and characteristics of his age, he weaves them 
into this legend, not hastily, but slowly, studiously, in the spirit of true 
art, till, finally, in his eighty-second year, he pens the last line of his 
great Faust poem. The first conception in his fourth, the last line in 
his eighty-second year: this is a lesson that he who runs may read. The 
example of Goethe illustrates the spirit of artistic genius. It takes the 
old, and remodels it into a new artistic whole. The scientific genius 
builds upon the foundations already laid. A Newton or a Descartes 
may add to the sum of mathematical knowledge ; he may give new meth- 
ods of demonstration and calculation ; but he leaves untouched every 
principle and every proposition that scieuce had previously established. 
Even when such a scientific genius grasps by anticipation a new law or 
a new truth, he co-ordinates it with other known laws, and corrects his 
first impressions accordingly. Not so the literary genius 5 for, whilst 
both have this in common, that the terms they use possess a recognized 
value, he of the literary habit makes not — nor does he seek to make — 
a connection or a continuity with aught of the past; having grasped 
the ideal, belabors to give it full and adequate expression independently 
of any other ideal, past or present. He lives and breathes in an at- 
mos])here of opinion and assumption that permeates his thinking and 
colors both thought and language ; he takes it all for granted ; he draws 
from it the material with which to shape and strengthen hisown creation. 
Richter, in contemplating this literary habit of thought, is filled with 
admiration : "I fear and wonder, " he says, " at the latent almightiness 
with which man orders — that is, creates his range of ideas. I know 
no better symbol of creation." * It is, indeed, the process of molding 
something entirely new and distinct out of material hitherto used for 
other purposes. It is a creation because it is a launching into existence 
of an artistic type that pre-existed only as an ideal in the author's mind. 
It is an imitation — as indeed is all art — in a finite manner, and within 
the limits belonging to finiteness, of the creative act by which the In- 
finite First Cause drew all things from nothingness.^ 

1 Plato, Gorgias, Cap. XLV. 

2 Hare, Guesses at Truth, p. 275. 

='In an abridgment of Weclemati«'s Fanst-Book. 

•* Wit, Wisdom, and Philosophy of Jean. Paul Friedrich Richter, § xi, p. 129. 
^ See Gioberti, Del Bello., Cap. VI. Del Mode in cui la Fantasia Estetica si pu5 dire 
Creatrice del Belle, p. 105. 
696 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 459 

But tbere are certain habits of tbouglit in wliicli literary and scien- 
tifi(t metLods interlace and overlap, to the detriment of both letters 
and science. Here is a case in point. Science pretends, and even seri- 
ously undertakes, in the study of things, to discover the laws accord- 
ing; to which they are, and move, and act. But does science always suc- 
ceed? Are the laws it claims to have discovered really and indeed in 
the things themselves or in the mind of the observer 1 Let us see. In 
the natural sciences a law is a generalized experience. Its validity 
depends upon the range of experience or observation which it covers. 
Now, that range is frequently very limited, isot unfrequeutly is it in- 
adequate. Oftener stiil, is it confined not so much to things themselves, 
as to certain aspects of things, Imaginatiou, at a siugle leap, transcends 
the facts within the range of observation and ex])erieuce, and under the 
same generalization includes all possible facts and all possible experi- 
ences. Sometimes imagination hits the truth and discerns the order 
governing a certain number of phenomena. Sometimes, also, it misses 
reality; and, after establishing so-called laws, and erecting theories 
upon a i^lausible hypothesis, some unexplained pheuomenon reveals 
the underlying fallacy, and science constructs another theory, and an- 
nounces another law, that may or may not be more correct. And some- 
times, again, the explanation is inadequate. A wider range of experi- 
ence informs us that the so-called law is only a half-truth, or one aspect 
of a larger law regulating the order and harmony of things. A glance 
at the history of chemical, physical, and geological theories will suffice 
to bear me out as to these various modes in which so-called laws of 
nature proved to be only false translations of nature's language, in- 
stance !Newton's law of gravitation in physics ; ^ the phlogiston and 
atomic theories in chemistry; and in geology the revelations made by 
the deep-sea dredgings of Carpenter and Thomson.^ This issue leads 
to many interesting lines of thought; but the point 1 would here make 
is this : That scientists are apt to forget that what they call the laws of 
nature may be really such only to a very limited extent ; that some of 
tkem may be simply their interpretation of certain aspects of certain 
sets af phenomena falling within the narrow range of their experience; 
that these interpretations may, as likely as not, be fabrications of their 
imagination ; that, therefore, it ill becomes them, in the name of science, 
to be intolerantly dogmatic concerning them ; and that such dogmatism 
is opposed to the scientific spirit. They are no longer following the 
scientific method. They are simply misapplying the literary method. 
The intellectual structure of their theories is of a piece with the con- 
struction of a parable or a fable. 

On the other hand, scientific habits of thinking cause the scientist 
to look upon persons and things no longer in their concrete nature, but 
rather as so many abstractions, or, at most, as concrete specimens of an 
abstract principle. His very feelings and emotions he learns to classify 
and, as far as possible, separate from himself. He measures the worth 
of things accordingly. They possess value in proj)ortion as they ex- 
plain a difficult problem, or contribute a new truth to the sum of knowl- 
edge. It has been well remarked, "Even the feelings of speculative 
men become speculative. They care about the notions of things and 
their abstractions and their relations, far more than about the reali- 

i See Faraday on tliis law in his paper on the conservation of force. Youmans' ed., 
pp. 359-38:3. 
"■ With H. M. S. The Challenger. 

697 



460 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

ties."^ So that, whilst the scieutist may unwittingly bring- literary 
habits to bear upon scientific issues, to the detriment of science, un- 
wittingly also may he bring his scientific habits into affairs of every- 
day life, and measure persons and things by a false criterion. So also 
may the man of a literary way of thinking use false weights and meas- 
ures in forming his estimates. "An author's blood will turn to ink. 
Words enter into him and take possession of him, and nothing can 
obtain admission except through the passport of words."^ And, be- 
cause words do not always represent the full measure of things or are 
at times totally inadequate to express them, the mind living in words 
becomes guilty of blunders no less egregious than the mind living in 
abstractions. What, then, is the normal state of the mind ? 

n. 

The normal function of the human intellect is to apprehend truth. 
Its activity feeds upon truth, and by truth it is nourished. For truth it 
was created ; by the light and warmth of truth it develops in strength 
and grasp; without the truth it gropes in darkness, restless, yearning, 
in misery, hungering and thirsting for that which alone can satiate its 
desires. There maybe barriers in the way; it may require enduring 
labor to remove the barriers; opposition only sharpens the eargerness 
with which the quest is pursued. In this life, subject to the present 
order of things, with body and sense standing between the soul and 
the apprehension of all knowledge, it is not easy to determine which is 
the true and which the false. The gratuitous and unquestioned notions 
acquired in early training ; the habits of thought in which the intellect 
works; natural likes and dislikes; feeling, sentiment, inclination ; preju- 
dices of the age and the race; assumptions and opinions that are the out 
come of one's environments — are all so many hindrances in the way of tlie 
clear and simple apprehension of truth. But they are not insuperable 
barriers. The human intellect, acting in its normal state and according to 
the laws of its natui^e, may with time and patience, and without deceiv- 
ing itself in the process, attain to the knowledge of certaiu truth. It 
cannot accept error as error; and if error does, as error will, enter into 
its calculations, it first assumes the garb of truth, and as such alone is 
it admitted. Thoughtful study, comparison, careful reasoning upon 
evident principles, truths, and facts, will furnish sufficient light to pene 
trate the mask and reveal the underlying falsity, if talsity there be. 

It is within the province of the human mind not only to apprehend 
the truth, but also to recognize, it as truth. In this recognition consists 
the mind's certainty. It is with absolute certainty that I know and 
distinguish that two and two make four, and not five or three. There 
is nothing relative either in my knowing this truth or in my being cer- 
tain of it. The Hottentot and the Indian are equally certain. The 
Agnostic who denies this absolute certainty is also equally certain. It 
is an ultimate fact of consciousness. If you would inquire how I know 
that I am certain with an absolute certainty, I can give you no further 
reason than that, being constructed as I am, I cannot think differently. 
It is of the very essence of my reason so to think. ISTor could it be 
otherwise. God could not create a reason whose normal condition of 
thinking would be such as to make two and two equal to any other 
number than four, without annihilating Himself. Such an act were to 
destroy the very essence of reason ; it would therefore be an infinite 

iHare, Guesses at Truth, p. 495. "Ibid. 

698 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 461 

contradiction of God's Infinite Nature. The one is as unthinkable as 
the other. I am what I am. I find myself to be what 1 am as a think- 
ing being independent!}^ of myself^ I take myself on trust. I take on 
trust all the faculties of my soul. I use them as I find them. What 
they report to my consciousness — my inner self — as true, I accept as 
true. I cannot do otherwise. The attitude of my mind towards all 
knowledge is the same to this extent, that in all, it seeks to discern the 
true from the false, to reject the false and to accept the true. 

For this reason, I cannot agree with Mr. Herbert Spencer when he 
tells us that "we are not permitted to know — nay, we are not even per- 
mitted to conceive— that Reality which is behind the veil of Appear- 
ance."^ Why not? Where is the hinderance"? Since we recognize this 
reality", do we not conceive it? It seems to me that the knowing and 
thinking of Mr. Herbert Spencer is not the knowing and thinking of 
the normal intellect. If we are not permitted to know or conceive this 
reality back of appearance, how come we to know that it exists? And 
yet Mr. Spencer is sure of its existence and recognizes it as essential 
to our thinking. Eecently he has explained himself more fully in these 
words: "Phenomenon without noumenou is unthinkable 5 and yet nou- 
menon cannot be thought of in the true sense of thinking. We are at 
once obliged to be conscious of a reality behind appearance, and yet can 
neither bring this consciousness of reality into any shape, nor can bring 
into any shape its connection with appearance. The forms of our thought, 
molded on experiences of phenomena, as well as the connotations of 
our words formed to express the relations of phenomena, involve us in 
contradictions when we try to think of that which is beyond phenom- 
ena ; and yet the existence of that which is beyond phenomena is a necessary 
datum alilce of our thoughts and vf our u-ordsJ^^ Underlying this asser- 
tion is an important fact, ill -apprehended 1 fear, by Mr. Herbert Spen- 
cer. It is the fact that thought is always more than its expression. 
But why quarrel on this account with either thought or expression, so 
long as each is evolved according to the law of our intelligence ? That 
intelligence is limited in its operations; but it is not we who have de- 
fined the limits or set the boundaries. We find ourselves with those 
limitations; we cannot change them. Our consciousness reports to us 
the phenomenon ;* our reason infers that there is no meaning in phe- 
nomenon without noumenon. The one connotes the other in our think- 
ing. What substance is to accident; what the ideal is to the actual; 
what essence is to existence — the noumenon is to the phenomenon. 
We perceive the one in the other. We perceive it aiwi we know it. 
We accept the vouchment of our intellect on the subject. True, we can- 
not pass beyond this vouchment and give this noumenon a local habi- 
tation and a name. What then? At this point we discern the fallacy 
of Mr. Herbert Spencer's conclusions. He seems to forget that the 
ultimate analysis of any and every thought brings home to us the fact 
that the clearly defined image of the thought does not represent the 
whole thought ; that that image is only a symbol ; that the word in 
which that image is expressed is also a symbol; and that in this man- 
ner every expression is only a symbol, symbolizing a symbol of the 
thing expressed. And it may happen, and it does happen, that we 
think correctly in terms of things of which we know nothing beyond 
their existence and relations. Such is the case with space and time. 
The great intellect of an Augustine wrestled with the problems of these 

^ First Principles, p. 110. 

'^Last Words aboxit Agnosticism ; in the Nineteenth Ceniunj, December, 1884. 

699 



462 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

two ideas ; the more he sought to fathom them the greater was his awe. 
And his verdict on the problem of time is that in which all thinkers 
must rest. " If nobody questions me, I know ; if I should attempt an 
explanation, I know not."^ In other words, we know these things to 
use them rightly in our thinking, but we cannot grasp at a sufficiently 
clear image of them to explain them to others. Therefore, in opposi- 
tion to Mr. Spencer, we may lay down the proposition that we not only 
think the noumenon, but we know it and conceive it back of the phe- 
nomenon — not, indeed, as an image distinct from the phenomenon, 
but as an element in the existence of the i)henomenon without which 
the phenomenon would be unthinkable. Furthermore, whilst our 
thinking is circumscribed, words and images are not the measure of its 
limits. 2 

Nor can I agree with Pascal when he tells us, "It is a natural disease 
of man to believe that he possesses truth directly; whence it comes that 
he is always disposed to deny whatever he does not understand; whereas 
in reality he naturally knows only alsebood, and he should take for 
true only those things whose opposites seem false." ^ Why call that 
conviction of direct knowledge of the truth a malady? What would 
become of reasoning and inferring, of all indirect knowledge, if that 
which we hold directly is not valid? It is all based upon this very 
conviction. Man is born for the truth ; how comes it that falsehood 
should be more acceptable? • "If our intellect," says Mivart, "is to 
be trusted at all, it must be trusted in what it declares to be the most 
certain of all, namely, necessary truths." * But our intellect is to be 
trusted even as we trust the reality of our own existence; and necessary 
truths do not come to us by a process of indirection, but are directly 
and immediately self-evident. We have no other vouchment than that 
we take upon trust our whole nature, and with it the normal workings 
of our intellect; Yon may call it an assumption or any other name you 
choose to give, but it is none the less a fact, the most prnuary of all 
facts, underlying all action, be it i^hysical, moral, or intellectual. Uni- 
versal skepticism is an absurdity; the very act of doubting all things 
is a positive mental act. Therefore the habit "f confidingness is the 
healthier habit of mind. Speaking of these two habits. Cardinal New- 
man, with that keenness and practical grasp of his sul)ject for which he 
is pre eminent, says : " Of the two, I would rather have to maintain that 
we ought to begin with believing everything that is offered to our'ac- 
ceptance, than that it is our duty to doubt of everything. The former, 
indeed, seems the true way of learning. In that case, we soon discover 
and discard what is contradictory to itself; and error having always 
some portion of truth in it, and thQ truth having a reality which error 
has not, we may expect that when there is an honest purpose and fair 
talents, we shall somehow make our way forward, the error falling off 
from the mind, and the truth developing and occupying it."^ 

When, therefore, we are told that "error is inextricably bound up 
with the spirit of man," we may interpret it in the sense that it is with 
difliculty, and after long search, man is enabled to discover truth, and 
disentangle it from the errors with which it not unfrequently is bound 

' Quid ero'o est tempus? Si ueino ex nie. quserat scio, si qiiserenti explicare velim, 
nescio. {Conf. Lib. II, Cap. XIV.) 

"Were this the, place, it might be shown that this falhicy runs through all of Mr. 
Spencer's reasoniug regarding personality and all the elements of Christian philosophy. 

3pe«,see.s, T. I, Ire Partie, Art. II, p. 154. 

'^A Philosophical Cateohlim for Beginners, p. 25. This is indeed a marvel of clear- 
ness and condensation. 

^ Grammar of Assent, 2d ed., p. 377. 
700 



INTEENATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATOKS PAPERS. 463 

up. But we must keep this fact distinct from the no less palpable fact 
that in itself and by the light of reason, man's intellect recognizes at 
sight, and accepts with a certainty beyond cavil, all necessary, self- 
evident truths as truths necessary and self-evident. Be it remembered 
that it is the truth that is necessary, and not the erj-or. Truth is of 
things. Truth is reality. Error is only accidental. And when the 
writer whom we have just quoted, making error necessary, adds the 
following remarks, we feel bound not only to dissent from him, but to 
disengage the truth from the sophism in which he has enveloped it. 
"This necessary error," he tells us, "is the ideal. Man has an innate 
tendency to form ideals. It would be blocking the way to every deeper 
insight into things, did we hesitate to consider the first stirrings of 
religion in man as the first emergence of the ideal." ^ It is to be borne 
in mind that Herr Von Hellwald takes care to tell us that all religion 
is based upon error and illusion. So he makes the ideal the outcome 
of necessary error. This is the latest word of the philosophy of nega- 
tion. Certainly, it is a remarkable intellectual feat that bases that 
which represents whatever is ijerfect in man's conception and positive 
in the order of things, as the outcome of mere negation. Art has its 
ideal; life has its ideal; religion has its ideal; civilization has its ideal. 
Are these ideals the outcome of error and illusion? Has it indeed come 
to this, that men gather grapes of thorns ? that the seeds of error grow 
up and give forth the ripe and luscious fruit of truth? that deception 
maybe sown and confidence reaped? ]N"o ! error exists but as the ex- 
crescence cast off by truth. There could be no wrong if there were not 
first a right; there could be no error if truth did not have a prior ex- 
istence; there could be no ideal if there were not a foundation of ab- 
solute truth, absolute goodness, and absolute beauty upon which to 
build it up. Surely literature and art cannot be the outcome of error. 
Think you the ideals after which Shakespeare and Dante, Beethoven 
and Haydn, Eaffaelle and Murillo, and Michael Angelo, worked Jind con- 
structed their masterpieces, are the growth of error? We defy pessim- 
ism to come forward and say as much. Error and mistake may enter 
into every human expression of the ideal; but the error and the mis- 
take are not of the ideal. It is rather because human hands are un- 
skilled, and human expression is stammering, and human judgment is 
feeble. Let us dwell a moment on the nature, the origin, and the func- 
tions of the ideal, and we will be in better position to understand how 
it is that genius is not a living in error, nor art a groping after illusions. 

III. 

A genius conceives and expresses a great thought. The conception 
so expressed delights. It enters men's souls ; it compels their admira- 
tion. They applaud and are rejoiced that another masterpiece has been 
brought into existence to grace the world of art or letters. The genius 
alone is dissatisfied. Where others see perfection, he perceives some- 
thing unexpressed beyond the reach of his art. Try as best he may, he 
cannot attain that indefinable something. Deep in his inner conscious- 
ness, he sees a type so grand and perfect that his beautiful production 
appears to him but a faint and marred copy of that original. That 
original is the ideal ; and the ideal it is that calls forth men's admira- 
tion. 

An analysis of this admiration will lead us to an understanding of 

. ip. vou Hellwald, CuUurgeschichte. See Dublin Iteview, sut. The Battle of Theism, by 
Eev. W. Barry, D. D., Oct." 1884. 

, 701 



464 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

tlie ideal. It is universal. It is a sense as innate to a man as is his 
sense of taste or touch. Savage and civilized admire whatever appeals 
to their admiration. Now, not everything does so appeal. The trivial, 
the contemptible, the weak, the inferior, are all beneath man's sense of 
admiration. The virtuous, the noble, the heroic; whatever expresses 
strength or powei'; whatever is beautiful or sublime; in a word, what- 
ever ri^ises man's thoughts and aspirations to a superior plane, — that is 
ior him an object of admiration. Man has within him two opposing 
elements. One seeks to raise him up into a spiritual and spiritualizing 
sphere of thought and action ; the other tends to drag him down to 
things earthly and debasing. They are the two steeds that Plato rep- 
resents the soul as driving, likening it to a charioteer; one steed "leans 
and presses heavily towards the earth, if he be not well-trained by his 
charioteer;" the other, "beautiful and noble and of a godlike char- 
acter."^ Tliey are the opposing elements, the law in his members flght- 
i)ig against the law of his mind, of which St. Paul speaks in language 
less allegorical.^ Now, it is the function of this sense of admiration to 
raise up and spiritualize the inferior parts of man's nature, so that they 
grovel not in things earthly, and to strengthen and improve his nobler 
aspirations. Where man may not imitate, where he may not even love, 
he can still admire. Wherever an ideal is expressed, there is an object 
for his admiration. We may not explain this mysterious correspondence, 
but we all have the experience of it. Our souls are so attuned as to 
give out a music responsive to the chords that are touched. This we 
know and feel. Let us study the impression. 

Take a Eaffaelle or a Murillo. We gaze ux)on the painted canvas till 
its beauty has entered our soul. The splendor of that beauty lights up 
within it depths unrevealed, and far down in our inner consciousness we 
discover a something that responds to the beauty on which we have 
been gazing. It is as though a former friend revealed himself to us. 
There is here a recognition. The more careful our sense-culture has 
been, the more delicately our feelings have been attuned to respond to 
a thing of beauty and find in it a joy forever, all the sooner and the 
more intensely do we experience this recognition. And therewith comes 
a vague yearning, a longing as for something. What does it all mean ? 
The recognition is of the ideal. "The memory," says Plato, "on be- 
holding the beautiful object, is carried back to the nature of absolute 
beauty."^ Thus there is not only a recognition; there is also a remi- 
niscence of a higher spiritual order of things of which the soul has had 
occasional glimpses ; there is a yearning for the home to which it be- 
longs. Cavil as men may, the artistic ideal is a reality, and speaks to 
something higher than the material sense. There are moments when, 
beneath the spell of some great masterpiece, man feels the nearness of 
the Godhead, and his soul is thrilled with emotions that vibrate beneath 
the Divine touch. There is no denying it. A year ago, a newly elected 
member of the French Academy, amid the applause of his fellow-mem- 
bers, quoted those words of Charles Blanc : "The ideal is the primitive 
Divine exemplar of all things; it is, so to speak, a reminiscence of hav- 
ing already witnessed perfection, and the hope of seeing it once again."* 
Charles Blanc was only repeating the magnificent definition of the ideal, 
which has come home to every soul not buried in the inert material, and 

1 Plato, Phcedrus, Cap. XXV, p. 712, T. I, ed. Hirschigu. 
2 Romans vii, 23. 
3 Phcedrus, Cap. XXXV, p. 718. 

■•M. Edward Pailleron, Discours sur Charles Blanc dans VAcad^mie; in Le Temps, 
January 18th, 1884. 

702 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 465 

wliicli has been echoed down the ages ever since Plato gave it expres- 
sion : "It is," says this wonderful seer, " a recollection of those things 
our soul formerly beheld when in company with God, despising the 
things that we now say are, and looking upward towards that which 
really is."' Without admitting the Pythagorean doctrine of a pre- 
existent state, here implied,^ we may go farther, and say that without 
the ideal there is no reality. 

l^ature recognizes the ideal. She has her types and works by them. 
Each of her products is a specific realization of a separate type. As 
genus is a reality distinct from, and causative of, the species, so is each 
of Nature's types a reality distinct from the concrete thing fashioned 
after it, and causative thereof. Hence it is that, in the animal and even 
the vegetable world, we daily witness reversions to older types, and the 
reproduction of ancestral traits of character. Nor is this all. Ascend- 
ing higher still 

" Upon the great worid's altar-stairs 
That slope thro' darkness up to God," 

we come to the prototype of all created types, and find it existing in the 
Word. Here is the source and fountain-head of the ideal. In the 
Word — from the beginning — before there was a beginning of time, and 
the voice of God caused created things to leap forth from nothingness — 
throughout the cycles of eternity — God contemplated those types. And 
by the Word were they made real in the order of created thiugs. Were 
the eternal type not in the Word, the actual existences fashioned after 
it would not be. And this is why we say that, without the ideal, there 
is ro reality. We have at last found the origin and source of the ideal, 
lu all earoestness have we sought it ; and, hushed in holy awe before 
the Godhead, in a loving reverence do we contemplate its splendor. 
The Word is not only the source of all created existences ; the Word is 
also the light that enlightens this world. Its glory is reflected, now 
dimly, now clearly, in every created thing. As the reason is illumi- 
nated with a light above and beyond the sparks that it throws out in its 
workings — that light giving it ail necessary and self-evident truths; as 
the spiritual sense is nurtured and strengthened by that mysterious 
energy called grace ; so the created ideal in each individual mind is 
enlightened and vivified by the uncreated ideal dwelling in the Word. 
This illumination of the ideal is the expression of the beautiful. 

We now know whence it comes that a thing of ])eauty becomes for 
each of us a joy forever. It is the mission of the artist to rend the veil 
of accidents and accessories in which the ideal is shrouded, and present 
ifc to us in all its beauty and loveliness. And the beauty reflected there- 
from lights up the folds and inner caverns of our souls, and reveals 
therein a recognition of this ideal, and reflected from our inmost souls 
is the image of Him from whom we come, and who is our Home — His 
image and a pale reflex of the splendor of His glory. On beholding this 
reflection we are moved; our souls are stirred to their very center; a 
yearning takes possession of us, a longing for the home whence we 
came, a groping after the Invisible Ideal, and we feel our souls vibrate 
beneath the touch of the Infinite. God is in us and we are in God, and 
the sense of our nearness to Him grows upon us. This is the experi- 
ence that passes over us in the jjresence of the ideal. It is the expe- 
rience that Plato has grandly recorded in his wonderful allegory.^ 

1 I'ha'drus, Cap. XXIX, p. 714. 

-In another work of mine may he found additional remarks on this doctrine: Plii- 
losophy of Literature, Part II, Cliap. I, p. 124. 
3 In the Pha'drua, Cap. XXXIIl-XXXVIII. 

7950 COT., PT. 2- 30 708 



466 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

lY. 

We are now in position to understand the importance of an ideal in 
literary habits of thought. It is essential to them. Literature is the 
form of art the most varied and complicated. Plato hath well and aj^tly 
snid of a literary structure, "Every speech ought to be put together 
like a living creature, with a body of its own, so as neither to be with- 
out head, nor without hands, nor without feet; but to have both a be- 
ginning, a middle, and an end, described proportionately to one another 
and to the whole." ^ So to construct a literary masterpiece that part 
fits to part and each is subordinate to the whole, requires a central idea. 
As the parts in the animal organism are determined by the vital ])rin- 
ciple animating them, in such manner that all unconsciously develop 
into fitness and harmony, even so is it with the literary production. 
When the central thought, the animating principle — the ideal — is clearly 
grasped, it shapes the form in which it would be expressed. This teach- 
ing is clear and simple, and as ancient as art. It Is the teaching on which 
all the masterpieces throughout the ages have been constructed. You 
may wonder why I lay stress upon what seems to be an elementary and 
incontrovertible principle. I will tell you. 

It is because Agnostic science rejects this beautiful and ennobling 
doctrine of the ideal, and regards what we have here advanced as a play 
of fancy. The Agnostic can neither weigh nor measure this ideal; he 
therefore relegates it to the regions of the impossible. And yet, even the 
Agnostic knows and feels, and, so to speak, touches the ideal. By what 
right does he regard as an illusion a thing so intimate to him"? He has 
no more reason for rejecting the ideal than he has for accepting some of 
the most x^ositive conclusions of science. In his last analysis he would 
resolve the whole universe into an ultimate atom. But why should he? 
He has never seen, nor weighed, nor measured that atom. You say that 
he infers it. But what right has he to infer anything? Why should 
he deal in inferences? He does not accept the vouchments of his con- 
sciousness, or his reason, or his memory. He does not take himself for 
granted The evident brings no evidence to him. Vouchers for error 
are to him equally convincing with vouchers for truth.^ His knowledge 
is merely subjective impressions. He is himself but an impression. He 
recognizes only phenomenon. You will bear witness that I am not in- 
venting ; I am simply, almost in the Agnostic's own words, describing 
the habitual state of mind in which he lives and thinks. Are not the 
words of Plato as fresh and of as direct application to the Agnostic of 
to-day as they were to the sophist of his age? "Let us not admit into 
our souls," he says, "the notion that there appears to be nothing sound 
in reasoning, but much rather that we are not yet in a sound condition, 
and that we ought vigorously and strenuously to endeavor to become 
sound." ^ 

Moreover, it never occurs to the Agnostic that, if there is nothing 
beyond phenomenon and jAenomenal impressions, there is no true 
science ; for, in order that a science exist, there must needs be more 
than the mere cataloguing of facts and observations. But this is all 
that is warranted on the assumi^tion that all knowledge is made up of 
phenomenal impressions. Thus does the Agnostic contradict the pri- 
mary facts of his nature and the elementary workings of his intellect. 
Consider the scientific method. Facts are observed, then classified and 

' Phcudrus, Cap. XLVII, p. 726. 

2 See Kant's Paralogisms and Antinomies. Critique of Pure Meason, Bk. II. 
^Fhwdo, Cap. XI, p. 76. 
704 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 467 

methodized; principles are stated ; laws are inferred or asserted; a rea- 
soning {)rocess based upon known truths and facts is gone through, and 
leads up to other truths and other laws hitherto unknown. But all this 
implies an order of things above and beyond m^re phenomena. It im- 
plies a world of idens, and therefore the existence of an ideal. And in 
ignoring this world of ideas and of necessary truths, the Agnostic, in 
all logic, is compelled to abandon science and deny even the existence 
of the external world. The true scientist admits both the internal and 
external orders upon the same plane of evidence ; and this is the cri- 
terion of true science, that it rejects no fact, accepts things as it finds 
them, and seeks for all an adequate explanation. 

Plato, in one of those sublime passages that light up a whole world 
of thought, thus shows how our knowledge of things is not simply of 
the transient and the phenomenal, but of essences and eternal princi- 
ples : " Essence," he says, " which really exists colorless, formless, and 
intangible" — which, therefore, let me remark, is above the conditions 
of time and space — " is visible only to Intelligence that guides the soul, 
and around this essence the family of true science take up their abode. 
And, as the Divine Mind is nourished by intelligence and pure science, 
so the mind of every soul that is about to receive what properly belongs 
to it, when it sees after a long time that which is, is delighted, and by con- 
templating the truth is nourished and thrives. * * * And it beholds 
justice herself, and temperance, and science, not that to which creation — 
ytreGii — is annexed, nor that which is different in different things of 
those we call real,^ lyut that which is science in tvhat really isJ^^ This is 
the only science to think in. It is, indeed, the only true science. Ag- 
nostic science loses its claim to the title of science by placing itself in a 
habit of thinking inconsistent with itself and derogatory to the intellect, 
to thought, and to real knowledge. It is unscientific in another direc- 
tion. All science worthy of the name confines itself to its subject-mat- 
ter, and acknowledges itself incomi^etent to pronounce upon issues out- 
side of its clearly defined limits. This rule Agnosticism does not ob- 
serve. Pretending to deal exclusively with the visible, the material, 
the phenomenal, it passes judgment upon the invisible and suijersensible, 
the spiritual and supernatural. Finally, Agnosticism, in regarding the 
ideal as an illusion and the outcome of error, is thereby, so far as in it 
lies, the death of the ideal and the bane of all literary excellence — indeed 
of all artistic excellence whatever. In what manner and how far it 
remains for us to note. 

V. 

The shadow of Agnostic science has crept over the spirit of art and 
letters. ]^ow, we have seen that there is no real art without the ideal, 
and that it is the function of art to appeal to our admiration by the 
presentation of the ideal in all possible beauty and vividness. But 
whilst the artist disentangles the ideal from such accidents and acces- 
sories as tend to conceal it, he still clothes it in nature. Out of the 
ma! erials that nature furnishes, he fashions for it a body, and breathes 
into that body the ideal as its living soul, and forthwith the master- 
piece stands out a thing of life and beauty and artistic excellence for 
undying admiration. Defects of detail may enter into its execution ; 
but they are lost, forgotten, absorbed in the general effect produced. 

1 Or as Jowett more strongly translates it, "Not in the tbrm of generation or of 
relation, which men call existence, but knowledge absolute, in existence absolute." 
Jowett's Plato, Vol. 11, p. 581. 

^Phcedrus, Cap. XXVII, p. 713. 

705 



468 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

It is the Transfiguration of Eaflaelle. Who, iu presence of that noble 
scene, woukl cavil about the posing of limbs or the laws of perspective!^ 
It is the Hamlet of Shakespeare. Surely, he who overlooks the power, the 
depth, the philosophy, the dramatic greatness of that tragedy, and 
quarrels with grammatical structure or obscure expression, has yet to 
learn the elements of true criticism. Or, it is the Phwdo of Plato, 
whose sublime thoughts so frequently recur throughout the sentences 
that I now repeat to you. He who should stop at the bard metaphysics 
or the apparently pointless questions and obscure answers, and not soar 
with Socrates in his dying song into the pure regions of truth, proves 
that he lacks the sympathy and knowledge to appreciate Grecian 
thought in the days of Plato, and is, therefore, unable to place at its 
worth one of the sublimest pieces of writing ever penned by human 
hand.2 Or, it is the Divina Commedia. What boots it that Dante's 
estimates of men and measures are not those of the historian? It de- 
tracts naught from the wonderful poem. Men are lost in admiration 
when they note the care with which word is built upon word, each 
having a special significance, and all made into a grand allegory 
wrought out of the politics and the philosophy, the strife and struggle, 
the fierce hates and the strong loves, in which the author lived and 
moved and fought. Or, it is Mozart'is Eequiem. The critic who would 
quarrel with that grand comi)osiiion, because in its intricate and com- 
plicated structure, speaking of a life's hopes and fears, and the more 
awful hopes and fears beyond the grave, he misses the sweeter strains 
of other days, would fail to grasp the sublime concejjtion of the piece: 
as a whole. Or, it is the Gothic Cathedral. Who thinks of making 
faces at gargoyle or statued niche, where all is emblem and significancy, 
the stone embodiment of a nation's aspirations ? We read in it thought, 
satire, censure, desire, pathos, passion.^ In all these instances, back of 
the mechanical structure, looking out uj)on us, and peering into bur 
souls, is the ideal. 

Now, Agnostic science would promulgate theories calculated to par- 
alyze art, and render it incapable of producing such masterpieces as 
we have instanced. Jne is the theory that claims that all art has no 
other aim than to construct the form for the form's sake. Much that is 
done to-day, whether in words, or on the canvas, or iu marble, is done 
for the simple pleasure of producing. Kow the art that has only itself 
for its aim, may amuse, may please, may even cause admiration on ac- 
count of the mechanical skill exhibited ; but it is not the art that en- 
dures for all time. E will grant you that a Shakespeare or a Goethe 
may sing as the blackbird sings ; but I deny that their art is without 
purpose. Distinguish between the art that is conscious and that that 
is unconscious. The ^sopian fable is conscious in purpose ; it is writ- 
ten for a definite aim. But of the great masterpieces that we have 
been contemplating, can you say that they are purposeless, or that 
their end is simply this or that 1 In each of them one may read as 
many purposes as one takes aspects of them. Their authors may have 
had no other intention than that of unburdening themselves of the 
great thougiit that oppressed their souls; but as surely as their work 

' For an histance of such caviling, see Taine's Italy, Eng. tr., pp. 142, 143. 

'^ It is this lack of sympathy that makes the reading of Plato so laborious. Perhaps 
it is a failing to distinguish between the mental habits of the ancient Athenians and 
those of modern thinkers that has led Mr. Mahaffy, in his admirable History of Greftk 
Littrature (Vol. II, p. 173), to make the criticism noticed above as regards part of the 
dialogue. 

* This idea has been grandly drawn out by Victor Hugo, in Noire Dame de Paris, 
Liv. Ill, Chap. I. 

706 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS— PAPERS. 469 

expresses an ideal, so surely does it embody a purpose. For the ideal, 
in calling- tbrtli our admiration and raising up our thoughts to things 
higlier and beyond the scene of everyday life, or in purifying the inci- 
dents of ordinary duties, is educating our better nature ; it is working 
with a purpose. And ideal and purpose combined determine the form. 
" To act with a purpose," says Lessing, " is what raises man above the 
brutes ; to invent with a purpose, to imitate with a purpose, is that 
which distinguishes genius from the petty artists who invent to invent, 
imitate to imitate." ^ Be it remembered that nothing outside of the 
Godhead exists for its own sake. The art produced in this spirit is 
sheer pettiness. Nowhere is this more evident than in the world of 
letters. Just as a word has value only inasmuch as it expresses an 
idea, so any number of words strung together is meaningless and inane, 
uidess it expresses a thought, not for the expression's sake, but ibr that 
of the thought. The sophists of Plato's day attempted to teach ex- 
pression for the form's sake. He refuses the very name of art to such 
expression. " She lies," he tells us in his own scathing words, '• and is 
not a,n art, but an inartistic trick. "^ And, in the domain of fiction, it 
hath well been said that one can no more conceive a great novel with- 
out a purpose than one can conceive an arch without a keystone.^ All 
art worthy of the name is imbued with the earnestness of life. Con- 
sciously or unconsciously, the artist's is a mission to crystallize in his 
work the spirit of the age ; it is, also, his mission to educate his age, 
to raise it above itself, and to sustain its aspirations upward and on- 
ward — 

" Artistry being battle with the age 
It lives in ! Half life, — silence, while you learn 
What has been clone ; the other half, — attempt 
At speech, amid world's wail of wonderment — 
' Here's something done was never done before I ' — 
To be the very irealh that moves the age, 
Means not to have breath drive you bubble-like 
Before it — hut yourself to blotv : that's strain; 
Strain's ivorry through the life-time, till there' s pence ; 
We know where peace expects the artist-soul." ■• 

VI. 

Another theory fostered and developed by Agnostic science is the so- 
called Eealism in literature and art. It is the outcome of ignoring the 
ideal, or regarding it as the product of error. If there is no ideal, or if 
the ideal is only an illusion, then there is nothing beyond the nature we 
behold and live iu; then the supreme effort of all art is to delineate that 
nature in detail with the greatest fidelity ; then the sole rule of art is, 
" Copy, describe, imitate, express minutely whatever you see or hear : 
the more accurately you follow your model the greater artist you are." 
There is in this doctrine a mixture of truth and error. True it is that 
art cannot ignore nature. The world we live in is the material upon 
which it works. Therefore the artist observes men and things; he 
studies the nature without him and the nature within him ; he experi- 
ments; he compares, judges, discriminates; in this way does he gather 
up and select the subject-matter upon which he afterwards labors for 
artistic purposes. But there is in all this more than mere imitation. 

' Prose works, Bohn ed.. Dramatic Notes, No. 34, p. 327. 
'^■Kat ovH edzi ravxv^ aAl' arexvoi rpifir}. Phcedrus, Cap. XLIII. 
■■'This remark was made to the author by one of the most successful of living' 
American novelists, Mr. W. D. Howells. 

* Robert Browning: Bed Cotton Night-Cap Country, p. 110. 

707 



470 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT. NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

It is a wholesome Eealism, and does not exclude the ideal. It is the 
Eealism that Millet paints and Euskin commends. The art that merely 
imitates can only j)roduce a corpse; it lacks the vital spark, the soul, 
which is the ideal, and which is necessary in order to create a living- 
organic reality that will quicken genius and arouse enthusiasm through- 
out the ages. Let us make the distinction ; it is a vital one : Art is not 
imitation ; art is interpretation. 

This distinction the Eealistic school in art and letters loses sight of. 
Accordingly, it abandons all attempt at an ideal ; it makes no effort to 
read the lessons of nature ; it sees nothing in nature to read beyond the 
cold, hard lines that it traces. Here Agnostic science steps in, and 
directs this school in the ways it must walk. It teaches that, as the only 
knowledge is the knowledge of observation and experiment, upon these 
two Hues must art work. And, as the novel is the most potent literary 
influence of the day, it would especially make the novel a mere study 
in nature and character, in which naught is to be set down save what 
has fallen under the eye or has been experienced in actual life. On the 
face of it, this theory is sound enough. By all means, let us have ob- 
servation and experiment. But distinguish between the observation 
that takes in all the elements of nature, and the observation that regards 
only its material side. The latter alone falls under the scope of the 
Eealistic school. It has no other field for development. In consequence, 
it deals only with mau living and acting out his brute nature in Ikll its 
cunning and sensuality. The writers of this school give us observa- 
tions indeed; but they are of the street and the tavern. They picture 
human nature; but it is diseased human nature. They paint us life 
episodes ; but what lives ! Now it is the drunkard's ; now it is that of 
the fallen woman ; now it is that of actors and authors of Bohemian 
ways ; again it is that of notorious criminals ; invariably it is passion 
wallowing in the mire of depravity. This is no freak. It is a systematic 
procedure, and the logical outcome of the Eealistic school as inspired 
by Agnostic science. Believing only in the animal man, naught elne 
remains for the members of this school to depict. Not saintline'ss of 
life; for saintliness of life means to them only hypocrisy, or, at most, 
warped character. Not nobility of thought or word ; for weak, erring, 
human nature is the only nature that the Agnostic recognizes. In his 
last word he is a pessimist. The conclusions of Schopenhauer on the 
misery of life, its worthlessness, its crime, its helplessness in the great 
machine of the universe, are those to which every logical Agnostic must 
come.^ The only poetry he can weave is that which, with Ackerman, 
cries out in an agony of despair and rebellion worthy of Satan;^ 

But this is not the world in which we live and move. This is not the 
human nature that we are cognizant of. The circle of our acquaintance 
includes — we know intimately — men and women of a far different stamp ; 
men and women who are true and faithful in their love and friendship; 
grand and generous souls, who are self-sacrificing whenever good is to 
be accomplished or duty to be fulfilled ; who think and say the sweetest 
and sublimest thoughts ; whose lives are i)ure and disinterested; whose 
intentions and aspirations are elevated and ennobling; who, in the 
daily round of their beautiful lives, shed around them loveliness and 
peace and joy and gladness of heart. These are the men and women 
that surround us, and beneath whose influence for good our own hearts 
and souls strive to rise in the scale of perfection. Here is the reality 
that we know. Here is the reality that even the Agnostic knows. It 

1 See Schopenhauer's Essay on the Misery of Life. 

2 Poesies Philosophiquea, par L. Ackerman. Paris, 1877. 
708 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 471 

is only Id his library that humanity is to him such a monster. The 
lowliest life has its sublime passages. It has wherewith to inspire the 
poet, for it has its ideal. In this thought we place our consolation and 
our hope for the future of art and letters. "Eealism," said an eloquent 
French preacher, "is a chronic disease; it is the leprosy of art; it is the 
epidemic of literature in the nineteenth century."^ This is the proper 
diagnosis of the case. Let it be treated as a leprosy or an epidemic. 
If Kealistic works are left untouched and the home atmosphere is keiJt 
purified, both leprosy and epidemic will soon die out.'^ 

VII. 

Such are the relations that exist between the literary and the scien- 
tific spirit. Each has a distinct sphere. Each may aid the other. But 
when one assumes the functions of the other or attempts to dictate to 
the other, collision and confusion are the result. We have noticed an 
interlacing and overlapping of literary and scientific habits of thought, 
greatly to the detriment of both literature and science. We may trace 
this cause to the present intellectual state of our own day. Every age 
may, in a sense, be said to be in a state of transition, for all time is a 
Becoming. But there are influences hovering over epochs and peoples 
thatrgive them a characteristic coloring, and place upon them a dis- 
tinctive impress. Our age is pre-eminently a transition period. New 
discoveries, new industries, and new sciences are calling for new terms, 
new habits of thought, and new methods of work. And yet, much of 
our thinking runs in old grooves. We are groping in mist and dark- 
ness, with new and complex problems pressing upon us harder and fast- 
er than we can solve them. Each decade brings its riddle. The con- 
jectures of one decade become the conclusions of the next, and are made 
the elementary truths of the third. Hence it is that the books of the 
day are so many fleeting records of impressions as fleeting. Hence the 
mental entanglements and inconsistencies that beset men's thoughts 
and actions, their reasoning and their sentiments, their formal expres- 
sions and their inner convictions. 

1^0 w every age and every people whose spirit became crystallized in 
a literature that may be called classic, was possessed of a central 
thought, an all-absorbing idea — in a word, an ideal — that fired genius 
and laid its impress upon the form of expression. Thus, the Hindu lit- 
erature teems throughout with the illusory and passing nature of all 
things earthly; the inmost feeling that this life is only a jjreparation 
for another form of existence, pervades its poetry and philosophy and 

' R. P6re Felix, Conferences, 1867 ; Conf. V, p. 251. 

2 There is an awakening to the danger all along the line. In Denmark, the poet 
Drachman, to the surprise of many, in his last volume of poems. Deep Chords, has 
entered protest against the Realistic spirit, and proclaimed himself the poet of " heart 
and home" (Viggo Petersen in Athenwum, No. 2983, Dec. 27, 1884). Speaking of 
this school in Italy, Signor Bonghi writes in the same number of this journal : " But 
while in the past years there was a great array of poets following this path, and one 
saw lying about in every bookseller's shop their elegant volumes of every kind of 
shape and type, but especially the Elzevir, this year there is not one to he seen, and their 
principal publisher, Zanichelli of Bologna, tells me he no longer publishes any on his own 
account." The fact is significant. M. de Pressensd writes words no less encouraging 
from the parent -soil of this school. "If it is true that in literature, as in every- 
thing else, the demand in the long run regulates the supply, it is indubitable — and 
this is a consoling prospect of which we have need — that a reaction will, before long, 
set in throughout France, and that our country will not endure to all eternity the 
debasement of the level of the imagination and the corruption of art " {Athenwum, 
Ibid, p. 833). 

709 



472 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

in a great measure molds the Hiudu life. So with the literature and art 
of ancient Greece. The one absorbing idea that became a passion for 
her, was beauty of form and corresi^onding harmony of expression aud 
action — a beauty and harmory everywhere reflected from her sculpture, 
her architecture, her poetry, and her life. So it was with ancient Kome. 
All Rome's greatness, all her conquests, all her jurisprudence, her public 
and domestic life, her art, her worships, her literature, were centered ill, 
and became the outcome of, the one idea of Eome. To be a Eoman cit- 
izen was the supreme badge of honor; to live for Eome was the sole aim 
of life; to die for Eome was the most heroic of deaths; to sing Eome's 
glories, to record her deeds, or to perpetuate the names of her heroes, 
was the highest ambition of her greatest i)oets and historians. The lit- 
erature of mediaeval days has also its distinct mark. It reflects through - 
out the spirit of chivalry and feudalism. This is the one idea into which 
all thought is translated. Even the popular religious writings of the 
day represent the soul as standing towards its Maker in the relation of 
serf or yeoman to his baronial lord, and as going through life in a spirit- 
ual combat with the powers of darkness. 

But the idea of chivalry and feudalism is for us a matter of history ; 
it no longer comes home to us as a living reality; we are outgrowing 
the forms of thought into which it so largely entered. Our modern life 
has little or nothing in common with those days of adventure seeking, 
and wonderful feat-performing. Commerce and the industries and sci- 
ences are the absorbing occupations of the present. But we lack, or 
we fail to see, a distinctive centralizing thought, predominating over 
our lives and molding action and expression into a harmonious whole. 
Our business affairs are one thing; our literature and its topics are 
another thing. Agnosticism is making strenuous efforts to impress its 
spirit upon life and thought. It has enlisted under its banner genius, 
culture, learning, and passion. But the underlying principle of Agnos- 
ticism is negation, and a reversion to what is brutal and debasing in tbe 
pagan ideal; aud the age is not prepared to accept such a principle. 
The leaven of Christianity permeates too intimately the world's thinking.' 
There is profound truth in the sublime expression of TertuUian, that the 
human soul is naturally Christian. It loves positive, wholesome truth; 
it pines in bondage till it possesses truth; but holding the truth, the 
truth shall make it free. Too long has it fed upon the nourishing meats 
of Christian truth to be content with the winnowed husks of negation 
that Agnosticism would impart. Through long aud dreary ages, the 
world fed upon all that Agnosticism has to offer it, and souls became 
starved, and civilizations went down and were buried in the grave of 
materialism. Agnosticism cannot harmonize the clashing elements of 
the age. 

In the meantime it is the life-work of each of us to harmonize in his 
own nature all the elements that go to make it up. Socrates, on that 
memorable day when he drank the hemlock cup, told the faithful fol- 
lowers who were gathered around him, how at different times a dream 
visited him in diverse forms, exhorting him to apply hiujself to the culti- 
vation of music.^ By music, Socrates meant not simply that combina- 

1 1 am glad to present this corroboration from one whom all will regard as a not 
over-partial witness: "To deny that Christianity in its various forms has been, and 
still is, one of the greatest powers in the world, or to deny that its leading doctrines 
have, in fact, been associated in many ways with all that we commonly recognize as 
virtue, is like denying the agency of the sun in the physical world." (James Fitzjames 
Stephen in ih.^ Nineteenth. Century for June, 1884.) The admission is a remarkable 
one, coming from Mr. Stephen. 

^Plmdo, Cap. IV, ed. Hirschigii, T. I, p. 46. 
710 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS— PAPEES. 473 

tion of sounds tbat catclies up a few fragments of this world's liarmo- 
Dies, and with them moves our souls. There is another and a higher 
music. It is the music of a soul in which. dwell order and method; 
which co-ordinates all knowledge; which recognizes the ideal; in which 
the good, the true, and the beautiful are cultivated, each according to 
its own nature, and by its own method. It is the rhythm of a thoroughly- 
dTSciplined intellect and a well-regulated life. That dream comes to us 
all. In its fulfillment, will we find the reconciliation of literary with 
scientific habits of thought. 

711 



THE MODERK GROWTH OF CITIES AND THE EDUCATION 
DEMANDED BY IT. 

By W. T. Harris, LL. D., 

Concord, Mass. 



In 1790, only three and one-third per cent, of the population of the 
United States lived in cities of over eight thousand people. Twenty- 
nine persons out of thirty lived in small towns or rural districts. Sixty 
years later— in 1850 — the city population had increased to twelve and a 
half per cent., or one-eighth, having doubled twice. In 1885, thirty-five 
years later, the urban population has doubled again, and now one-fourth 
of the population lives in cities varying in size from eight thousand to 
a million. If we count the suburban populations so connected by rail- 
way to the cities that their form and mode of living is urban, we may 
safely estimate the city population at one-half of the total. 

This urban movement, extending throughout the present century, is 
not confined to the United States, but extends to all that part of the 
civilized world aftVcted by productive industry and the invention of 
labor-saving machinery. The power-loom, the steam-engine and its 
uses in the mill and on the railroad, have initiated this urban develop- 
ment. The railroads in the United States aggregated, in 1870, about 
50,000 miles, and in the fifteen years since have increased to 130,000 
miles. 

With the labor-saving machine came an immense stimulus to associ- 
ative efibrt. Food, clothing, and shelter could be obtained in such 
larger quantities and at so much less expenditure of manual labor that 
every individual became rich in prospect. Just as the discovery of the 
California gold mines attracted a steady current of migration, and the 
distinction between rich and poor seemed no longer a fixed and cruel 
gulf requiring the sacrifice of an entire life to cross to the other side, so 
the superfluous masses of the population heard gladly of the new spin- 
ning and weaving mills, and flocked to the villages where they could 
obtain steady employment and such wages as seemed to them a golden 
harvest. Before 1760 they had formed an abject class of rural popula- 
tion, owning no land and dweUing in rude hovels, with only such food 
and clothing as could be procured with the small wages given them for 
occasional service on the farms near by. Instead of occasional seasons 
of work and most inadequate wages on the farms, this population ob- 
tained in the newly established mills of Manchester and Birmingham 
constant employment at remunerative wages, better dwellings, better 
food and clothing, and plenty. Hence villages grew and continued to 
grow wherever water-power could be obtained. Soon there were cities 
where there had been hamlets. 

Then the products of manufacture demanded trade and transporta- 
tion, reaching out to the far-off cotton fields in Alabama or the Indies, 
and a vast army of men received employment as sailors and teamsters 
712 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDtJCATORS — PAPERS. 475 

and traders, bringing in the supply of raw material and taking out tlie 
products of the mills. Seeking new markets for the ever increasing 
production, it became for the interest of English commerce to establish 
relations with all lands not yet occupied with productive industry. It 
offered a stimulus to the furnishing of some staple raw material, and 
gave in compensation articles of manufacture from its looms, its hard- 
ware mills, or its distilleries. Industries began in remote lands and col- 
onization soon belted the globe. 

Meanwhile the steam-engine had re-enforced the waterfall, and the 
railroad engine relieved the teamster; the steamboat had succeeded the 
tiatboat and largely took the place of the sailing vessel. 

Man, aided by the elemental powers of nature, had so far exceeded 
his powers as manual laborer, that it was reasonably estimated in 1870 
that the 8,000,000 laborers of Great Britain directing machinery moved 
by the motive power of steam, produced an annual amount of manu- 
factures equal to that of 300,000,000 of laborers, or the entiie laboring 
capacity of the human race, previous to the invention of the power loom 
and the steam-engine. 

Hence the accumulation of wealth in the countries that have adopted 
productive industry. Gladstone estimated the increase of wealth that 
could be transmitted from one generation to the next to be so enormous 
in our time, that in the fifty years from 1800 to 1850 the world had pro- 
duced as much permanent wealth as during the entire 1800 years pre- 
vious to this century. The rate of progression was so rapid that in the 
next twenty years (1850-1870) the accumulated wealth of the world had 
again doubled. The multiplication of steam-engines and the j^erfecting 
of machinery have been supposed to double our productive power once 
in seven years. 

The emancipation of the laboring classes from the proletariat con- 
dition of landless and shiftless dependency ou the farmers and their 
elevation into an industrious village population working in the mills, 
has continued in the direction of better food, clothing, and shelter, and 
higher wages with fewer hours of labor. 

Our wise and careful statistician and political economist, Edward 
Atkinson, shows us that forty years ago the average wages in the cot- 
ton mills of Massachusetts amounted to $175 per year for each laborer, 
while at present they amount to $287, an increase of sixty-four per cent. 
Meanwhile the hours of daily labor have decreased from the frightful 
number of thirteen to the reasonable number of ten. The purchasing- 
power of money has not become less, but is far greater in the items of 
manufactured goods and in the great staples of food. Cloth is nearly 
twenty-five per cent, cheaper than it was forty years ago. The im- 
X)rovemeut of railway transportation, thanks to Vanderbilt's inven- 
tion of consolidated systems of railway lines, has rendered it possible 
that wheat flour enough to feed one thousand people in l^few York for 
one year may be transferred from the wheat fields of Dakota to the 
mills of Minnesota and thence to the Atlantic seaboard, at a cost equiv- 
alent to the labor of one and a half men. With the labor-saving in- 
ventions for the farm, one Dakota farmer can raise annually wheat 
enough to supply one thousand men with food for a year. 

Counting the cost of the flour mill, and the baking and distributing 
of the bread in New York, one thousand five hundred miles distant, and 
making a generous estimate, Mr. xltkinson shows that ten men can feed 
one thousand. Two men can furnish iron for one thousand of a popula- 
tion that consumes more iron than any other on the globe. Four men can 
furnish cotton and woolen cloth for one thousand. One shoemaker can 

713 



476 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

furnish them with shoes, and so on through the cat.alogue of necessary 
supplies. Combination of man with man and of people with ijeople is 
essential to this form of industry, that coni]>els the elements to toil and 
spin for it and annihilates distance. Each human being is given a bet- 
ter chance. Such is the lesson of industrial civilization, always a whole- 
some lesson to study, and never- more profitably studied than in your 
paragon of world's expositions. 

The growth of cities finds its occasion in productive industry. Ma- 
chinery has arisen through the application of natural science by inven- 
tion. Whereas formerly the whole po})u]ation had to struggle in a hand- 
to-hand fight with nature for a meager subsistence, it is now aided by 
machinery, and the few can supply the many with raw materials and 
leave two-thirds of the population to engage in manufacturing and the 
collection and distribution of goods. The manufacturers, and especially 
the collectors and distributers, of goods dwell in cities. Inasmuch as 
the conquest of nature by the aid of machinery is a progressive enter- 
prise, constantly gaining ground and losing none, it happens that the 
city populations continued to increase in comparison with the rural popu- 
lations, and this relative increase and jiredominance of the urban over 
the rural will go on indefinitely. 

The amelioration of the city progresses apace. The modern city is 
not the ancient. With the modern miracle of rapid transportation the 
effective extent of the city ia indefinitely increased. One-half of the 
business population of Boston goes out' to rural villages at night and 
returns on the numerous railways in the morning. Whatever is salu- 
brious and delightful in the country residence is thus obtained without 
losing the advantages of combined effort of the city. 

The problems of education in our time concern directly this move- 
ment in civilization, which we here have described as urban or city de- 
velopment. The education of the family, the trade, the nation, and the 
church, has to be re-enforced by the education of the entire population 
for a limited period in the school. Other ages and other civilizations 
have been able to dispense with the school to a greater or less degree, 
especially with their proletariat classes. The modern city civilization 
cannot neglect school education with impunity. 

Let us look at the requirements of the new citizen of the world. 

First, it is obvious without tedious consideration and minute investi- 
gation that there is a necessity of general education in schools to such 
an extent as to fit each individual to direct and manage machinery ; not 
a special apprenticeship to some particular machine is required, but a 
general insight into the conditions and laws of mechanism in general. 
Natural philosojihy or physics, therefore, and mathematics, especially 
arithmetic and geometry, are required. Whatever gives n\an a knowl- 
edge of nature is useful as scholastic preparation for urban civilization. 

The art of enumeration — the science of arithmetical calculation — is an 
essential prerequisite to the conquest of nature. A theoretical mastery- 
precedes a practical mastery; a knowledge of how it is to be done 
comes before the application of such knowledge. Hence arithmetic 
holds the place of honor in the primary school curriciilum next to read- 
ing and writing, and with them makes up the famous three "R's." 

IJniversally regarded as the indispensable rudiments of all scholastic 
knowledge, arithmetic and algebra formulate for us the necessary log- 
ical laws of time and succession, while geometry and trigonometry 
formulate in like manner the logical laws of space. 

Space and time are the fundamental forms of material existence. With 
a knowledge of the nature of time and space as formulated in mathe- 

714 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 477 

jiiiiti(%s, i);an goes forth to take possession of tbe world aud to make 
tilings serve liis thoughts. 

Man may work at hand-work to a limited degree without a knowledge 
of number. But the directive intellect must be near by to control the 
hand, and that directive intellect must know arithmetic. All division 
of natural objects, all analysis, presupposes the idea of number in the 
mind of the workman. "Divide and conquer," is the old maxim. All 
combination, too, ]iresupposes such knowledge of number. We may 
therefore say, "Combine and conquer". 

The rational direction of hand-labor demanding a knowledge of arith- 
metic, either in the laborer, or if not in him, then in an overseer ap- 
]>ointed above him, it is clear that the management and direction of a 
macliine require a constant use of arithmetical knowledge on the part 
of the workman. 

The age of productive industry is marked by the ascent of the laborer 
from the position of mere drudge to the position of directing intellect. 
Formerly it was his muscle that furnished the motive power, and he 
was trained to become all hand and no brain. In the urban phase of 
civilization he is required to be primarily a directing brain, and only 
secondarily a laboring har^d. 

Mathematics and natural science are necessary to the laborer in the 
age of machinery. The more knowledge the school has given him, the 
higher his rank as directive power. The laborer who is all hand aud no 
brain has little or no chance in this newest phase of civilization, except 
for a subsistence through the alms of his fellow men; he can be little 
more than a pauper. The weaver who uses the hand loom — and even 
the hand loom is a wonderful human invention — cannot earn a sufficient 
support. The weaver at Lowell earns $287 a year. He produces 28,000 
yards of cloth. The weaver with a hand loom produces' less than (300 
yards of cloth, and earns less than $6 a year! 

Tbe most important characteristic of the age of machinery is its con- 
tinual i^rogress from the simple machine to the complex one. The sim- 
ple machine is invented just at the point where division of labor has 
arrived at the extreme of simplicity in the application of the hand; 
when the hand labor is so simple as to require no si^ecial skill or intel- 
lectual adaptation, then the simple machine may be invented to take 
the place of the hand. After a series of simple machines are invented, 
the next step is the combination of these machines into one. Think of 
the progress from the old-fashioned printing press to the newest style 
of cylinder printing press of Hoe's patent! The old printing press 
enabled one man to make as many books as 400 copying scribes. The 
new ])riiiting press works by steam, and reduces the human labor to 
oiietiftieth of the amount required by the old hand i^ress. 

The machine changes the demand for muscular labor to a demand for 
brain labor. This is progressively developed : at first muscle is jjrimary 
and brain secondary; then brain becomes primary and muscle second- 
ary. The simple machine makes educated brain as important as mus- 
cle ; but the progress of machinery in complexity of structure makes 
greater and greater demands on versatile intelligence and less demands 
on ujuscular strength. 

This being the trend of our civilization, we see that universal educa- 
tion in the school has become very imj)ortant already, and that it will 
soon become utterly indispensable in all civilized countries. 

It does not matter what the form of ijolitical government maj be so 
far as this demand for common schools is concerned. The age of sci- 
ence and the age of labor-saving machinery carries to all countries the 

715 



478 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

same dilemma : Eitlier educate your people in common schools, or your 
labor will not compete witli other nations whose people are educated 
up to the capacity of inventing' and directing machinery. If you can- 
not compete with other peoples in the matter of the use of machinery, 
you must recede from the front rank of nations in every respect. 

Such reflections as these force themselves on our attention when we 
contemplate the exclusively material phase of urban civilization. It is, 
however, only when we turn to look upon the spiritual phases of this 
new order of civilization that we see the full force of this demand for 
school education, and for studies of another sort than mathematics and 
physics. 

The two E's, reading and writing, must open the windows of the soul 
that look out upon the world of literature, the world created by human 
genius for the revelation of man's insight into his own nature. Litera- 
ture reveals to man his ideals of what ought to be ; it elevates the ban- 
ner of his march towards the beautiful Good and the beautiful True. 
It shows the ideal in conflict with the real, and educates man's insight 
into the distinction of good from evil. Through literature the genius of 
the race, appearing in exceptional individuals, instructs the multitude, 
and lifts all up from their lower level of prose reality to the high planes 
of insight into the ideal of the Godlike, the divine human. 

The school teaches how to read, and this is the primary indispensable 
condition for participation in this higher world of ideal humanity. It 
then introduces the pupil to the what to read, and shows him how to 
master these treasures of literature and to take possession of the reve- 
lations made for his use. ' 

In the next place, on this spiritual side of education the school opens 
the windows of the soul that look out upon human history, upon the 
realm of the realized will of mankind. History is the biography, not of 
individuals as individuals, but of institutions, the gigantic combinations 
of men especially as nations. Each man in his isolated peculiarity is 
only a partial and imjierfect realization of the humanitj' that is in him. 
He is mostly a possibility ; he has realized but little of what is in him. 
But when he looks out upon his community, upon his nation, upon the 
entire race through the window of history, he beholds his inner self 
reflected in a gigantic reality. He learns to know his greater selves, 
those selves that are too great in all-sided completeness to be realized in 
a sin<;le individual life, and which therefore take on reality through 
individual combination, thus forming the great institutions of the race. 
These cardinal institutions are the family, civil society, the State, the 
Church. Each of these institutions is beneficent towards the individ- 
ual. Each institution reveals itself in history as an instrumentality by 
which a whole combination lends its aggregate aid to each individual 
member. The family enables the elder to assist the younger ; the mature 
the immature ; the well and strong, the sick and weak. It equalizes age 
and bodily condition. It performs a miracle: each gives only its feeble 
might to the whole, but is blessed in return for its gift by the multiplied 
gilt of the whole. All institutions perform this miracle. In civil so- 
ciety the individual toils to produce a special product, som-ething here 
and now, limited by the climatic conditions and by his own feeble 
strength. But lor this gift of his day's labor the market of the world 
allows him to take a share of all productions of all climes, brought to 
him by the commerce of all nations, a perpetual process of united human 
endeavor. In the State each individual oflers his puny aid to the whole, 
and the whole in return protects and defends him, and re-enforces his 
might by the might of fifty millions. In the Church he gives his sympathy 
716 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 479 

to bis fellow-men, and assists at celebrating the fact of the revelation of 
the Godlike in Divine Human form. He aids the faith and hope of 
his fellow-men by manifesting- his own faith and hope, but he receives 
the aggregate aid of the entire Church. His contribution is finite, but 
he receives in return an infinite gift. The school opens the window of 
the soul that looks out on human history, and lets the pupil contemplate 
in their unity and details these giant forms of human naiAire, — the in- 
stitutions of the world in their genesis, development, a.nd consummation. 

Besides the windows of the soul that behold respectively the revelations 
of human nature in literature and history, the school opens also another 
window, revealing to man immediately his own reason, his logical and 
l)sychological constitution ; for this is what is essential in the study of 
grammar. Each people reveals its experience and its solution of the 
pro'blem of life in its language. The vocabulary of words of any language 
reveals to us the inventory which its people have made of the world, 
and the conceptions they have formed of the jjurpose of the whole. The 
logical framework of language, its grammar, goes beyond this, and brings 
to light and to consciousness the subtlest operations of the soul itself. 

Any training in grammar is a training in the power to see essential 
principles themselves. All grammar teaches the pupil to distinguish 
things from mere relations and from qualities, functions and actions 
from substances and dead results. How else can the pupil classify the 
words in the language under the several " parts of Speech," excei)t by 
thinking of their meaning and use, and discriminating their several val- 
ues as expressions, of substance and attribute and relation, of subject 
and action and function, of independence, dependence, and co-ordina- 
tion 1 And what is such training in discrimination but training in 
l^ure thought 1 What is all thinking in the world but an application of 
such logical discrimination as one gets in the mastery of grammar ? 

Thus the school opens five windows of the soul : two directed to out- 
ward nature in time and sj)ace, one of these looking at the mathemat- 
ical conditions of inorganic nature and another to the processes of 
organic nature. The elementary school teaches these under the names 
of arithmetic and geography. 

There are three windows looking towards human nature, opened, 
respectively, by the study of literature, history, and grammar, looking 
out upon tlie sesthetic ideal, in i3oetry and art, the will realization in 
history, a.nd the theoretic nature of pure essence of Mind manifested in 
the grammatical structure of language. 

It may be evident enough that the school has its important function 
in opening these five windows of the soul, and in training its pupils 
into such habits of self-control and industry as will make them co-oper- 
ative with their fellows for the common good. Such would seem to be 
the general function of the school, and wholesome under any form of 
civilization. 

But our question is, What is the demand of the new civilization, whose 
instrumentality is the labor-saving machine'? 

The answer to this question is to be found partly in the political 
issues of this civilization and partly in its industrial issues. 

Machinery becomes possible through extreme division of labor, and 
consequently through the close commercial relations of — ^iuterdei)end- 
ence. Again, the direct effect of machinery is interdependence and 
close commercial and social relations. To make the increased rates of 
production possible there must be constant supply and constant demand, 
and this can only be secured in the world- market. 

In order to make this wide world-commerce there must be rapid 

717 



480 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

traiisifc) tliat of the railroad and steamsbip. lu order to direct and con- 
trol and adjust the supply and the demand, there must be constant 
aud instant survey of the existing conditions of productiou and con- 
sumption in all parts of the world. Each must see the whole. Heuce 
arise the telegraph and the daily newspaper. 

The urban or city civilization is a newspaper civilization, if we char- 
acterize it by the most important instrument that it has invented. luto 
the daily newspaper as into a magic mirror the modern citizen looks 
and sees the spectacle of the doings of the entire world : the movemouts 
of commerce, the transactions of the various uational goveruments in 
so far as these are outside of routine ; extraordinary crimes and retri- 
butions ; the events of society ; the doings in science, art, literature, 
the drama, and in an indefinite domain of personal gossip — all these 
are presented to the citizen, and he regularly adjusts himself each morn- 
ing to his world-environment. 

Formerly, before the railroad and telegraph had rendered possible 
the daily newspaper, each person adjusted himself to his narrow en- 
vironment through village gossip which he heard at the neighboring 
inn or at the club; now, instead of village gossip, he reads world gos- 
sip without leaving his fireside or breakfast table. 

In the olden times each section grew more sectional, except in times 
of great wars that mingled the soldiery of difterent localities. In the 
modern civilization the daily newspapers of all lands have substantially 
the same presentation of the world, and reflect more and more nearly 
the same views. The newspaper is therefore a sort of world-court in 
which passing events are brought up daily for judgment. 

Under these circumstances there arises into power the majestic 
li)resence of Public Opinion — a might which controls the actions of 
kings, the deliberations of parliaments, and the ballots of electors. 
Public opinion is become the educator of nations. Formerly, through 
ignorance of the effect that overt acts mi^ht have, nations were often 
precipitated into war ; now it is easy for statesmanship to feel the pulse 
of nations in advance, and by prudent diplomacy avoid extreme issues. 

The newspaper is the organ of public opinion, and in this capacity it 
tries and judges criminals, and punishes all manner of sin that escapes 
the whip of the law. It rewards good deeds and sounds the trumpet of 
fame before the favorites of public opinion. The uewsi)aper po|ju] arizes 
science and literature. It has a page for fiction, in which the modern 
literary artist paints the ideals of society with halos of glory or with 
satire and caricature. 

When each human being beholds the same spectacle beheld by all 
others, and assists all in forming the high court of public opinion, there 
is realized at once the most powerful educational means ever invented 
for uniting men in thought and sentiment. Ev^ni the village gossi[) is 
a powerful means in its way to eliminate from the individual his whim- 
sicalities and idiosyncrasies. The modern public opinion is based on 
world-gossip and is far more potent for good. Mrs. Grundy's opinion 
becomes dignified and oracular when it voices the verdict' of nations. 

One consequence of this new realization of the magic mirror in which 
all humanity is reflected, is the rise of the true cosmopolitan spirit, a 
mutual toleration of all i>eoples. A profouuder habit of considering 
one's fellow men sees the same humanity under strange disguises of cos- 
tume, uational customs, and diverse languages. 

These thoughts regarding the newspaper as the characteristic instru- 
mentality of the age of invention leads us back to our central theme: 
What sort of school education does the newspaper imply "? 
718 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 481 

Certainly we may answer it implies a universal reading jmblic and 
universal elementary education in its scbool. 

The newspaper reader, if an intelhgent one, is well versed in geogra- 
phy and knows the technique of the sciences. The newspaper itself 
cannot exist in an illiterate community, nor can its public opinion pen 
etrate such a community. There is demanded a general training in the 
curriculum of the school, and when fitted for the newspaper and the 
library the citizen is in a way to continue his cosmopolitan education 
for life. 

The newspaper civilization is moreover essentially inclined to local 
self-government. It is a government of the people, by the people, and 
for the people. Hence a city civilization demands universal school ed- 
ucation for the highest of all secular reasons : it is necessary that its 
citizens shall be law-reading and law-obeying; still more is it necessary 
that its citizens shall be intelligent electors, and even able to make their 
laws. 

The occasion for educated intelligence in a self-governed community 
is constant and unavoidable. But our industrial age increases the de- 
maud for educated directive power tenfold by its great and small busi- 
ness combinations. Companies for transportation, for insurance, for 
banking, for trading, for exporting and importing, for various forms of 
manufacturing and mining, — all large combinations demand as an es- 
sential ])rerequisite, educated directive power; and the school only can 
furnish the literary qualifications necessary. 

With a scattered rural population it is not absolutely indispensable 
that universal school education exist. A sort of patriarchal rule may 
prevail, and the intelligence of one brain suffice for many hands. 

Urban civilization is radically different in this regard, and no patri- 
archal rule ever sufficed for a city. Demagoguism with its bottomless 
abysses of corruption yawns beneath a city where the schools do not 
provide for all classes of people. 

The city is the greatest instrument of human blessing when its citi- 
zens are enlightened ; but an ignorant populace is sure to be used by 
demagogues or tyrants. In the presence of illiterate masses even the 
educated man becomes corrupted, and resorts to unscrupulous means to 
attain power over the hydra-headed monster of the mob. But though a 
demagogue may be a well-schooled man, he will never find his followers 
among the well-sshooled; for schooling develops individuality and a 
centrifugal tendency that cannot be overcome by mere personal mag- 
netism. Educated people, even if immoral, denjand a cause or some 
general interest to attract their partisanship), and they will refuse to 
yield to the mere gregarious instinct which prevails over the illiterate 
man. 

Participation in the blessings of urban civilization demands school 
education as its prerequisite, and the delicatemachinery of free govern- 
ment finds such education absolutely essential to its successful operation. 

719 



SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS RELATING TO NATIONAL 
AID TO EDUCATION. 

By Thomas W. Bicknklt , LL. D., 

Boston, Mas». 



One of the distiuguisbiug characteristics of our state and general gov- 
ernments, in marked contrast with those of leading European powers, is 
their position with reference to public education. The primary idea of 
the American State is a body of intelligent and self-governing citizens. 
Freedom, secular and religious, implies knowledge, reason, self-control. 
As neither of these qualities is hereditary, it follows that an agency 
must be established to create and perpetuate the conditions of self- 
government. 

To the Fathers it seemed that illiteracy degraded the individual, was 
a foe to social order, a constant menace to good government, and a cor 
rupter of a pure spiritual faith. Within its loins, as they conceived, 
were generated base passions, criminal indulgences, and the agencies 
which destroy hope, happiness, and life. Hence the free school at 
Plymouth, the colleges at Harvard and Yale, the university of Jeiferson 
in Virginia, and the grand conception of a great University at Wash- 
ington, born of the wise fatherhood of Washington. 

Mr. Burke, in his speech on American Conciliation, found the causes 
which made liberty in America "fierce", (1) in descent, (2) in the colonial 
forms of government, (3) in religion in the northern provinces, (4) in 
manners in the southern, (5) in education, and (6) in remoteness of sit- 
uation; and John Adams, in the enumeration of the advantages of New 
England society, says, "The public institutions in New England for the 
education of youth, supporting colleges at the public expense and oblig- 
ing towns to maintain grammar schools, are not equaled, and never 
were, in any part of the world." 

In evidence that faith and works were one in the colonial sentiment, 
before the year 17G5 seven colleges had been founded in the British col- 
onies: William and Mary in Virginia, the University of Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey College, now Princeton, King's, now Columbia, \n New 
York, Yale at New Haven, Rhode Island College, now Brown Univer- 
sity, at Providence, and Harvard University at Cambridge. 

The genius of American institutions may then be seen in the common 
school and the college, which stood for high intelligence and Christian 
nianhood. Toward both, the town and the colony exercised a paternal 
interest and care, and the support of both was the first provision of the 
new society, in order that the public weal might suffer no detriment 
trom the allowance of ignorance in matters secular or religious. From, 
town through colonial history we find the constant recognition of the 
protection of society by the encouragement and aid of the common school. 
As the Old Thirteen were but the union of colonial principles, we find iu 

720 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 483 

the Union the same devotion to the idea of nniversal education. Tlie 
cardinal maxim of the founders was, "The hist duty of a State is to 
educate its people." 

j^ational aid to education is then no novel theory born of idealists of 
the nineteenth century. Ihe founders of our States and the Fathers of 
our Republic saw the need of the common school, appreciated its neces- 
sity for the happiness of the citizen and the welfare of the State, and 
applied the preventive ior illiteracy in early legislation for the common 
fschool. >ote, however, that this legislation threw the responsibility of 
the educational burdens on the local communities. 

Their action was memorable, and the actors distinguished themselves 
as statesmen, among whom were Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, Sher- 
man, Madison, Monroe, Hamilton, Morris, and others of lesser fame. 
The two ordinances of the government of the Korth-west Territory, 
enacted in 1785 and 1787, set apart section sixteen of every township 
tor maintaining public schools, and as a justification for such a generous 
and sovereign gilt, this memorable declaration was instituted for the 
benefit of posterity: "Eeligion, morality, and knowledge being neces- 
sary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and 
the means of education shall be forever encouraged." It has not been 
unusual for kings and conquerors to grant title deeds of vast estates to 
enrich their favorites, but when in history has it been known that leg- 
islators have bestowed such princely fortunes, not on titled gre/.tness, 
but on the handmaids of freedom, — religion, morality, and knowledge? 

i^UPPORT OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

But the Fathers of this great commonwealth of States, only one-third 
of which, as now, being then born, looked beyond the common school 
as one of the essential needs of free States, and with a wisdom which 
puts to shame much of the public discussion of our day relative io 
higher education, provided that two complete townships of lands should 
be given perpetually for the purposes of a university; and in full com- 
pliance with this provision, two townships have been given to every 
State organized since the commencement of the present century. 
Ohio, the first State admitted to the Union from the celebrated NortiLi- 
west Territory, has been fortunate enough to acquire three townslftps, — 
one while a territory, and two on her admission to the Union in 1802, 
while Florida and Wisconsin each have received four. The States 
which have received the sixteenth section only are Louisiana, Indiana, 
Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, JMaine, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, 
Iowa, and Texas, the last of which was admitted to the Union in 1848. 

FURTHER GRANTS FOR EDUCATION. 

In the same year that Wisconsin was admitted as a State, Oregon 
was organized as a Territory, and Congress made further provisions 
tor the maintenance of common schools, setting apart the sixteenth and 
the thirty sixth sections of each township for their support; so that all 
the States admitted since 1848 have received the benefit of the two 
sections donated for common school education. These States are Cali- 
fornia, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, and Colorado. 

Were it a part of our present purpose, we could show the added gen- 
erosity of the Government in its later legislation, by which several 
States, notably those admitted to the Union since 1840, have received 
an aggregate of 75.000,000 acres of land, which have been in the main 



484 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

honestly devoted to the purposes of popular education, and now con- 
stitute an accumulated permanent school fund, in eighteen States, of 
$50,000,000. From the North-west Territory, which so early received 
the notable considerations of such wise legislation and muniticeut ben- 
efactions, have been formed five great States — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, Wisconsin, and a part of a sixth, Minnesota, which was ad- 
mitted to the Union in 1857, the same year that the National Educa- 
tional Association was formed at Philadelphia. 

NEEDS OF NATIONAL AID TO EDUCATION TO-DAY. 

These States of ours are a community with common interests and a 
common destiny. The evils which afflict one touch the life of all. The 
blessing which adds to the common weal in one section of our Innd, 
however remote from the center, blesses all. Illiteracy is a universal 
menace to free institutions. Intelligence is a perpetual safeguard. 

Of the 50,155,783 people of the United States, there are 6,239,958 
over ten years of age (12.44 per cent., or nearly one-eighth of our en- 
tire population) who cannot write. These illiterates are thus dis- 
tributed : 

Illiterate whites in tLe 22 Northern States 1,272,208 

Illiterate whites in the STerritories 69,933 

Illiterate blacks in the 22 Northern States and 8 Territories 156, 644 

Illiterate whites in the 16 Southern States and District of Columbia 1, 67G, 939 

Illiterate blacks in the IG Soulhoru States and District of Columbia 3,064,234 

Total 6,239,95H 

An analysis of these statistics shows that in eighteen States, includ- 
ing two Territories, more than 13 per cent., and in eleven more than 25 
pei cent., cannot write. In fifteen States and Territories mote than 11 
per cent, of the white population over ten years of age cannot write, 
varying in these from 11 to 45 per cent. 

While no portion of the country is free from this scourge of igno- 
rance, the condition of the Southern, or former slave-holding States is 
especially lamentable and full of danger. More than one-fourth of the 
entire population of these States is illiterate. 

Eig^t of these States, — Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mis- 
sissippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia, have over 40 
per cent, of illiterates of all classes, white and black. The whole number 
of persons, white and colored, in the sixteen Southern States was 18,500,- 
000. Of these, the number of illiterates was 4,715,395, or 27. L per cent. 
This illiteracy is largely confined to the colored people, 47.7 per cent, of 
whom (3,220,878) cannot write, while only G.96 per cent, of the whites 
(3,019,080) are in that condition. In the relations of this great body of 
illiteracy to the ballot. President Garfield in his inaugural spoke as 
follows : 

But the danger which arises from ignorance in the voter cannot be denied. It 
covers a field far wider than that of negro suffrage a,nd the present Condition of the 
race. It is a danger that lurks and hides in the sources and fountains of power in 
every State. We have no standard by which to measure the disaster that may be 
brought upon us by ignorance and vice in the citizen when joined to corruption and 
fraud in the suffrage. 

The-voters of the Union, who make and unmake constitutions and upon whose will 
hangs the destinies of our governments, can transmit their supreme authority to no 
successors save the coming generation of voters, who are the sole heirs of sovereign 
power. If that generation comes to its inheritance blinded by ignorance and cor- 
ru]ited by vice, the fall of the Eepublic will be certain and remediless. 

The census has already sounded the alarm in the appalling figureswhich mark bow 
daugerously high the tide of illiteracy has risen among our voters and their children. 
722 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 485 

To the Soutli this question is of supreme importance, but the responsibility for the 
existence of slavery did not rest upon the South alone. The ua'iou itself is responsi- 
ble for the extension of the suffrage, and is under special obligations to aid in re- 
moving the illiteracy which it has added to iho voting population. For the North 
and South alike there is but one remedy. All (he constitutional power of the nation 
and of the States and all the volunteer forces of the people should be summoned to 
meet this danger by the strong influence of universal education. 

The two bills now before Congress relating to Federal aid for educa,- 
tion — tbe Blair Bill, which has passed the Senate, and the Willis Bill 
in the House — do not difter materially in their general provisions, and 
either, if adopted by Congress, will render very essential aid to the 
needier parts of our country, which are so sadly suffering for want of 
the blessing of free schools, and that largely from the poverty, ond not 
from the want of interest, of the people to be educated. Both bills dis- 
tribute the money directly from the United States Treasury to the several 
States and Territories on the basis of illiteracy by the census of 1880, 
school and adult, frnm ten years old and upward. Both bills recognize 
the educational authorities of the States, aided, as the proper officers 
to superintend the disbursement of the funds in the several States, and 
both require annual reports to Congress, through the Commissioner of 
Education, concerning the application of these funds to the jjublic in- 
struction of the children of whites and blacks impartially, for at least 
three months in each year. Of the merits of these bills we do not pro- 
pose to speak, except in comparison v/ith a third bill, the work of the 
Inter-State Commission on Federal Aid, appointed at Louisville in 
September, 1883, which seems to us to embody valuable principles not 
yet recognized in this most important piece of national legislation. We 
will note a few of the leading features of the new bill : 

(1) The amount to be distributed is sixty five millions of dollars — a 
compromise between the amounts of the Blair and Willis Bills. 

(2) The distribution reaches over a period of twelve years instead of 
ten, thus enlarging its capacity for helping the people. 

(3) Its distribution is to be made, not on the basis of the total illiter- 
acy of the country, but on the school illiteracy between ten and twenty 
5'ears of age, inclusive. 

(4) The distribution is made on the following plan : For each illiterate 
person in the States between the ages of ten and twenty, inclusive, and 
for each person in the Territories between and including the same ages, 
as shown by the census of 1880, there shall be apportioned for the first, 
second, and third years, each year four dollars ; for the fourth, fifth, and 
sixth years, each year three dollars; for the seventh, eighth, and ninth 
years, each year two dollars; and for the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
years, each year one dollar; when all appropriations shall cease. 

(5) One-third of the money apportioned to each State may be used 
for the erection of school-houses and the support of normal schools and 
normal institutes, and the other two-thirds to be used for common-school 
studies, including elementary industrial education. 

(G) The common schools are required to be kept four months in each 
year, and the money is to be expended, under State laws, by the ordi- 
nary educational authorities. 

(7) To superintend the carrying into efiect the provisions of the bill, 
a Board of Trustees is created, consisting of the Secretary of the Inte- 
rior ex officio^ two Senators and two Eepresentatives, not belonging to 
the same political party, the Commissioner of Education, and the Fourth 
Auditor of the Treasury. This board is to attend to the distribution of 
the funds, to secure reports, to look after the administration of the funds 

723 



486 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

of the several States, and to stand as a guardian for the Nation of the 
trust until its full disbursement has been made. 

In the great debate in the United States Senate last winter on the 
Blair Bill, the main battle was fought about the question of the right 
of the general Government to contribute directly to the aid of the 
schools of the several States; but with our best constitutional lawyers 
and legislators to oppose and defend, the bill was pa.^sed by so large a 
majority in the Senate as to set at rest for the future all discussion on 
this point, and all that remains to be done to secure the passage of this 
most important measure is tbe enlightenment of the members of the 
lower House of Congress as to the needs of such an appropriation and 
the demands of the people for the same. 

Adopting, then, the correc':ness of tbe principle involved in a direct 
appropriation from the national treasury to the aid of our common 
schools, we may assume that such aid should be sought only to meet a great 
national exigency, should be administered in such a way as to encourage 
the increase and permanency of local self-support, and should be con- 
tinued only as long as the necessity lasts. It should act as a stimulant, 
not as an intoxicant. An appropriation which should lead to a reliance 
on the general Government for long- continued aid might become a curse 
rather than a blessing to the cause of common schools, and subsidize 
and pauperize the communities receiving it. 

SOME SUGGESTIONS AS TO ITS PRACTICAL APPLICATION. 

I. The executive educational officer of each State should administer the 
funds to he devoted to the aid of the common schools of that State. Each 
State has its regularly established channels through which its school 
funds pass on their way from the general reservoir of the State .treas- 
ury to the county, town, and local treasurers and disbursers. 

The funds which come from the general Government should be poured 
directly into the same channel and be directed by the same educational 
machinery that controls the State appropriatious. There should be no 
possible opportunity for political or other interference with the school 
funds of the State, and no temptation should be offered for a corrupt 
use of a government grant. At the same time, the State officer should 
be recognized as the administrator of the public gifts, and, with tbe 
responsibility, would come a care in supervision which, though it would 
add to the duties of his office, would increase its dignity and impor- 
tance; and if there is any one department in our State governments 
weakened and narrowed by legislative enactments, it is tbe office of 
State superintendent. All that can be done to increase the signifi- 
cance of the office is essential and imperative. 

II. Proper guarantee should he made that no State should relax its efforts 
to tax the people for the support of common schools, on the receipt of na- 
tional aid. By the provisions of each of the bills now before Congress, 
each State is required to raise as much by general and local taxation 
for common schools as it is entitled to receive from the general Gov- 
ernment, in order that it may receive its quota. A State now raising 
half a million dollars for education and entitled to $350,000 by a na- 
tional aid bill, might reduce its state or local taxation $150,000 and 
still receive government aid. With the rapidly increasing prosperity of 
all of our States we may naturally expect the school tax to be increased 
in a corresponding ratio, and such safeguards as legislation may throw 
about these grants sbould guard against any retrogressive steps on 
the part of any State or committee. 

724 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 487 

III. Not only should the States make all necessary jyvovision to prevent a 
decrease of the State /unci s for schools, hut there should he an education of 
the people toicord a constant increase of appropriations, in order that the 
schools may suffer no detriment in the acceptance of a government grant. 

IV. In the distribution of the school funds, Stale or national, no du'i- 
tinction should he made as to race, sex, or color, nationality, or precious 
condition. I am well aware that difficulties will arise in the practical 
working of this principle, however wise, })atriotic, and philanthropic the 
State and local authorities may be; and here let me say that I have 
visited ail of the Southern States, have se<'n many of their schools, 
and have become acquainted with many of their officers and teachers, 
and have found the great majority of them profoundly interested in 
the education of the colored population as well as the white. Bat there 
are grave difficulties growing out of (a) two races so widely separated, 
socially and intellectually, living on the same soil, whose relations so 
recently were that of master and slave; (&) the sparsely populated 
country districts; (c) the present necessity of separate schools for the 
two races ; [d] the want of fit school a,ccommodations for either race in 
numberless communities, and more especially for the colored race; and 
(e) the greater interest of the black population over the poor white for 
the advantages of education. Th^ following colloquy, which took j^lace 
in tbe educational hearing at Washington, is of interest on this point: 

Eepresentative Willis: I should like to ask a question which has been raised in 
our committee, and that is whether the colored population show a willingness to avail 
themselves of the benefits of education. What is your experience in your State, as 
compared with the whites; do they, or do they not? 

Mr. SCAEBOKOUGH: J wish to be understood as not striving to misrepresent the 
whites, but to state a simple fact as it has come under my observation in over seven 
years' service as State Superintendent. Take the negro and put him along with that 
class of whites who are on a level with him in intelligence and in opportunities, and 
he is a great deal more interested in the question of the education of bis children than 
the whites have been. I account for that in this way : It is fo? the negro a new 
thing. In slavery times, as you are aware, the negroes were prohibited from learning 
to read, although many white men taught their slaves to read. The height of their 
ambition was to learn to read " like young master and old master did"; and since 
they were freed they have remembered the desire that they had, and they are anxious 
to give their children the opportunities of education. I have seen negro children all 
over the State, here and there, going to school in such garbs as white children would 
not appear in, and it was not because the parents did not want to put them in a better 
condition, but because they were absolutely unable to do it. They would have a 
long shirt on, reaching, y)erhaps, half way down the legs, and nothing else, with a 
piece of ash-cake and broiled bacon — not bacon, but pickled iiork — i'or tbeij- dinner. 
I account for it on this ground: The white people who are Avithout the iirivileges of 
education and whose children are not educated, and who are keeping their children 
at home without education, have been so long without the bcnelits and privileges of 
education that they have reached a state of stu^jor which it is hard to get them out 
of. If the negro is allowed to remain in the condition in which he is much longer, ho 
will be brought to the same condition. If, before this interest in the education of his 
children can die out, his efl'orls are stimulated, he will keep on; but if ho is allowed 
to remain too long, he, too, will grow slack on the subject and forget his interest in 
it, and make of his child a slave instead of making him, as best, he can, a good citizen 
of a government that he loves above all things in this world. The United States 
Government is that which is loved by the negro above all earthlj' considerations and 
all things. 

The Chairman: I should like to ask if you do not find a rapidly increasing interest 
among the masses of the white population in the common schools? 

Mr. ScAKBOROUGH : I do, sir. 

The Chairman : I have been very much struck with that. To my mind, the great 
danger is not lack of education to the negro, but to the white man. I think myself 
of the white people somewhat in t!«s country. 

Mr. Scarboroi:gh: I represent the whites, too. I prefer the white man to the col- 
ored man, and I am here representing the whites of North Carolina, who are in a bad 
condition,- and I am here to make a plea for them. The truth is, I do not believe the 
United States Govejnment will ever discharge its duty to the negroes or to the whites 

725 



488 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

of the South until it comes to the rescue, and helps us in this critical moment of out- 
existence to lift up and elevate the citizenship of this country so as to make the Staif 
governments safe and the National government safe with intelligent voters. Then- 
are 145,000 illiterate voters in North Carolina, who do not know the letters of the 
alphabet and cannot read or write. That is more votes than Mr. Tilden received iu 
1876. 

By an equality of school rights we would be understood to mean 
equal school privileges lor whites or blacks uii<ler corresponding cir- 
cumstances, equally well qualified teachers, equally paid whether white 
or black, equally ^ood school accommodations, equal and careful school 
supervision, with a judicial blindness on the part of all school officers 
to color, caste, or other condition, in the distribution of school support. 
Should blinded justice chance to open her eyes to the light, the heart of 
love might be moved, and forgivingly so, to help the weaker in prefer- 
ence to the stronger, and to lift the helpless where the strong could 
stand on his own strength. 

V. The distribution should he made to the States, not on the basis of 
their total illiteracy, but on the school illiteracy between ten and twenty years 
of age, inclusive, and to the Territories and the District of Columbia on 
the basis of population. Hence the money is directed to the removal of 
illiteracy within the school age. 

The distribution is made by the Inter-State Commission Bill ort the 
following plan : For each illiterate person m the States, between the ages 
of ten and twenty inclusive, and for each person in the Territories, be- 
tween and including the same ages, as shown by the census of 1880, 
there shall be apportioned for the first, second, and third years, each 
year four dollars ; for the fourth, fifth, and sixth j ears, each year three 
dollars; for the seventh, eighth, and ninth years, each year two dol- 
lars; and for the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, each year one dol- 
lai', when all appropriations cease. 

It seems to us a wrong basis for distribution, that of illiteracy of 
ten years of age and over, embracing all of the illiterates over twenty- 
one years of age, while the substitute, in view of the fact that no State 
by law admits to its public schools men or women over twenty-one 
years of age, distributes the fund on the basis of the illiterates between 
and including the ages of ten and twenty, in the States and in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia ; and in the Territories, where they have no fund from 
pukilic lands, where the country is sparsely settled, and where the 
people are mainly poor, the fund is distributed to all children between 
aud inchiding six and twenty. 

VI. The extension of the apportionment to county distribution is recom- 
mended for two reasons, both believed to be worthy of recognition: (1) 
As a guarantee that it will be equally and fairly distributed ; it will re- 
move a serious objection to such aid in the minds of those who fear that 
the funds apportioned, for any reason, may be used for the special ben- 
efit of favored localities. (2) It will be a welcome assurance to the 
people of the several counties that in the distribution they will receive 
their just allotmwnt of aid, the exact amount of which will be known, 
thus affording a stable guide for local action from year to year. The 
States will have it iu their power to prevent local abuses in the use of 
Federal funds. 

YII. The funds coming to any State or district from the general Gov- 
ernment should be permitted to be devoted to the three purposes named: 
(1) The payment of teachers^ salaries ; (2) the support of normal schools ; 
(3) the erection of school-houses in destitute districts. 
726 



INTEENATIOXAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 489 

VIII. In case there is no public school organized under the State system 
in operation wUhin any district, or the authorities of the State refuse to 
establish one, the people thereof, under such regulations as the Commissioner 
shall prescribe, sliovld be alloiced to organize a private school free to all 
tcithin school age resident in the district (except in case of separate schools 
for different races), and by keeping the same in operation the required 
time, and i)aying at least two thirds of the expenses thereof, should be 
entitled to the benefit of the sum thus appropriated. 

IX. Evening sfhools should be established for the illiterate adult popu- 
lation. This department of school work, though of vital importance as 
a means of reaching the masses, is without doubt neither fully appre- 
ciated by school authorities nor fairly understood by the general public. 
Hundreds of cities and towns in the country, burdened with an appall- 
ing and increasing illiteracy, provide no means whatever for evening 
classes, while a great proportion of the schools maintained are either 
indifferently managed by committees or miserably mastered. That this 
is a grave error, and demands our serious attention, none conversant 
with the subje<it can doubt. By the Eeport of the Commissioner of 
Education for 1881, it is seen that but thirty-two cities of the United 
States provided evening instruction, though I am happy to note that 
since the writing of that report this number has materially increased, 
as also have the means for their suitable and successful maintenance. 

In Massachusetts alone, during the past year, thirty-seven cities and 
towns at an expense of $56,744.54 maintained 110 evening schools, the 
average attendance thereat being 3,613, being some 60 per cent, of the 
total enrollment. Eeports from other States show a growing (yet by 
far too slow) tendency to encourage this class of work. That there are 
many causes which have materially contributed to the discouragement 
of committees and teachers in the management of these schools is not 
doubted, yet I am confident that they are not without remedy. 

Experiments in li^ew York, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Boston, Worcester, 
Lowell, and other cities, have demonstrated beyond all doubt that the 
crowding, confusion, and chaos common at the opening of elementary 
evening schools, as well as their great irregularity of attendance, can, 
under a healthy regime, be succeeded by the same order, interest, and 
regularity which characterize the opening and conduct of our well regu- 
lated day schools. It must not be forgotten that evening schools, as a 
whole, exist under permissive authority, while day schools are main- 
tained by the rigid construction of mandatory statutes. But two States, 
Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, have to any degree advanced this 
department to a like standard with the public schools. To contrast the 
couditiou of this branch of the service, even under the most favorable 
auspices, with that of the day school, is both unfair to the school and 
an unpardonable demajid upon those who have been zealously battling 
with difficulties and discouragements in the securing of more permanent 
provisions and a perfect system for their ])roper maintenance. What, 
then, may be avSked, must be done? There is but one answer: Remedial 
legislation to meet the demands of the time is imi)erative. 

The enactments of Massachusetts or Pennsylvania, in the absence of 
any better legislation, should be stereotyped by every State in the 
Union. To these should be added laws compelling the attendance of 
all illiterate minors, with proper exemption in special cases of hardship. 
Truant laws should be made applicable, which, supplemented by a 
hearty public support, would insure success. The Massachusetts State 
Board of Education, in their last report, commenting oa the imi)roved 

727 



490 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

condition of tlie evening schools of the State since the enactment of the 
compulsory law, say: 

The classes have been reajoved fioni Avard-rooms aud cellars to the deslvs occupied 
by day pupils. Better tes*'-books and more liberal supplies, with teachers of recog- 
uized ability, have been added to the service. Organization, classification, and sys- 
tem, have been substituted for the chaos, which, under the old regime, characterized 
many of the elementary schools, especially of Boston. In several localities, however, 
these schools have been reported us failures. Careful intpiiry and examination dis- 
close the fact that in every case the management, and not the members of the school, 
is at fault. There lias been no marked success where there have been incompetent 
teachers, condemned supplies, torn aud defaced text-books. With proper provisions 
for accommodations aud supplies, competent teachers, aud good management, there 
is no doubt that, evening schools will take rank with day schools, and can be made a 
credit to every community. In the face of the annual influx by immigration, further 
aud more pertinent provisions by law are necessary to convert the great body of for- 
eign-born illiterate persons into intelligent, industrious citizens. 

Such sentiments cannot fail of approval by all who have worked in 
this most fruitful field. The eleemosynary support of the system should 
at once be succeeded by the most liberal appropriation of public money. 
There is no wiser, better, safer depository tor Federal aid than in the 
maintenance of a well-regulated system of elementary evening schools. 
The Government would do well to imitate the great example at Creuzot, 
France, or the more recent action of the Willimantic Linen Company 
in Connecticut, which cori)oration, in the following order, issued August 
1, 1882, has made a precedent meriting the highest commendation : 

No persou now in the employ of the Willimantic Linen Company will be continued 
in their service after July 4, 188:^>, uuless such i^erson can read and write; and on and 
after this date no person will be employed by the company who is unable to read and 
write. 

The agent of the company, replying to a letter of inquiry as to the 
elfect of this measure on their work-people, said : 

In order to give the work-people of the company who were included in the above 
notice an opportunity to protect themselves, evening schools were established during 
the following winter and spring. About one hundred and fifty availed themselves of 
the privilege, and the schools were very successful, so that at the expiration of the 
notice less than thirty were discharged. Exceptions were made in some cases, espe- 
cially of those above 4.") years of age. A large proportion of those attending these 
schools were of foreign birlh, principally French Canadians. I consider that the 
schools were a perfect success, and Avas very much surprised at the rapid advance- 
ment most of them made in their studies, and the interest they took in the school. 

Of evening high schools there appears but one sentiment : wherever 
properly maintained, they have fully justified the most liberal expend- 
iture. In jSTew York, Boston, Cincinnati, Brooklyn, and other cities, 
the rei^orts show an increased public interest, which, to a great degree, 
is the trne criterion of the good or ill management of this class of work. 
The curriculum of the New York Evening High School, while co-ext-en- 
si\ e with that of the high schools of the State, has successfully main- 
tained advanced courses of collegiate work. 

X. JEach State or county should not be entitled to receive from the gov- 
ernment grant each year a sum exceeding one-half that expended for school 
purposes the previous year, provided satisfacfory returns should have been 
made to the trustees of the grant setting forth the condition and work of the 
schools of the county or State. 

The State Superintendent should report to the trustees the attend- 
ance, the studies pursued, and text-books used in every public school 
in his State making application i'or a share of such fund, and the Com- 
missioner of p]<lucation should be entitled of right to visit and inspect 
such school at any time in person, or by any agent whom he may author- 
ize to act for him. Provided, That neither the said Commissioner nor 

728 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 491 

his agent, nor any one acting in the interest of the United States, should 
have any power or authority to interfere in any way with the manage- 
ment of said school, the employment or discharge of teachers, the course 
of study, or text books employed. 

XI. The school year should he fixed at a minimum of six months, as one 
of the conditions of receiving the benefits of national aid. It would seem 
unjust to grant equal aid to States of like resources, where schools are 
taught on the one hand for seven or eight months, and on the other for 
two or three. It would be, at the same time, impolitic, if not offensive, 
to insist upon any school term to provide for w-hich would seriously 
embarrass the State. A period has therefore been named w^hich can be 
easily reached in any State, and which is already far exceeded in the 
great majority of those most in need of assistance, and which, it is be- 
lieved, will be acceptable in every State. 

XII. Industrial or manual education should he provided for as far as 
possible, especially in those branches of manual training ivhich ivould be best 
suited to the employments of the neighborhood in lohich the school teas located. 
The wisdom of including, to a proper extent, the useful arts and indus- 
tries among subjects of instruction in the common schools, in view of 
the growth of industries and manufactures in most parts of tbe Union, 
and the desirability of drawing the attention of a large number of our 
youth to the fields thus open to them, is obvious. 

XIII. In case the State within which any district is located prescribes 
separate schools for ivhite and colored pupils, then the sum ichich the number 
of white illiterates in said district would entitle it to receive should he de- 
voted to the aid of a school for white children therein, aiid the sum ichich 
its number of colored illiterates would entitle it to receive in lil:e manner to 
the support of a school for colored children, and neither of these sums should, 
under any circumstances, be used to aid a school for the benefit of the other 
race. 

XIV. The trustees of the fund should be empoicered to appoint, in any 
county or district in which they see fit, competent and reputable men or 
women to act as inspectors, and make such report as they may desire icithout 
compensation. 

Persons such as are described in the last article can easily be found 
in every community, who will gladly devote one or more days to report- 
ing the necessary facts in order to promote the cause of education in 
their communities. This would be even more easily done at the South 
than at the North. There is hardly a town in that section where an 
educated lady might not be found who would be willing to inspect aud 
report, even upon a colored school located therein, and do it fairly and 
honestly, too. 

The great value of properly collected educational statistics for the 
information of the whole people, as well as the obvious propriety of 
gathering information as to the results of such aid as may be bestowed 
by the national Grovernment, makes the collection of useful statistics 
relating to public schools, herein provided for, most desirable, if not 
essential. The value of such statistics depends, however, upon proper 
uniformity in the character and meaning of questions and answers. 
The adoption of the i)rovisions here recommended will put it in the 
power of the Commissioner of Education, with the co-ojieration which 
the State school authorities will gladly render on the terms proposed, 
to collect a body of statistics which shall include information required 
by the Board of Trustees, and in such form as to adapt it to the uses of 
his office and the needs of the general public, without necessary inter- 
ference with the varying statistical methods of the States — a variance 

729 



492 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

which now largjely detracts from the value of statistics when arranged 
in comparative tables. Statistical reports of the common schools in tlie 
United States wouhl thus be secured, whose accuracy would m;ike them 
of in(\stimabk^. worth in the light which they would give as to the value 
of (iducalional methods and the progress ot popular education. 

XV. To Huperintend the carrtfiuff into effect the provisions of a 7iatio7uU 
appropriation hill, a Hoard of Trustees should he created, consisting of the 
Secretary of the Interior, ex officio, two Senators and two Jiepresentafives 
not l)clon(/in(f to the same political party, the Commissioner of Education, 
and the Fourth Auditor of the Treasurij. This hoard should, attend to the 
distrihution of the funds, secure reports, look after the honest administra- 
tion of the J unds in the several States, and stand as a guardian of the trust 
for the Nation until its full disbursement has been made. 

Now all must admit that the whole plan of Federal aid to education 
is in ()|)position to the doctrines of Calhoun and Stephens. There is no 
l)Ossible justiiication ot Federal interference with State administration 
of schools except on the ultra ground of a great national exigency, 
which knows no ])rimal law but that of self preservation. The Govern- 
ment i)rop<)ses to meet local needs in the hour of peril, and asks that 
the baud which administers may connect with its aid the eye that 
wat(;lu\s over its wise and careful distribution. In no case does it pro- 
pose to interfere with the distribution, but, as in the case of the Pea- 
body Fund, to place wise and trusty men over the great gift to see that 
it reaches and accomplishes its desired work. At the same time that 
the trusteeship is a ])rotectorate over the fund going out of the national 
treasury, it is an equal i)rote(;tion to (hose who are to receive it; and 
both, as has been seen in the history of congressional giants hitherto 
for all purposes, need. just such watchful guardianship. 

While we do not doubt the integrity and good faith of the men at 
the head of educational alfairs, North, South, East, or West, we do 
insist that the general Cxoveriunent should demand some sort of super- 
vision of a fund going out of its treasury for a period of years, lest 
congressional investigation should by and by come in to bring our 
schools and school systems into disgrace. For the reason that our State 
school officers are good and honest men, they should be willing that the 
light of an eternal day should shine through their actions and their ad- 
ministration of a Just gift from a paternal hand, which seeks only the 
best good of all of its children, and especially of the weak and the un- 
fortunate. Unless some such guarantee as the one proposed is adopted, 
we are <pute well founded in our opinion that no bill can pass the pres- 
ent Congress. But if a bill should pass for Federal aid to education 
without snfticient safeguards for its thorough and carefid administra- 
tion throughout the coinitry, wo are i)repared to predict as unfortunate 
results as have attended any congressional aid of the century, where 
<the old llag and an appropriation" was the watchword. 

730 . 



THE EAILROAD AS AN ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. 
By Prof. Alexander Hogq, 

Fort Worth, Texas. 



Steam is well born ; is a lineal descendant of the four elements of tlie 
ancients — eartb, air, fire, and water; lias survived, lived flirongli more 
than two thousand years, gaining- strength from its own usefulness and 
age; is to-day in the full vigor of manhood. As a motive power steam 
was known 130 years B. C. Hero of Egyi)t. exhibited his eolipile, an 
apparatus with a metallic boiler, i)rovided at the top with two hoiizon- 
tal jet-pipes l)entinto the form of an S.^ The steam, esca))iiig from 
these jets and reacting upon the air, gave a rotary motion to the ])ii)('s. 
Barker's centrifugal mill is an exam[)le of this kind of action. 

Blasco de Garay, of Barcelona, as far back as 1543, i)ropoll('d with 
steam a vessel of two hundred tons. 

But passing over historical details, leaving out the controversies of 
aspiring inventors and discoverers, I come to a year in our civilization 
memorable for rich results. 

In 1776 the "transmutations" of alchemy, the ideal of Paracelsus, 
gave birth to the real of Priestly and Lavoisier, and chemistry as a 
practical science is announced to the world. This same year Adam 
Smith published his Wealth of Nations. This same year tlie Declara- 
tion of Indepen/leuce was proclaimed by the Continental Congress. 
This same year Watt produced — perfected his " improved," his " suc- 
cessful" steam engine. 

The man of science can, with pardonable pride, exclaim, "Arithmetic 
fails to enumerate the 'agents' and 'reagents' of chemistry 1" The 
political philosopher can point to the real wealth of the nations as the 
best result of his science ; the statesman can, with true patriotism, refer 
to our peaceful, our happy republic, as the legitimate result of the dec- 
laration. 

Individuals may boast of the triumphs of these, but the millions 
whose burdens have been lightened and lifted, who are fed and clothed 
by the <liversified labors of steam, may be excused too — will be par- 
doned — for their appreciation of the result which gave to the world the 
steam-engine of James Watt. 

Patriotic as I am, and claiming as I do for our Fulton the first suc- 
cessful a[)plication of steam to navigation, in the Clermont (1807), I as 
cheerfully accord to the mother country the honor due George Stei)hen- 
son (1829) for his successful " run" in the Kocket, over theltainhill trial 
course. 

It is a remarkable fact that within the last one hundred years science 
has made its most rapid strides. Steam and electricity, motor and mes- 
senger, have vied with, not rivaled, each other in transjporting and trana- 

' Spiritalia ecu Pneumatica. 

731 



494 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

mittinQ% until " there is no speech nor language ichere their voice is not 
heard. Their li'^te is gone out through all the earth, and their words to 
the end of the icorld.''^ 

Classical scholars bave insisted that our word "educate" is from 
educere — to draw outj and hence tliey have taught that education is 
"a pumping" process, that it is all in and within the mind of the child, 
the learner, and must be drawn out; and thus to their theory is due 
largely the one-sided instruction, or the total disregard of every other 
method. The truth is, our word "educate " is from a difi'erent word ; it 
is from educare, which means to "bring up," " to train," "to develop," 
" to increase and give power to." There can be no mistake from this 
view, that there is a pouring-intoas well as a pumping-out in the process 
of education. 

I have no war against the classics. So far from it, I assert to-day 
that there can be no "liberal education" without the classics. Among 
these, however, I claim the first place in order and importance shall be 
assigned to our mother tongue. The Greek knew no other than his 
own language, nor did the Eoman go abroad to si udy until he had mas- 
tered the Latin. Why then should we ignore, why should we be so 
slow to acknowledge, the claims of modern science"? 

In the demands made by the progressive development of railroad 
construction, and the improvement in that vast field alone, every science 
and every department of science is laid under contribution, until wo 
have here the fullest and happiest illustration of the great law of "sup- 
ply and demand." 

A motive jjower greater than that of man or horse, an improved 
steam-engine, is called for, and James Watt presents his. And now a 
locomotive is needed that shall transfer this mighty energy, adapt it 
to the road, and George Stephenson controls with his own hand the 
throttle of his own engine. And now a trestle, and now a bridge, and 
now a suspension-bridge, and that, too, across i!^iagara, and the oc- 
casion — science, conscious of this new requisition — gives to the world 
George A. Eoebling, 




Harmonizing circumstances — Time, the great arbiter, comes in, and 
so orders it that Eobert, the son of George Stephenson, should pass 
over Niagara Eiver in a railway train, and on the suspension bridge 
which he had but lately declared to be an impracticable undertaking. 

The purpose of this great engineer's visit to this country was to 
make an inspection of the location for the celebrated tubular bridge 
at Montreal. Stephenson had criticised and condemned the suspension 
principle, and had approved the tubular girder for railway trafiQc. 

At that time doctors of science — engineers — differed as to their 
theories, but, as now, they also agreed upon the facts as exhibited in 
the results. 

In 1874 I visited Niagara Falls, spent two days, was delighted, 
amazed, and awed in turn, at this wonderful manifestation, this re- 
markable phenomenon of nature. 
732 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 495 

From the falls I went to the suspension bridge. Upon this structure 
stood two through express trains awaiting the signals to move on theii* 
ways, east and west. At the appointed moment they did move. With- 
out tremor or oscillation that bridge sustained its accustomed load, per- 
formed its duty, as it had done thousands of times before, as it had 
done titty times that very day. 

When I saw this bridge spanning this angry river, supporting these 
heavily laden trains, I felt this inspiration ; 1 said, "This bridge for 
the creature is equal to yon Cataract for the Creator." 

But again, another demand — a higher principle still — a fiat had gone 
forth, that not only shall '■'-Every valley be exalted, but every mountain 
and Mil shall be made loicj and the crooJied shall be made straight, and the 
rough places plain J^ 

Streams, rivulets, rivers, had been bridged, the valley had been ex- 
alted ; the crooked route must now be made straight, the mountain 
mush be made low. No longer can time be consumed in searching out 
the passable passes, in following the tortuous gorge. The yawning 
chasm, the deep caQon, the treacherous glacier, the awful avalanche, 
snow and ice, mountain pass and mountain peak — all, all must be 
shunned, must be left to enjoy undisturbed their lofty abode amid its 
chilly, frozen environments. 

Whether Pyrenees or Alps, Alleghany or Hoosac, all ranges stand- 
ing in the way of the locomotive must be made low, must be tuiinele<l. 
Science, quietly observing what is going on, anticipating these new 
and still greater demands, accordingly prepares for yet greater results, 
and at this juncture and lor this stupendous work furnishes both the 
engineering skill to conduct- and the new motors, Burleigh drills and 
air compressors, to perform the boring, and dynamite to do the blast- 
ing, and we have Mont Cenis Tunnel, a trifle less than eight miles in 
length, thirteen and a half years building, at a cost of $15,000,000; 
St. Gothard, nine and a quarter miles, seven and a half years building, 
at a cost of $9,700,000, consuming half the time, at two-thirds the cost 
of the Cenis Tunnel ; the Hoosac Tunnel, some five miles in length, 
eleven years in building, costing $18,000,000. 

One among the first railroad tunnels in the United States was tlie 
Alleghany Portage, double track, 900 feet long, costing some $21,840. 

I must be pardoned for mentioning, in this connection, that here par- 
ticularly the skill of the engineer is tested in the use of the most accu- 
rate instruments, and of the most celebrated makers. In boring the 
Mosconetcon Tunnel on the Lehigh Valley Eailroad — a work less in ex- 
tent than some, but said to be of as great magnitude, on account of the 
presence of water and other ditficnlties, as any of the American tun- 
nels — the east and west headings met in December, 1874; whereupon it 
was found that the error in level and alignment was less than half an 
inch. 

To be an engineer in the full and complete sense of the term embraces 
all sciences, pure and applied. Nor are the languages to be left out. 
Through the Latin we learn of Csesar's bridge, through the Greek of 
Xerxes' bridge of boats {pontoons). That is not a complete curriculum 
that would leave French and German out of the engineer's course. Our 
Latin teachers are very proud when their brightest scholars can trans- 
late the description of Caesar's bridge. It is considered hard Latin ; it 
is given as a task — not for the information about the bridge, but because 
of the difficulty of the translation. 

Now, Mr. President, turn your countenance upward; exercise the 

733 



496 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

prerogative you eujoy above tbe rest of the animals ( * * * qm^ 
natura prona); bebold the arches that support this Grand Structure! 
Tell me if there is not more study, more beauty in one of these than in a 
whole book of Osesar ? 

In 1883, and In tbis country, there has been completed and opened 
the greatest structure, the grandest monument to skill and science — to 
father and son, to George A. and Washington lloebling, to the former 
for the conception, to the latter for the construction of the Brooklyn 
Bridge — the longest span in the world. In the building of this high- 
way, virtually making ifew York and Brooklyn one city, the entire do- 
n)ain of science has been laid under contribution. Every formula of 
mathematics, every discovery of chemistry, every law of physics, — all 
have furnished their quota. Every department of human industry, 
every tool invented by the ingenuity of man has borne its part in the 
tinal result. Without the most recent discoveries of science, the con- 
verting of iron into steel by the pneumatic process, the bridge in its 
present form could not have been built. 

I cannot describe, in detail, all the creative and constructive efforts 
of the human mind in this great work. It is not necessary; it is fin- 
ished — '■'■Finis coronat opus.^' All this, however, is upon but one side, 
the department of construction, the building of railroads. 

There is still another side, the operating department, in which to 
accuracy of calculation must be added discretion, sound judgment, and 
all the higher qualities of head, and heart too. Here we learn — we take 
an account of exceedingly small things; here we hear the name of the 
nonentity, the imaginary mill, and use it in actual daily transactions: 

"So many tons a mile at so many mills per ton." 

"It will cost so many mills to move such freight; therefore, in order 
to pay dividends and cover operating expenses, we must charge so much 
per hundred." 

The Tables of "operating expenses" have these items: the amount of 

coal used this year on division , was 1.8 pounds more, or this year 

2.3 ijounds less thaii last, on same division, per mile. 

What school would have in it a pupil that would distribute the tax 
assessment for eleven hundred miles of railway passing through twenty- 
nine counties, and the miles and hundredths of a mile in each county to 
be taken into account, each county assessing a different valuation, and 
balance up the whole to within Jive mills, one half of one cent*? 

These are some of the problems, and these are some of the questions, 
that are solved by the railroad accountants. 

The curse of our schools, and colleges, and universities too, is the 
want of accuracy. And I am not sure but the careless use of slates and 
blackboards has much to do with it. It is so easy to say, "Oh! that is 
Avrong— rub it out."^ 

In railroading you cannot "rub it out." The dispatcher who sits at 
his table with fifty to a hundred and fifty trains on the rail, has more 
responsibility every way than the general who directs an army. 

At Balaklava, it was said : 

" Some one had blnnder'd. 

* * « 

Then they rode back, but not — 

Not the six hundred. 

* # * 

All that waa left of them, 
Left of six hundred ! " 

1 You do not find slates and blackboards in the rooms of accountants. 
734 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 497 

Some one has "'blundered " in Egypt. Had Palinerstoii built a rail- 
road from Cairo to Khartoum, there would uot be a rebel in the Soudan 
to annoy Gladstone. 

Your World's Exposition (the greatest practical school of instruction 
l)ossible) reminds me of the Centennial (1876) at Philadelphia. The 
fatter was full of examples which were fruitful illustrations of what 
accuracy and precision in railroad management accomplish in safety to 
property and person. 

The Penusyivania road alone gave receipts for 16,039 cars of building 
material and for 4,116 cars of exhibits placed within the Centennial 
grounds without a single claim being made for damages. The total 
number of pieces of baggage received and delivered at the several 
stations amounted to 730,486 pieces ; of these, twenty-six pieces were 
lost, the claims for which amounted to $1,900.99. 

Total number of passengers from May 10 to November 10, 4,955,712, 
carried without injury to a single one. 

Add to this that during the year 1876 this road moved 17,064,953 
tons of freight and 18,363,366 passengers without loss of life or harm 
to any one. 

With these facts before me I am ready to believe the following : ''A 
French statistician observes that if a person were to live continually 
in a railway carriage and spend all his time in railway traveling, the 
chances of his dying from a railway accident would not occur till he 
was nine hundred years old." 

But the railroad is solving other problems — social problems, com- 
mercial problems, farming problems. 

The poet has said, 

" Seas shall join the regions they divide." 

The railroad answers, And continents shall unite the oceans they 
separate. The rich valleys of the interior, the fertile plains of the 
•' Far West," are made neighbors, to find markets npon the very shores 
of the Atlantic, all by and through the agency of the railroad. We 
hear a great deal about the Great West ! Pray, what has made the 
West so great ? 

Not greatness of territory solely, not great distances, but the poten- 
tiality, the living, working capacity of the locomotive, the greatest 
pioneer, the greatest missionary ever sent out by Church or State. 

What makes Chicago the successful rival of New York ? The latter 
is the senior of the former, not only by scores, but by two hundred years. 

The ten thousand miles of railway tributary to Chicago, the seven 
hundred trains (three hundred and fifty arriving and three hundred 
and fifty departing daily) with their heavily-laden cars, of both pas- 
sengers and freight — have something to do with the prosperity, the 
metropolitan pretensions of the " Lake City." 

What will make your city the rival of both New York and Chicago? 
Not because she is the outlet of the Mississippi basin, but because she 
is the eastern terminus of the roads of the Pacific Slope, the South-west, 
and the North-west. 

The superintendent of our last — the tenth —census, says : '' The close- 
ness with which the center of population, through such rapid westward 
movement as has been recorded, has clung to the parallel of 39° of 
latitude cannot fail to be noticed." 

He does not, however, say a word as to the cause of this singular 
movement westward four hundred and fifty- seven miles in ninety years. 
7950 COT., PT. 2 32 735 



498 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Kear and upon 38°, 39°, and 40^ of latitude may be found three of the 
great trunk railways. 

But their location is still another i)roblem. The peculiar climate, 
productiveness of the soil, and the early settlement of this region have 
all something to do with it. Here is problem growing out of problem^ 
fruitful each to the student of social philosophy. 

But again : I argue more directly, because more demonstratively 
tangible, that the school interest, the schools themselves, have flourished 
and spread their influence in the direct ratio of the number of miles of 
railroad in the State. Massachusetts, at home and abroad, stands at 
the head of our school system ; nor is it disputed that in her borders 
we find models of true culture and refinement. 

Massachusetts has a mile of railroad to every four square miles of 
territory. 

This is a case from the extreme Bast. I take an example from what 
used to be termed the West, now about the middle of our country : Ohia 
has a mile of railroad for every six square miles of territory. Ohio has 
pretty good school facilities, and of late has furnished her full quota of 
Presidents. 

But select at will any State, and upon the map mark the seats of in- 
stitutions of learning — schools, academies, colleges, and universities^ 
and you will find them all arranged along the lines of the great railroads. 

England and Wales, Belgium, Switzerland, and Scotland possess the 
greatest railway facilities. These also enjoy the greatest freedom and 
the best systems of schools of all the European States. 

But to come nearer still: Texas, from being the largest State in the 
Union territorially, has become also greater in resources than any of her 
sister States of the South, simply on account of the indissoluble bond 
between her school-lands and her railroads. 

Of seventy-four cities and towns assuming control of their schools, 
supplementing the amount received from the State (five dollars for each 
pupil of scholastic age annually) by a special tax, sixty-six of these are 
directly upon lines of, while the remaining eight are of easy access to- 
railroads. 

We hear a great deal about what the " Fathers of Texas " have done for 
the education of aU the children of the State ; the thousands of acres 
of land reserved for the counties, the millions of acres for the general 
school fund. 

These historians should go a little further and tell us what these 
" millions of acres" were worth before the railroad companies surveyed 
and brought these lands to the attention of the world. 

It is true that the railroads received sixteen sections of land for every 
mile of road built, conditioned, however, upon the companies surveying 
their own, together with an equal number of sections (alternates) for 
the schools. 

The entire expense of surveying and returning a double set of field 
notes to the General Land Office, at Austin, was borne by the respective 
railroads. 

These lands were, for the most part, hundreds of miles beyond civili- 
zation ; indeed, the roads have been extended more rapidly than a pay- 
ing trafl&c would warrant in order to develop their lands, to bring them 
into market. 

The Texas and Pacific wore out its main line of 444 miles in building 
an extension of 616 miles west. This was a practical example of the 
problem, " How far would a boy travel, starting from a basket two yards 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 499 

from the first' egg, and carrying singly to the basket one hundred eggs 
two yards apart in a straight line?" ^ 

But whatever develops, enhances the railroad " sections," enhances 
the school " alternates," until lands heretofore not commanding twenty- 
five cents an acre are now readily sold for two dollars ; or, the railroads 
have increased the school funds eightfold, have multiplied their values, 
until Texas boasts of a free-school fund of ninety-five million dollars — 
a fund that will yield, at five per cent, per annum, $4,750,000. 

In valuation, the report of the Controller shows tlie railroads to be 
the third in order. Of course land and other realties hold the first place, 
and live stock the second. 

The six thousand, miles of railroad iu Texas, at one-half the average 
cost throughout the United States, would amount to $210,000,000. 

By reference to the Eeport of the Controller, it appears that the 
taxable property of the State was : 

In 1871 $222,504,073 

In 1877 31^,373,221 

In 1878 303,202,426 

In 1879 : 304,193,163 

In 1880 301,470,736 

In 1881 375,000,000 

In 1882 419,927,476 

In 1883 527,537,390 

In 1884 630,080,917 

In 1870 there was less than 300 miles of railroad in the State. From 
1870 to 1877 there were added 1,300 miles, 400 miles were built in 1877, 
200 in 1878, and 700 each in 1879 and 1880, while in 1881 there were 
built over 1,500 miles ; since 1881 there have been added by the com- 
pletion of roads nearly 1,000 miles more. 

I know of no better criterion by which to measure the real wealth of 
the State, its prosperity and progress, than by the railroad earnings. 
The gross earnings of the Texas roads in 1883 is put down at $21,450,445. 
But this is a small item, a very small factor, compared with the real 
amount and value of the products themselves, when it is remembered 
that the freight was moved at an average cost of 1.8 cents per ton per 
mile, that passengers were carried for 3.5 cents per mile before the late 
law (3 cents) went into effect. 

However, passenger traffic is everywhere small as compared with 
freight, contributing in Texas less thah a third of the gross earnings. 

By a comparison of the average cost of moving a ton a mile in the 
several groups of States, it will be found that Texas roads are not ex- 
orbitant in their charges. 

It costs in l!^ew England 1.7 cents per ton per mile; in the Middle 
States 1 cent per ton ; in the Southern States 1.8 cents 5 in the Western 
States 1.2 cents; in the Pacific States 2.2 cents per ton per mile. 

Nor is a comparison of these rates with the leading countries of 
Europe damaging to America. The actual cost to the companies (not 
what they charge for moving a ton a mile) in France is 1.7 cents, in 
Belgium 1.5 cents per ton per mile. 

Much is heard about the " monopolies," the "soulless corporations"! 
I can not see where so much monopoly, so much extortion, so much dis- 
crimination comes in. That can not be very oppressive to the laboring 
man that transports his year's provisions from Chicago to any eastern 
point at the price of one day's labor. That can not be a discrimination 

1 Some idea can be formed of the amount of wear and tear on the road when it is 
understood that the boy traveled eleven miles eight hundred and forty yards, 

737 



600 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

against tlie consumer, at least, whicb transports from Chicago to Kew 
York seventeen barrels of flour at tlie rate of one mile for one cent. 1 
know of no lessou so fruitful in its teachings as the reduction in railway 
charges made by the railroad managements themselves from 1873 to 
1879. CompetitioD, the great law governing all trades, forced this re- 
duction, by which carefully prepared statistics show that these corpora- 
tions lost, or there was saved to the shippers — the consumers really — 
in the space of six years $922,000,000 in freight alone. 

I do not wish to be understood as denying the rights of Legislatures 
•or Congress as to the control of the traffic rates, the regulation, as it is 
termed, of railroads; I simply propose to state the facts — the results 
in two cases. 

The New York Central was chartered — consolidated in the face of de- 
termined opposition. Passenger rates were fixed by law at two cents 
per mile; after the lapse now of twenty years the rate is still two cents 
per mile. The freight rates were left without regulation; they have 
been reduced from three cents per ton per mile to .83 of a cent per ton 
])er mile; or the result of com j)etition has lowered the rate to less than 
one-third of the former rate. 

The Texas & Pacific has reduced its freight from 3.34 cents per ton 
]>er mile in 1877 to 1.76 cents in 1883, a reduction of nearly one -half. 
Here is a fruitful study for the mathematician — the legislative account- 
ant. When the Legislature of Texas reduced the passenger fare from 
five to three cents per mile, I was met by the Hon. , now a mem- 
ber of Congress from that State, and addressed thus: "Professor, I 
understand you to say that while the passenger gets the benefit of 40 
per cent, reduction, the railroads have really lost 66f per cent.; I do not 
see this." 

Said I, " Do you see the first ?" "Yes," said he. I asked, "What part 
of three must you add to make the result five ? " Said he, " Two-thirds." 
"That is," said I, " the roads must now carry five passengers at three 
cents to realize the same that they did for carrying three passengers at 
five cents. Or," said I, "to be more practical, hold up your five fin- 
gers, turn two down; two-fifths off; now return from three to five, add- 
ing two, turn the same two up, two-thirds of three this time." "I see it," 
said he; "you shall have the chair of mathematics in our State Uni- 
versity." 

In this same legislative discussion another fallacy, a very grave mis- 
take, was made by these legislative accountants. It was contended 
that since the New York Central carried passengers for two cents a mile, 
the Texas roads could certainly do it for three; that a reduction of the 
rate would more than double the amount of travel; that people would 
travel simply to travel. 

Another comjiarison : The New York Central has not quite 1,000 miles 
of main track (953). In 1883 this road carried 10,746,925 passengers. 
Since a proportion is a comparison, " If ] ,000 miles carry 11,276,930, 
how many should 6,000 miles carry ? " Answer, 67,661,580, or according 
to our last census, more than forty-two times the entire population of 
Texas. That is, every man, woman, and child would have to make forty- 
two trips each, to put the roads of Texas upon the same basis as the New 
York Central. 

The facts show that the results of legislative restriction have, main- 
tained maximum rates, while without, this restriction the tendency to 
lower rates have been the uniform rule. 

Killing the goose that lays the golden egg is not the table to which I 
would point our legislative regulators, but I would remind them of the 

738 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES— PAPERS 501 

fate of Cadmus endeavoring to rescue his sister Europa, carried off by 
Jupiter, that while he destroyed the dreadful serpent, going still fur- 
ther and following the advice of Minerva, he sowed the teeth of the 
dragon, which immediately springing up as armed men destroyed each 
other, Cadmus himself not being exempt from the terrible catastro})he. 

The " discriminations," as they are termed, between local and through 
rates are the same that are hourly met with between the retail and 
wholesale dealers in our towns, as well as cities. 

The railroad managements do "discriminate," and always in favor of 
the press and pulpit. A prominent minister of one of our leading de- 
nominations told me he had ridden free, in one year, 24,640 miles upon 
the various roads of Texas, over 5,000 miles being upon the lines of a 
single company. Hundreds of other ministers can testify to the same 
liberality of these same corporations toward the spread of the Gospel. 
The Texas roads keep a temperance lecturer continually traveling over 
the State, free as to transportation, to wage a ceaseless war against in- 
temperance. 

One of our greatest general managers says, "At all times put me 
down, first, in favor of public free schools; second, and under all cir- 
cumstances, against whisky." If temj)erance legislation would go as 
far as railroad managers, we would soon be rid of drunkenness. 

Gradually, slowly, if you choose, they are coming to it. The general 
orders are beginning to read, " ]N"o man who uses intoxicating liquors 
will be retained in the employ of this company." 

This year orders have been issued prohibiting the use of intoxicating 
liquors off as well as on duty, on the whole Missouri Pacific system. It 
has been the standing order of the Baltimore & Ohio and other roads for 
years. 

The next step will be to prohibit the use of tobacco — a narcotic only, 
it is true, but to the habitual user it is next in its deleterious influence 
to whisky. 

The railroads will regulate themselves — are doing it every day. There 
are many things about them I would like to see changed ; there are 
many things that they would change themselves, and they themselves 
will change them. 

There is also a growing apprehension, a needless alarm, upon the part 
of the people, as to the increasing power of railroads. Fears are ex- 
pressed that they will control the Government; not for good, but for 
evil. 

The recent introduction of steam as a road motive power (in this 
country not till 1830), the rapid progress of railroad construction and the 
length of the lines operated (122,000 miles), the immense values that are 
represented, six thousand jive hundred millions of dollars (one-eighth of 
the aggregate value of all kinds of property in the Union) — all these, 
with the changed conditions wrought by them, have had much to do in 
creating this alarm. But this has reference to our own country only. 
The lines of railroads in the five divisions of the earth, according to 
Baron Kolb, cost sixteen billions of dollars, and would reach eight times 
around the globe. And all this has been brought about in little over a 
half century ! ^ 

If Britannia ruled the seas through her ships, why not Columbia 
rule the continents through her locomotives f 

^ The first railway worked by steam was opeued between Darlington and Stockton, 
September 25, •1825. 

739 



502 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

We do not hear that the mother country ever used her navy to oppress 
her own people ; why fear that the daughter will use her railroads to 
mar her own beauty, or to defeat her own greatness ? 

I have saidj "The railroad is solving commercial and social i)rob- 
jems — is the greatest pioneer, the greatest missionary ever sent out by 
Church or State." 

I have fully sustained the first proposition. I said, in 1880, to the 
National Teachers' Association, a body of the foremost thinkers in this, 
or any country : 

I believe the whistle of the Texas & Pacific locomotives will carry oar civilization, 
oiu- enterprise, our religion, and our language, into the rocky Sierra Nevadas, until 
not only Mexico, hut from the lakes to the gulf, and from ocean to ocean will be 
ours, and. that too, without a battle-flag. 

During the past three years the American railroad has been pushing 
on, invading quietly, peacefully, the capital of the Montezumas. 

The commission proposed by a member of Congress from Texas a 
year ago only "To cultivate amicable and commercial relations with 
the countries in Central and South America, " is actively about its mis- 
sion of Peace and Good- will. 

The time is not far distant, " it is only a question of time," when we 
shall realize Columbus's grand conception, " a passage to the East Indies 
hj sailing west" — indeed, much more than Columbus ever dreamed of j 
for the American railroad builders, extending their efforts, pushing 
their lines south and north — into Central, into South America, into 
Alaska, crossing Behring Straits (only twenty-six miles wide) in a 



steamer — will thus connect by a continuous and unbroken highway all 
the continents, will unite by this great commercial artery the interests 
of Chili and Brazil with Japan and China, of New York, San Fran- 
cisco, and Yukon with Moscow and St. Petersburg. 
Byron wrote a little more than a half century ago, 

" But every mountain now hath found, a tongue, 
And Jura answers through her misty shroud. 
Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud." 

To-day, were he living, he would realize his prophecy fulfilled 5 he 
would hear, and in his Mother tongue, not only amid Alpine heights 
but upon every plain in Europe and Asia, "A-l-l r-i-g-h-t? Gr-o 
A-h-e-a-d!" 

A clever modern philologist shows that the English language is spoken 
to-day by one hundred million of i)eople; that soon, within a hundred 
years, it will be the language of one billion souls. 

He adds, that then the great languages of the world will be the Eng- 
lish, Chinese, and Eussian, with the English far in the lead. 

He does not tell us to what influence this wonderful spread of our 
language, this universality of our mother tongue is due. He does not 

74C 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 603 

tell why Europe was — is to-day a. Babel. He does not tell us that steam 
and electricity, iron and steel, have enabled this people to subdue — to 
I)ossess the Earth this side of the Atlantic. He does not tell us that 
the echoes and re-echoes of the steam whistle were not heard resound- 
ing through the corridors of the Ali^s till late in this century. 

Mr. "Webster was a great admirer of the mother country— especially 
of her territorial acquisitions, her military glory, — and in one of his 
grandest and loftiest flights of imagination, describing the progress and 
prowess, the greatness and extent, of the British N'ation, said: 

It is a power which has dotted the face of the whole glohe all over with her pos- 
sessions and military posts, whose morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping 
company with the hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken 
strain of the martial airs of Engla nd. 

It delights me, it thrills me to think upon my country, my people, and 
my language. Could the immortals, could Jefferson, the ''author of 
the Declaration," could Washington, the "Father of his country," look 
out from their celestial abode, they would behold our free Eepublic (stretch- 
ing through more than one hundred and eighty degrees of longitude), 
all dotted over with school-houses and colleges and churches, whose 
rising- bells and morning prayer-calls and evening hymns, "following the 
sun in his course and keeping company with the hours, fill the air daily" 
with the merry laugh and joyous shout and happy song of a continuous 
and unbroken continent of EnGtLISH- speaking people! 

The solution : The white sails of commerce brought this blue-eyed, 
fair-skinned, light-haired race to our shores, the locomotive carried into 
the interior the messengers of peace, and in their track followed smiling 
Plenty, with her attendant handmaids Eeligious Liberty, Political Free- 
dom, and Universal Education. 

I address to-day scientific men of the leading nations of the earth. 
You can bear witness to your efforts, your resolutions, your arguments, 
your logic, your reasons to bring about standard time. You can testify, 
too, with some mortification, that all your labors have been futile. 

Yet you have learned ; I tell you that on the 18th day of November, 
1883, the clocks of 20,000 railroad oflBces, and the watches of 300,000 
employes were reset, — the minute and second hands all pointing to the 
same divisions on the dial; that the people who did the same could have 
b^en reckoned by millions; and that all this was accomplished without 
delay to commerce, or injury to person. 

iso general from E'apoleon down could have made such a change, even 
in a single army corps, without the loss of property and life too.^ 

Again, who have been foremost in building churches, schools, and col- 
leges, in endowing universities, and in contributing to the advancement 
of liberal, higher education f Where can it be so truthfully said, " Charity 
never failetb," as among railroad men? Who ever knew a real case of 
charity turned from ofiice, home, or tent of a railroad man? 

Charity! "'Ti.s mightiest in the mightiest^ 

America's great Triumvirate in action, in the successful completion, 
control, and management of the three great trunk railways of our coun- 
try, abounded in good works, in large beneficences, and " Their deeds do 
folloio themJ^ 

1 Mr. Wm. F. Allen, editor of the Travellers^ Eaihcay Guide, is the author of the 
change to standard time. 

The next move will bo to the single dial for the day, to 24 o'clock. " Train No. 1 
will meet No. 2, at station No. 3, at 17.17 (o'clock)." 

741 



504 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

In addition to many smaller, but do less valuable charities, Col. Thomas 
A. Scott, just before his death, gave the following amounts to the insti- 
tutions named: 

To Jefferson Medical College, of Philadelphia. |50, 000 

To the Orthopedic Hospital, Philadelphia 30,000 

To Children's Department of Episcopal Hospital, Philadelphia 20, 000 

To University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 50,000 

To Washington and Lee University, Virginia 50, 000 

Total 200,000 

In regard to the numerous gifts of father and son — the Vanderbilts, I 
do not know how better to present the same than by giving the letter 
of the Chancellor of Vanderbilt University, Bishop H. K McTyeire. 

Nashville, Tenn., June 29, 1885. 

My Dear Professor — I thank you for your letter * * * * Mr. Cornelius [Com- 
modore] Vanderbilt gave this university one million of dollars. Of that sum we have 
now as invet-ted endowment, bearing seven per cent, per annum, $600,000. 

His son, Mr. Wni. H. Vanderbilt, since his father's death has given to Vanderbilt 
University $250,000, and $100,000 of this sum has been added to our endowment. 
Generous benefactors to the South, and to general education! 

The location of the Vanderbilt University lias made Nashville what they call the 
"Athens of the South''; others have come here since. 

I believe our catalogues this year will show students from twenty States and Terri- 
tories, all accessible to railroads. 

In honor of the donors we give marked attention to civil engineering, includins^ 
the theoretical and practical knowledge of building railroads ; we believe in railroads 
with good cause. 

For mounting and equipping the observatory for the Leander McCor- 
mick telescope, Mr. Wm. H. Vanderbilt gave $25,000 to the Virginia 
University. Last year he gave $500,000 to the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons of the City of ISTew York. These two, father and sou, 
gave for the purposes enumerated one million Jive hundred and twenty- 
Jive thousand dollars. 

But additionally — and in purpose and result, too, a greater gift still, 
Mr. Wm. H. Vanderbilt has given $150,000 to establish at Washington 
a museum of Patriotism, where the offerings and the trophies presented 
General Grant by the nations of the earth arev to be perpetually pre- 
served, for the inspection and admiration of all American youths through 
all luture generations. 

Or, in the aggregate, Mr. Wm. H. Vanderbilt has contributed to 
schools of science, schools of medicine, and a School of Patriotism, nine 
hundred and ticentyfive thousand dollars. 

He is still in the prime of life, full of vigor, abounding in good deeds, 
and it may reasonably be expected that he will yet outstrip his father's 
great work in founding and equipping the Vanderbilt University. 

Col. John W. Garrett. leaves the following, greater than the gifts of 
either of his associates in extent and in security of investment. 

These annuities represent a basis of over a million dollars ($1,100,000 
at 6 and 5 per cent.). The clauses of the will pertaining to these gifts 
and their purposes seem to be vvorthy of reprinting, even in so short an 
address as this: 

And upon the further trust that my said trustees shall from the stocks and bonds- 
belonging to my estate select such good interest-bearing securities as shall amount 
to the sum of one hundred thousand dollars, or in their option invest the sum of one 
hundred thousand dollars, of the moneys belonging to my estate in such a manuer as 
to produce the yearly sum of six thousand dollars, which said sum I desire shall be 
paid yearly to aid iu improving the condition of the poor in the city of Baltimore, 
the fust }iaynient to be made at the expiration of one year from my death, and to 
continue thereafter in perpetuity; and as I have a very favorable opinion of the use- 
742 



. INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 505 

fulness and efiectiveness of tlie present organization or body corporate known as the 
Baltimore Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, I recom- 
mend my said trustees, so long as in their judgment this charitable institution is 
efficiently managed, to give said sum of six thousand dollars to the said association 
a,nnually for the purposes aforesaid ; and if at any future period, in the judgment of 
my said trustees, said sum of six thousand dollars per year can he applied or distrib- 
uted so as to confer greater benefit upon the poor of Baltimore, in that event I direct 
my said trustees so in their discretion to apply said sum. 

And upon the further trust of the net income of any estate to devote the sum of 
fifty thousand dollars annually to such objects of benevolence, to educational pur- 
poses, to aid virtuous and struggling persons, and to such works of public utility as 
are calculated to promote the happiness, usefulness, and progress of society; said 
amount of fifty thousand dollars per annum to be apportioned to the furtherance of 
such objects and to the accomplishment of such ends in the judgment and at the dis- 
cretion of my trustees. It is my will, and I so direct, that the contributions to the 
purposes named in this clause shall continue during the lifetime of my children, Rob- 
ert Garrett, Thomas Harrison Garrett, and Mary Elizabeth Garrett, and of the sur- 
vivors and survivor of them, and that the same shall be continued thereafter by their 
heirs if the condition of the estate will then justify the said appropriation. I desire 
that the contributions and assistance to be given under this clause of my will shall, 
as far as practicable, be devoted to the promotion of the objects herein named in the- 
city of Baltimore and in the State of Maryland; but in case of special suiferiug or 
distress in other communities, my trustees shall have the power to use their discretioa 
and judgment in relieving the same. 

From a personal friend to the two benefactors I learn that Mr. Garretb 
really directed the gifts of Mr. Johns Hopkins. Mr. Garrett is reported 
as having said, " Johns, give while you live, so that you may direct and 
.see the fruits of your labors." 

Johns did give while living, and the Johns Hopkins University is^ 
the result of the accumulated eftbrts of Mr. Hopkins, much of thia 
being the "earnings" of his stock in the Baltimore & Ohio Eailroad. 

The latter road during the lifetime of Mr. Garrett was proverbial for 
the care of its employes ; the Baltimore & Ohio Eelief Association, fur- 
nishing all the advantages of a mutual life insurance company, a savinga 
bank, and a building association, was peculiarly the result of Mr. Gar- 
rett's forethought, and the pride of his administration. 

The company has announced the organization of a school of tech- 
nology for the training of young men, the future employes of the com- 
pany. This school, located at Mount Clare (Baltimore), will be formally 
opened September next. The object and the purpose of this institution 
will be to give the Baltimore & Ohio a force of trained men, those hav- 
ing the advantage of a suitable amount of literary instruction, as well 
as that practical teaching which they will most need. 

I must add here for the sentiment, for the lofty and manly and elevat- 
ing sx)irit of the donor, the following: said Mr. George I. Seney, "If 
any one asks you why I have given so much to the Wesleyan Female 
College, tell them it is to honor my mother, to whom under God I owe 
more than to all the world besides." 

Mr. Seney gave to the Wesleyan Female College and to Emory Col- 
lege, of Georgia, $450,000. 

Mrs. Leland Stanford, since the spirit of her dear boy departed (" abiit^ 
non periiP^)^ has organized in the city of San Francisco four kindergar- 
ten schools, locating them in those parts of the city most destitute, and 
has dedicated them to the motherless and homeless little. ones of her 
great and lowly, her splendid and yet shadowy city. Already has this 
benefactress, if not repaid, been compensated in her affliction for her 
loss. A mother writes her, "My children shall be taught to love Le- 
land's memory, follow his example, and imitate his lovely character." 

The ex-Governor, it is said, contemplates — has determined — that Palo 

743 



506 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Alto, the "beautiful," "sweet Palo Alto" of the boy, shall be the site 
of Leland's University. 

Those who kuow the father, his liberal culture, his broad views, and 
his entire acquaintance with all the educational systems and institutions 
of learning at home and abroad, being a personal friend to many of the 
savants of Europe, with an abundance of means at his command, know 
that this will be a real university, surpassing the English universities 
and leading those on the Continent, since it will deal with the practical 
living issues of all sciences, social, political, and physical. 

There will be, too, a liberality toward the distinguished scholars called 
to these departments; their services in their specialties will be specially 
rewarded ; the man who pays the trainers of his horses more at present, 
in wages and perquisites, than his State university pays her professors, 
will evidently pay to the conductors of the various departments of the 
■university, founded and named to honor his only child, salaries com- 
mensurate with the founder's appreciation of mind over matter. 

While in California (1882) on a visit I wrote, "It is true Columbus 
<jrossed the Atlantic. But Lelaud Stanford connected the oceans." 

To-day Leland Stanford, the patron of letters, the friend of science, 
the supporter of religion, a devoted, humble Christian himself, may be 
justly ranked ''primus inter pares, ^^ the head of the living, the present 
American railroad triumvirate. 

Mr. President: I have seen much of this continent, have seen more 
of Texas. That which in our school geographies was called the "Amen-" 
can Desert" — later, the "Staked Plains" — is no desert at all. Since 
the building of the Texas and Pacific, this vast area has become (was 
all the time) fertile. All the cereals grow luxuriantly. Pure water, 
and in abundance, is found throughout these plains, costs but the dig- 
ging of a shallow well. Here, sir, is so happily, so truthfully, verified 
the great promise, that not only ''The wilderness and the solitary place 
shall be glad for them^^ (the railroads), but, "The desert shall rejoice and 
blossom as the rose,'''' that I venture to suggest — I assert, Africa is not 
Africa because it is the home of the colored man, but the colored man 
is the colored man because his home is in Africa ! It needs but the touch 
of Ithuriel's spear — the life-giving breath, the awakening influence of 
the locomotive, and this Dark Continent, this land of Ham, will take 
its rightful place in the brotherhood of Shem and Japheth, all then 
being of one speech and one language, and that the Anglo-Saxon. 

But, sir, I must close, and yet I cannot do so without adding one 
other reflection : 

A few days ago, standing upon the track of the Texas & Pacific and 
turning my eyes east and west, surveying the line which traverses for 
1,487 miles the most fertile portions of the territory of Texas and con- 
nects the waters of each ocean, I was forced to the conviction that, 
for many miles on either side, there will be presented a phenomenon 
not unlike the Gulf Stream, except that the warm waters of the latter 
will be replaced by the warm hearts of an intelligent, enterprising, and 
thrifty population. Some will select the fertile prairies, others will 
dwell amid the sierras in search of the rich placers, while others still 
will be content to tend their flocks and count their herds. Of these and 
those who shall come after them there will be an unbroken (life-blood) 
current from the Pacific to the Atlantic and from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific; for tliis will truly be the highway of nations. 

Sir, it is said that the ancients never worshiped the setting sun. • This 
is more than true of our modern devotees. Still, it would be remissness 
indeed upon my part, to close this address without asking the question, 

744 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 507 

To whose statesmanship, to whose forethought, to whose prophetic keii 
was due this gigantic enterj^rise, this girdling the continent and uniting 
ocean with ocean? 

Moving west, still west, and yet still west, pausing in front and at 
the very base of rugged and awe-crowned Sierra Blanca, said I: A 
hundred thousand years hast thou stood sentinel over this vast valley 
and plain; long hast thou guarded this pass! Mayest thou yet stand 
a thousand-thousand years, witnessing daily the transformations, the 
"sweet influences," of the peaceful locomotive, and adding perpetually 
thy testimony to the sagacity of the originator of the project " to build 
a railroad on or near the thirty -second parallel of latitude." 

Monuments and mausoleums, bronze and brass, may fitly commemo- 
rate the deeds of dead heroes, so styled by the world, amid the glare 
and glitter, the flush and flurry of the battle field; but the long lines 
of this road, stretching across this united continent, bearing the trains 
heavily freighted with the rich returns of honest toil, will ever be the 
most appropriate monument to the wisdom and skill of their builders 
and present managers; while perennially the flower decked prairie will 
add its fragrance to, and forever embalm the memory of Thomas A. 
Scott, the great projector of the Texas and Pacific Eailway Company. 

745 



AN HISTOEIOAL SKETCH OF INDIAN CIVILIZATION AND 

EDUCATION. 

By Alice C. Fletchee, 

Peahody Museum of American ArcTiceology and Etlinology, Camhridge^ Mass. 



EAKLY DISTRIBUTION AND CONDITION OF INDIANS. 

The aborigines of this country, when met by Europeans more than 350 
years ago, were grouped into comparatively small, independent tribes, 
separated from one another by unbroken forests or stretches of prairie. 
Each tribe was organized within itself upon an almost uniform plau^ 
which was effective for the preservation of their religious and tribal cus- 
toms. In a few instances confederations existed between tribes more 
or less related, but these unions were of so voluntary a character as to 
prevent any centralization of power tending to the formation of a nation. 
Warfare was personal and desultory rather than representative or or- 
ganized, and consequently failed to develop new social or political ideas, 
and left the condition of the people unchanged. 

Cabeza de Yaca, in his journey from Florida to Southern California, 
found the tribes he encountered varying in their conditions. Those liv- 
ing in the fertile regions bordering the Gulf dwelt in stockaded towns, 
their dwellings made of wood, thatched and covered with a mixture of 
clay. These villages were surrounded by "Yerie good meadows and 
many fields ^own with maize." Corn, beans, pumpkins, and melons were 
raised for food, and the supply of game was ample, so that the suste- 
nance of life was secure. These favored tribes cultivated cotton, had a 
knowledge of spinning and weaving, and were clad in garments of their 
own manufacture. They also made and used ornamented vessels of 
pottery. In the arid regions farther west, the people were found pick- 
ing up a scanty existence from native fruits and nuts, their habitations 
were correspondingly miserable, and their progress in civilization very 
slight. 

From various early writers and traders, English, French, and Swed- 
ish, we learn that the great Algonquin family occupied the coast from 
the Savannah E,iver northward, embracing Yirginia, Eastern Pennsyl- 
vania, New Jersey, Eastern New York, New England, and Canada as 
far north as Labrador. The Delawares were the leading tribe of this 
group, and seem to have been at the head of a confederation. The 
Algonquins had also spread westward, by warfare, and to-day the Crees 
of the North-west Territory of British America, and the Blackfeet of 
Montana, are the most westerly outposts of this once powerful family, 
while the Cheyennes, Mlamis, Sacs and Foxes, and others, have been 
driven to the Indian Territory. Wedged in between the tribes of the 
Algonquins lay the Iroquois living about the St. Lawrence Eiver and 
tributary lakes and the lakes of New York, and extending as far south 
as the mountains of North Carolina and west into Tennessee, where the 

746 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 509 

Cherokees were first met by the white men. Farther west dwelt the 
great Siouan family, beyond them the Athabaskan gionp, and still 
farther the Pacific Coast Indians. 

All the natives east of the Mississippi (and it is now known to be true 
of several tribes west of that river) dwelt in fortified villages, cultivated 
the soil, raising large crops of maize, beans, pumpkins, and melons. 
Meat and clothing were furnished by the game, as also tents and im- 
plements for farming and sewing. All the tribes were acquainted with 
the art of making pottery and weaving vegetable fibers. All used simi- 
lar weapons, and a marked resemblance existed between their social or- 
ganization, their customs of war, and their religious beliefs. Even their 
ceremonials, although varying in minor points and details, were much 
alike, and indicated an environment tending to form a homogeneous 
people. 

The absence on this continent of any animals capable of domestica- 
tion kept the supply of food precarious, and therefore held the people 
in a condition where their energies were in constant demand to prevent 
lamine, so that no force could be turned aside from pressing neces- 
sity to be used for the accumulation of property and the development 
of better modes of living and of industry. The cultivation of the soil, 
while marking the step from savagery to barbarism, hardly affords 
the same means of progress as the domestication of animals, with the 
consequent increase of wealth and comfort from flocks and herds. This 
lack of resource upon this continent would tend to protract the era of 
barbarism and delay the invention of a written language, which lifts a 
])eople over the confines of barbarism into civilization. In more favored 
regions on this continent various mnemonic devices were in use among 
the Indians ; but whether these would have developed into a full writ- 
ten language must ever be a matter of speculation, as the aborigines 
suddenly found themselves confronfed with a well-equipped civilization 
foreign to their modes of thought and social and religious observances. 

POPULATION AND EAELY CONTACT WITH WHITE PEOPLE. 

When the first permanent relations between the Indians and the 
Europeans were established in the sixteenth century, it is doubtful if 
the entire native population within the present territory of the United 
States exceeded five hundred thousand souls. Wars with the white 
race and instigated wars between, tribes, added to the usual native 
warfare, tended to lessen the number of Indians ; but the principal 
cause in the reduction of the population was the introduction of new 
and fatal diseases, small-pox and measles being particularly fatal. 

The Spanish upon the south and the French upon the north were the 
first to make permanent colonies. These colonies, however, were not 
established upon the plan of making homes in the land, so much as 
securing wealth from the resources of the country, as is shown by the 
bootless search for gold by the Spanish in the south, and the untiring 
prosecution of trade in furs and peltries at the north. The English 
generally came to stay ; and while they by no means neglected trade 
with the Indians, the desire for land exceeded the greed of the mer- 
chant. 

It may be truthfully stated in a broad sense that from the first con- 
tact with the white race the Indian has been at great disadvantage 
and a continual suft'erer. At the outset he gave to the white man trust 
and welcome ; but being met in return by injustice and dislike, bred of 
race antipathies, this trust turned to hatred, not unmixed with an 

747 



510 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

awe bred of the many-sided powers of the intruder. Of the unequal 
contest, the past four hundred years bear painful record. The contest 
has never been simple. The Indian was inveigled into taking part in 
all the political animosities which found expression upon this coutineiit 
between the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, and Swedish nations. 
The Indians were tossed upon the bayonets of these contending powers; 
they were used as a scourge by differing home parties during the Eer- 
olution and later wars; their greed has been appealed to by traders of dif- 
ferent nationalities, and at all times their lands have been coveted. For 
selfish ends the Indians have been in turn coaxed, betrayed, denounced, 
and always despised; they have been courted as allies yet spurned a& 
equals, and are the prey rather than the scholars of civilization. 

Time forbids entering into the details of history to substantiate these 
statements. Every record of the growth and development of our country 
furnishes testimony, and numerous confirmatory instances of this treat- 
ment will arise in the memory of every candid listener. 

What has the Indian gained from this long conflict? It is probable 
that swine were obtained from the Spanish during the expedition of 
De Soto, and that a century later cattle were obtained from a disheart- 
ened colony of English at Cape Fear. It is recorded that early in the 
eighteenth century herds of wild cattle became profitable game to the 
hunter in North Carolina ; horses came from the Spaniards in Mexico ; 
corn the Indians already possessed, and from their store they over and 
over again succored the starving colonists ; implements of iron caused 
the native tools to be thrown aside ; tin and earthenware utensils super- 
seded the wooden or pottery dishes, and thus the native industries of 
the people became useless. Cheaper clothing than that wrested from 
the game was given to the tribes, and calico and cloth have slowly and 
surely replaced the skin of the deer and buffalo. So the native avoca- 
tions lessened, and with the disappearance of the wild animals the old 
life faded, leaving the Indian in idleness and pauperism. Isfor was he 
persistently encouraged and stimulated to new methods of labor. He 
was accounted to be of a dying race, or at least of one that should so 
be, since his land was wanted, and he was troublesome and cumbered 
the way of advance to the white man. 

MISSIONARY WORK. 

In the midst of this darkness the light of humanity shone forth here 
and there in the centuries. With the Spanish expedition of the six- 
teenth century came priests, who were bent upon baptizing the Indians 
into the Roman Catholic Church. Their zeal was honest, but it was 
mainly confined to the life after death, little heed being given to present 
conditions. In a few instances efforts were made to instruct the Indians, 
but these efforts were principally directed to the same post mortem end. 
About 1568 Father Eogers entered upon the work of teaching the Indians 
of the Caroliuas better methods of farming and living. He secured 
implements, selected lands, built twenty houses, and induced several 
Indians to take up farming. Father Rogers was in advance of his time. 
The country was unoccupied, game abounded, and the Indians tired of 
the experiment when they saw the tribe move out on the hunt. The 
Father, too, lost courage in his admirable plan, and he sailed away to 
Havana, where a school had been recently founded for Indians. The 
experiment of Father Rogers was not lost, and it has since been taken 
up and has accomplished much for many Indian tribes. 

748 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 511 

!Nrumerons missions were established by the Eoman Catholic priest- 
hood among the Indians of the South and South-west. Father Benavides 
reported twenty-seven missions established among the Pueblos up to 
the year 1626. In 1680 a general uprising took place among the PueblO' 
Indians, the Navajo tribe joining ; all the priests were killed or driven 
away, and churches and convents destroyed. Many of these were never 
rebuilt. In the early part of the eighteenth century the first mission in 
California was founded at San Diego. It is among these so-called Mis- 
sion Indians in California that the most lasting effect of the efforts of 
the Spanish missions are to be found. 

The story of the French Jesuits is so well known through the graphic 
pen of Mr. Francis Parkman that its mention is only needful at this 
time. Of the work accomplished by the Jesuits much has passed away 
with the heroic men who braved the wilderness so heroically for their 
faith. The historian of the Eoman Catholic Missions, John G. Shea, 
thus sets forth the missionaries' plan of work: 

The missionaries began their instruction in religion at once ; they did not seek to 
teach the Indiana to read and write as an indispensable prelude to Christianity. That 
they left for times when greater peace would render it feasible, when long self-con- 
trol had made the children less averse to the task. The utter failure of their Huron 
Seminary at Quebec, as well as of all the attempts made by others at the instance of the 
French court, showed that to wait till the Indians were a reading people would be to 
postpone their conversion forever. 

In this divorce of Christianity from civilization and its indispensable 
adjunct, education, lies the secret of all missionary failure, no matter 
by what church it has been undertaken. 

All the early charters granted by the English Government to the colo- 
nies, beginning with that of the Virginia Company of London, given in 
1606, make mention of ameliorating the condition of the Indians. 

In 1621 the Council and Assembly of Virginia stated as one of their 
duties the "Enlargement of God's Kingdom among the heathen people.'^ 

The General Court of Massachusetts in 1644 "Ordered that the county 
courts in this jurisdiction shall take care that the Indians of the sev- 
eral shires be civilized, and the courts shall have j)ower to take order 
from time to time to have the Indians instructed in the knowledge and 
worship of God." Indian children were already being educated in 
schools with white children. 

In 1646 John Eliot was busy visiting and instructing the Indians of 
Massachusetts. In December of that year the Indians living near Eox- 
bury offered all their children to be instructed by the English, and la- 
mented their inability to pay for the instruction. Eliot declared, " The 
Indians must be civilized as well as, if not in order to their being chris- 
tianized." Land was set apart and towns built for the Indians. In- 
dustries were taught, and the Indians sold such commodities as broomSy 
staves, baskets, berries, and fish. Mr. Eliot planned a government for 
these "praying- towns," as they were called, modeling it upon the Jewish 
record. In 1674 there were fourteen of these towns, the Indians sub- 
sisting largely by farming, owning cattle, horses, and swine. Many 
Indians worked on the farms of their English neighbors. Thos. May- 
hew and his son labored in a similar manner among the Indians of Mar- 
tha's Vineyard and Nantucket. The work of John Eliot in translating 
the Bible into the Indian tongue is well known. He also prepared 
school-books, religious and secular, to be used in the Indian schools. 

The breaking out of King Philip's War in 1675 unsettled the Indians^ 
and put a stop to active missionary work in Massachusetts for several 
years. 

749 



512 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

In 1743 Eev. Eleazar Wheelock, of Lebanon, Conn., took up the mis- 
sionary beritageof Eliot, and received into his family Indian youth for 
instruction. In 1754 he started a charity school at his own expense, 
called Moor's Indian Charity School. The number of pupils increased 
until in 1767 there were sixty -two scholars. Public interest in England 
■was excited in behalf of the school by one of the Indian scholars visit- 
ing that country, and, in spite of the pending troubles with the colonies, 
Dartmouth College was established in connection with Moor's Charity 
School in 1770. The latter with its funds finally became merged in 
the college, the charter requiring the institution to educate as many 
Indians as the funds would allow. There has hardly been a term since 
■when one or more Indians have not been students at Dartmouth Col- 
lege, iSTew Hampshire. 

Rev. Samuel Kirkwood was engaged with Dr. Wheelock in the Moor 
school, but left then and started for the Iroquois, to establish among 
them a similar work, and in 1760 he settled with the Oneidas. Marry- 
ing soon after, his wife joined in his beneficent labors. I^'heir influence 
was notable, the tribe became thrifty and industrious, and on the bi^eak- 
ing out of the Eevolution the Rev. Mr. Kirkwood was able to hold the 
Oneidas in peace. The progress of the tribe since is in a large measure 
due to this remarkable man and his wife. In 1822 and 1833 a large 
portion of the Oneidas removed to the region of Green Bay, Wis., where 
they still reside. They are i)ractically self-supporting, are urging the 
patenting of their land in severalty and to be admitted into the privi- 
leges of citizenship. They are all nominally Christians, a large portion 
church members, Methodist and Episcopalian. Besides their churches 
they have five schools in operation at the present time. Those Oneidas 
who reside in Kew York have received their lands individually. The 
State maintains two schools among them. These Indians are mostly 
Methodists, and are spoken of as an "industrious and worthy people." 

It is interesting to note in passing, that Hamilton College, of New 
York State, grew out of an Indian school somewhat in the same way 
as Dartmouth College. 

In 1734 the remarkable work of the Moravians began among the 
Creeks of Georgia, in 1740 among the Mohegans of New York, and in 
1748 at Bethlehem, Penn., among the Delawares. The story of the per- 
secution of the Christian Delawares is too well known to be more than 
referred to. Few chapters in history tell a sadder tale than that of 
these iiatient Christians, torn from their homes by Indian enemies or 
white people craving the fertile valleys, and forced to start afresh in the 
wilderness further west. 

As early as 1782 these enforced migrations began," first to southern 
Ohio ; in 1787 they were pushed north to Lake Erie, and in 1791 they 
scattered to Canada and Michigan. The missionaries shared in these 
hardships and wandered forth with their stricken fiock to find a place of 
rest. A portion of the Delawares returned to the Miami Valley, and 
in 1795 twice replanted their cornfields after the young crops had been 
destroyed by General Wayne. The history of the next seventy years 
is one of removals, uprooting of homes and farms, and these have left 
a trail of sorrow through Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, down to the Indian 
Territory, where about 1870 the bulk of the people cast in their lot 
with the Cherokees. A few, the only ones still bearing the distinctive 
name of Delawares, linger among the remnants of other tribes at the 
Kiowa, Comanche, and Wichita Agencies, Indian Territory. One is 
not surprised to hear that they are now making little or no effort toward 
cultivating lands and Uving iii houses. 

750 



INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 513 

In 1795 the Quakers took up the work of caring for the education of 
the Indian. Their missionaries have been busy in many tribes, north, 
south, east, and west, and the efforts begun ninety years ago have 
not slackened, but rather increased up to the present day. Industrial 
education has been their aim, and they have been ever ready to work 
for civilization, for peace, and for purity of the public service, whenever 
called upon. When the distribution of agencies to the care of religious 
societies took place, upon the inauguration of General Grant's peace 
policy, eight agencies were put in charge of the Friends, Their missions 
are now maintained at four agencies, besides schools sustained, in full 
or in part, by funds from the various societies of that order. 

In 1819 the Baptist Society began work, and established schools. 
One of the most noted was the Choctaw Academy in Kentucky. Trades 
were taught in addition to the ordinary school curriculum. The pupils 
were drawn from different tribes, and the benefit of the school was 
widely felt. When the Choctaw and kindred tribes were moved west 
of the Mississippi, this successful school In the course of time followed 
the people to their new home. 

In 1823 the Methodist Church began missions, and other denomina- 
tions followed soon after. 

SCHOOL STATISTICS. 

In 1819 Congress appropriated $10,000 as a civilization fund. This 
amount was continued for several years, and the money was mainly 
used in assisting missionary schools. 

In 1833 the number of Indian children in school is given as 1,835. 
Of these 191 were at Choctaw Academy. Fifty-three mission schools 
were assisted by the Government, as foUows: American Board of 
Foreign Missions, 31 ; Baptist General Convention, 10 ; Eoman Catholic, 
6 ; Methodist Episcopal Church, 3 ; Methodist Society, 2 ; Protestant 
Episcopal, 1. 

ISTot lar from the time of General Grant's peace i^olicy education began 
to be actively pressed by the Indian Bureau. The government schools, 
which had been rather fitful and meager, were refitted and new schools 
built. The standard of teaching was raised, and the improvement has 
gone steadily forward. Training schools in the trades have been estab- 
lished within the past eight years, some of these taking high rank as 
educational institutions, as that at Carlisle Barracks, Carlisle, Penn., 
under the charge of Capt, E. H. Pratt. 

The statistics of Indian education at the present day are about as 
follows : 

School population (exclusive of the five civilized tribes) 40, 000 

Number of boarding schools 89 

Number of day schools ,. 126 

Accommodation boarding schools 6,506 

ii.ccommodation day schools 5, 672 

Average attendance 7,650 

Cost to the Government .^.., $650,565 

Cost to religious societies $179,085 

Cost to State of New York $8,848 

Five civilized tribes, Indian Territory : 

Number of boarding schools 17 

Number of day schools 201 

School accommodation 10,704 

School attendance 7,862 

Cost to Five Nations , $175,071 

Cost to religious societies $21, 541 

All the mission schools are included in the above statistics. 
7950 COT., PT. 2 33 751 



514 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 
DELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GOVEENMENT TO THE INDIANA. 

DuriDg the period of Confederation Congress-had the entire manage- 
ment of Indian affairs, appointing agents who reported directly to tlie 
legislative body. Upon the adoption of the Constitution and conse- 
quent creation of the War Department in 1789, the Indians were com- 
mitted to the charge of the Secretary of War. Owing to the rapid 
settlement of the country, the extended and complicated frontier inter- 
ests rendered the administration of Indian matters more and more 
difficult and onerous, and finally led, in 1832, to the formation of a spe 
cial office under a Commissioner of Indian Affairs, subordinate to the 
Secretary of War. Upon the creation of the Department of the Inte- 
rior by the Act of March 3, 1849, various considerations led to the 
transferring of the Indians from the War Department to the Depart- 
ment of the Interior, the Hon. Eobert J. Walker, Secretary of the 
Treasury, in his Eeport recommending the change, saying: "* * * 
With the interesting progress of so many of the tribes in Christianity, 
knowledge, and civilization, these duties do not necessarily appertain 
to war, but to peace and to our domestic relations with those tribes 
placed by the Constitution under the charge of this Government." 

As marking the growth of the friendly sentiment of the Senate, the 
following passage from the debate may be quoted: "War being the 
exception, peace the ordinary conditiop, the policy should be for the 
latter, not the former condition." 

With the exception of one break, from March, 1869, to July, 1870, when 
officers of the Army, specially detailed, acted as Indian agents, the 
Indian tribes have been under the care of civilians. The force to-day 
numbers 61 agents, having charge of 168 reservations, varying in size 
from 33,830 square miles to 4 square miles, including pueblos, and the 
entire Indian population is estimated at 265,565. 

Treaties made between the chiefs representing their various tribes 
and the United States Government regulate in general the policy of 
the latter toward the former. The first treaty was made with the Del- 
awares in 1778, prior to the adoption of the present Constitution. Be- 
tween 1778 and 1789, when the Constitution went into effect, fourteen 
other treaties were made with different tribes. The last treaty was 
proclaimed on August 27, 1870. The total number of treaties from 1778 
to 1871 being 649. By these treaties nearly all the territory of the 
present United States has been acquired, excepting portions of that 
covered by the thirteen original States. 

In these treaties, besides ceding their lands, the Indians agree to 
live peaceably with the white settlers, to remain upon their reservations, 
from which all white intruders were to be rigidly excluded. The Gov- 
ernment agreed on its part to compensate the Indians by money annui- 
ties in cash i)ayment, or their equivalent in food, clothing, agricultural 
implements, and instruction in farming trades, and the establishing and 
maintaining of schools for a greater or less term of years. An Act of 
March 3, 1871, provides, "that hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within 
the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized 
as an independent nation, or tribe, or power, with whom the United 
States may contract by treaty." Since that time all agreements between 
the Government and the Indians have been subject to the approval of 
both branches of Congress. The Act of March 3, 1871, marks a step in 
the advance of public sentiment toward the Indian, insomuch as he is 
no longer recognized as a foreigner • 

758 



INTEENATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATOKS PAPERS. 515 

While the major part of the Indians are under treaty agreements, 
there are some tribes which have never had any such relations with the 
Government. In some of these instances the peculiar character of the 
soil, the disappearance of game, and other circumstances, have made it 
needful that assistance in food and clothing should be provided for these 
Indians. 

The policy of the Indian Bureau is to prepare the Indians to become 
self-supporting, and varying success has followed the efforts made. 
Several tribes are to-day relying entirely on their own efforts; some of 
these receive interest upon funds held by the United States, derived 
from the sale of lands. This money aftbrds help in the management of 
their internal affairs, as, for instance, the five civilized tribes in the In- 
dian Territory support their government and schools almost wholly from 
the interest on funds so derived. As a means to carry out the policy of 
the Bureau, a plan was instituted in 1874, requiring Indians to lal>or 
for their annuities, i^articularly when these took the form of rations, 
etc. Thf plan in many cases has been beneficial in its results, particu- 
larly by making compulsory education possible. 

In the efforts to carry out its policy, the Bureau of Indian Affairs 
suffers much from the routine which during the past one hundred years 
has accumulated about the methods of transacting business. Precedent 
is almost, if not quite, as powerful as law, and the way a thing has once 
been done is regarded as the way to continue doing it, whether the 
method is of the best or of the worst sort. Much valuable time and 
individual energy is lost by this custom, and effective service crippled 
because of elaborate entanglements. 

The executive branch of the Government, as represented in the In- 
dian Bureau, is nearly, if not quite, powerless to enforce that which it 
sees to be best for the education and civilization of the Indian. Each 
year the Bureau makes its estimate of moneys needed, not only to 
carry on the work of the oflBce and to pay employ^i:^ in the field, but for 
the building and equipping of schools and securing good instructors ; 
for opening farms; for purchasing implements, and, where it is needful, 
for feeding and clothing those Indians who are not yet able to take care 
of themselves ; and for the means necessary to institute new methods 
of pushing the people forward, and enlarging the opportunities of 
those Indians who are already advanced. This estimate, on being pre- 
sented to Congress, is revised by committees of Congressmen, to whom a 
full knowledge of Indian needs and conditions is practically impossi- 
ble, the subject being too full of detail to be mastered by men having 
many other interests to look after. These committees, by controlling 
the money appropriations, control the Indian, and the efforts for civili- 
zation and education. From some unknown reason it has been the cus- 
tom for these committees to cut down the estimate sent in by the Bu- 
reau, whose oflicers know all the facts and where the needs of the serv- 
ice lie. Every dollar that is cut off by these committees is just so much 
taken from the welfare of the Indian, by crippling the influences that 
help him forward, and thus strengthening those influences which hinder 
his progress. Eeports and various appeals from the Executive Depart- 
ment relative to Indian matters have been presented to Congress year 
after year, and these show clearly that the men having the immediate 
direction of Indian affairs have been urging such legislation as would 
make plans for the education and civilization of the Indian effective, 
but year after year these reports and appeals have received little heed. 
The responsibility of the present condition of the Indian tribes rests, 
therefore, upon Congress.^ 

753 



516 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Each year hastens the ludian crisis. The pressure of white immi- 
gration grows yearly more i)owerfu], and it is but the question of a short 
time before the Indian reservations will be broken up. No person or 
governmental body can prevent this happening. The only safety for 
the Indian's home is to give each one his land in severalty, the United 
States acting as a guardian for a given number of years. By this term 
of protection, the ludian is granted time in which to prepare himself 
to meet his inevitable responsibility. Some tribes are already thus 
cared for, and are progressing under the stimulus of owning their home- 
steads. But no patent can make the home of the Indian secure, without 
the education which shall give training to his mind and hand. With a 
school population (exclusive of the five tribes) of 40,000 children, and 
a school accommodation for only 12,178, it is clear where lies one of the 
urgent duties of Congress toward the Indian. The school funds must 
be enlarged, more schools built, and a greater average of attendance 
secured. 

It is becoming clear to the minds of a large portion of our iieople that 
the genius of our government cannot "tolerate at large a class of people 
less than citizens." The Indian problem awaits its solution in this di- 
rection. Until the manhood of the Indian can find legitimate expres- 
sion, the work of the agent, the educator, and the x)hilanthropist toward 
developing in the Indian the desire for independence and civilization 
will be more or less abortive. Too much emphasis is laid upon the sav- 
agery and wilduess of the Indian. We are apt to forget his native 
power, and the long years during which the effort has been i)ersistent 
on our part to make him a dependent and a pauper. The extinction of 
the game has changed his environment and sapped his religious cus- 
toms; the pressure of civilization has rendered his social organization 
ineffective and useless. The Indian stands to-day strijiped of all his 
past greatness, fronting a future, dreaded and distrusted, because not 
understood ; yet possessed of heroic qualities which have made it im- 
possible to enslave Mm, and loving liberty and justice better than his 
life. 

754 



A BEIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW 

ENGLAND. 

By Thoiveas W. Bicknell, LL. D., 

Boston, Mass. 



The opening years of the present century witnessed the "Great Re- 
vival of American Education," as it has been most fitly styled. Prior 
to 1800, the American common school was in the childhood period. 
Immaturity in growth and development characterized all its features, 
and imperfection might be written on its work. The common school of 
the eighteenth century was rather distinguished for what it did not, 
than for what it did accomplish for the American boy and girl. The 
school-house, with its slab benches and ugly interior and exterior, hekl 
the child within its rude enclosure for three months in the year. The 
master was .of the stalwart sort. 

"A man severe lie was and stern to view; 
I knew him well, and every truant knew." 

The text books of eighty years ago were few, and, judged by modern 
standards, almost worthless. Of apparatus, maps, and charts, there 
were scarcely noue. A very limited introduction to the secrets locked 
within the cabalistic alliteratives, the "Three R's," was all that the 
grandfathers and grandmothers of the present generation obtained in 
their scanty school -life. 

Prior to the year 1825, the literature of education in this country was 
confined to the newspaper press and the scanty magazine literature of 
that early day. The articles or essays on education which found pub- 
licity in the weekly or monthly papers had little practical value to parent 
or teacher, usually dealt with topics from the upper and superficial 
side, and were often either theoretical or chimerical in theory and in 
philosophy. America had statesmen who understood the theories and 
practice of government, writers who knew belles-lettres, judges versed 
in the deepest and highest arts of jurisprudence ; but the men and the 
women who could discuss philosophy as applied to mental growth, or 
who knew the science and the art of education, were among the rarw 
aves of that otherwise interesting period. 

A reading of the works of the best American writers on education, 
prior to the great educational awakening of Horace Maun and his co- 
laborers, gives abundant evidence of a deep-felt interest in education 
as a force in upbuilding society; but the art of the orator and the rhet- 
orician hides the skill of the teacher and the carefal observation of the 
student of an inductive faith or philosophy. Men and women wrote 
from the standpoint of a strong religious faith, without the fair or full 
appreciation of what the human mind needed, or how it best could be 
developed. 

Even the higher education of the day was of the traditional sort, 
empirical, full of windy sophistries and airy nothings. There were 

755 



518 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

divines in the pulpifc vho could preach twepty-four sermons, with a raft 
of conclusions and improvements, from a single text ; statesmen of the 
larger sort there were, but they seemed to come at statesmanship by a 
process independent of the schools and colleges. They drew from their 
inner consciousness and from the school of a remarkable diplomatic age 
the lessons of state-craft, which Franklin, Madison, Jefferson, Adams, 
and the men of that day so wonderfully illustrated. It seems to ua 
now the marvel of marvels, that the foundation principles of govern- 
ment could have been so clearly defined, and vigorously enunciated and 
defended, as in the birthdays of the great Republic ; and the masterly 
discussions of the constitutional period show great statesmen and schol- 
ars, whose records grow brighter with the advancing years. The great 
men of that day were great in spite of the crudeness and inefficiency 
of the educational methods, and illustrate to us the jmnciple, that the 
school of necessity gives the highest diplomas and confers the highest 
rewards. 

At the close of the revolutionary struggle and the period of national 
construction, men began to talk about the school as a means of making 
and preserving a republic; and the most remarkable words of Frank- 
lin in Pennsylvania, and of Jefferson and Washington in Virginia, re 
late to the quickening of an interest in the common school as the col- 
lege of the people, and the guarantee of good citizenship. As the 
century closed, business revived; agriculture, manufactures, and com- 
merce, inter-State and international, began to show some sigos of a 
future prosperity. A poverty-stricken people soon became possessed 
of a fair competency, and men's thoughts turned from the arts of war 
and a defensive life to the arts of peace and the conquest over the 
hard conditions of a new life and a new civilization. Thus came to pass 
what is aptly called the Revival Period of a great educational life. 

Singularly enough, but naturally enough, the first suggestions con- 
cerning the improvements of our public or common schools had refer- 
ence to the increased qualifications of teachers, most of whom sadly 
needed the higher intellectual, as well as moral, culture necessary in 
the instructors of youth. The earliest suggestions of institutions where 
teachers of the common schools could be qualified were made by Elisha 
Ticknor in 1789, the year of the adoption of our Federal Constitution, 
in the Massachusetts Magazine, and the first i)roposition for a distinct 
academy or school for this purpose was made in 1817 by Denison Olm- 
stead, afterwards a professor in Yale College, New Haven, Conn. 

The first twenty-five years of this century were the preparative 
period for an educational awakening; and as springtime finds all of our 
valleys, east and west, north and south, ready for the quickening sun 
to germinate the seed which shall rejoice the reapers in the harvests, 
so all along the more advanced sections of intelligent thought in the Old 
Thirteen there was a general stir, mi undefined impulse for something 
better in school-life. See how clearly this appears in the records of 
some of the important educatioDal events from 1800 and on, resulting 
from the discussions of the public press, national legislators, city, State, 
and town officials. 

In 1802, lady members of the Society of Friends, a religious body 
alwajs foremost in works of education and charity as well as of religion, 
had established a free school for girls in the city of l^e% York. In 
1805, the Legislature of ISTew York incorporated the Public School So- 
ciety, "for the establishment of a free school in New York for the edu- 
cation of poor children who do not belong to, or are not provided for, 
by any religious society." De Witt Clinton's name leads the list of 
756 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 519 

corporators and he was the first presideut of the society. In 1812, the 
Empire State created the office of Superintendent of Common Schools, 
the first state office of its kind in America, and the special reports of 
Superintendents Flagg, Dix, and Spencer, had a powerful influence in' 
inducing other States to establish common schools as a part of the 
public policy. The creation of the school fund in Connecticut, and the 
proposition to endow common schools out of the avails of the public 
lands, were a stimulus to other States to like liberal grants to public 
schools. 

The establishment of primary schools as a part of the public school 
iSystem in Boston, in 1808, through the effi)rts of Elisha Ticknor and 
many others, and subsequently of the high school for boys who did 
not intend to go through college, and of a high school for girls in 1825, 
afterward merged in an extended grammar-school course, are among 
the great events of that early day. The project of a committee of the 
State of Maryland, of which Virgil Maxcy was chairman, for distribut- 
ing a portion of the avails of the sales of the public lands among the 
several States for school purposes, with the action of the Legislatures 
of several States, attracted universal attention to the condition and im- 
provement of our public schools. Governors incorporated in their an- 
nual messages pressing recommendations relating to better schools, as 
Governors Clinton of New York, Lincoln of Massachusetts, Butler of 
Vermont, and Lincoln of Maine, and, as a result, the school laws of Ken- 
tucky, Maine, Alabama, Maryland, Missouri, Ohio, Connecticut, l^ew 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Rhode Island, New York, Vir- 
ginia, Delaware, and South Carolina, were either established or revised 
between 1821 and 1828. Free high schools were established in Wor- 
cester and Lowell, Mass., Portland and Bath, Me, Providence, E. L, 
Hartford, Conn., and in Cincinnati, Ohio, during the same year. Moni- 
torial and manual labor schools were the new experiments of the day. 
The production of school-books which should supersede the American 
Preceptor, Daboll's Arithmetic, and the Ciphering Book, was in order, 
and Colburn's Arithmetic, with all its numerous progeny, was the result. 

The establishment of seminaries for the education of girls was urged 
and entered upon, and the labors of Emma Willard at Troy, N. Y., of 
Miss Catherine Beecher at Litchfield, Conn., of Miss Grant at Ipswich, 
Mass., and of Rev. Mr. Herrick at New Haven, Conn., should never be 
forgotten. The establishment of the Rensselaer Institute at Troy, and 
of the University of Virginia, were events of great significance in their 
several sections. The proposition in 1825 to establish independent 
schools of practical science, or to extend the plans of collegiate edu- 
cation so as to admit of more attention to the sciences, especially as 
applied to the useful arts, was a long step forward; the formation of 
mechanics' institutes in 1821 and of popular lyceums in 1826, wich de- 
bates, lectures, cabinets, classes for instruction, libraries, etc., and con- 
ventions held in Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Pennsyl- 
vania, in the twenties, were results of a profound conviction that the 
people must have a better style of education, as well as the occasion of a 
more thorough work in creating a better x^ublic sentiment for universal 
education. 

From the hasty glimpses given one can see that great agencies were at 
work in establishing the American common school on a firm and intelli- 
gent basfs. A deep want was everywhere felt for a better condition of 
education for the children of all the people, and as a result men began 
lo bestir ihemselves in matters relating to school organization, adrainis- 
tJatiou, and endowment. A broad philanthropy rather than a deep 

■757 



520 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

philosophy ruled the hour, and men consulted their instincts rather than 
the formulas of logic in their educational policy. As we have seen, no 
one locality monopolized the new educational life. It was throbbing 
with equal energy in the hearts of such men as Jefferson in Virginia, 
Wayland in Rhode Island, Grimke in South Carolina, Clinton of New 
York, G-allaudet of Connecticut, Frelinghuysen of New Jersey, Emer- 
son, Oliver, and Abbott of Massachusetts, Peers of Kentucky, Guilford 
of Ohio, Shaw of Virginia, and hosts of others whose names are to-day 
embalmed in State and local history. 

All great movements in society proceed after one general law, — agi- 
tation, organization, publication, and persuasion. We have seen the 
educational movement proceed along the line of the first two steps. 
Great themes have been talked over, legislation has been effected, the 
machinery of school work has been put in decent order and set in mo- 
tion. The first educational association was formed at Middletown, 
Conn., in 1799, under the name of the Middlesex County Association 
for the Improvement of Common Schools. There is now needed the 
inspiration and the great balance wheel of educational literature to 
keep in regular and harmonious order and procedure the complex thing 
we call the common-school system. 

THE FIRST EDUCATIONAL .JOURNAL IN THE WORLD. 

Massachusetts has been the birth-place of many excellent men, ideas, 
and institutions, and not the least of her occasions of boasting is the 
publication of the first professional paper, or magazine, on education in 
this country. Its name was the American Journal of Education^ and 
the first number of Volume I appeared January 1, 1826. It was pub- 
lished in Boston by Wait, Greene & Co., Court Street, and printed by 
Thomas B. Wait & Son, proprietors. Of Mr. Wait, we know that he 
was a practical printer and publisher, and becoming deeply interested 
in the subject of education, during his residence in Portland, Me., in 
the movement for the establishment of a system of graded schools, he 
proposed the publication of the Journal op Education, in the fall 
of 1825, to several- literary and educational gentlemen of Boston and 
vicinity, who readily accepted his proposals and aided the undertaking. 
The names of the modest editors nowhere appear in the first volumes, 
but they were known to be William Russelli William C. Woodbridge, 
and William A. Alcott, and, on the authority of Dr. Henry Barnard ^ 
these three men have the honor of editing " the first periodical devoted 
to the advancement of education in the English language." Those 
familiar with the common school history of Massachusetts know these 
men, and their cotemporaries and associates in teaching and writing 
on education. There were in their councils George B. Emerson, A. 
Bronson Alcott, Warren Colburn, James G. Carter, Horace Mann, 
Henry K. Oliver, Josiah Holbrook, Eev. Samuel J. May, Gideon F. 
Thayer, Ebenezer Bailey, Eev. John Pierpont, William B. Calhoun, 
Nehemiah Cleveland, Joseph Story, B. D. Emerson, Jacob Abbott, Asa 
Eand, Caleb Gushing, Dr. John C. Warren, Samuel P. Newman, George 
Ticknor, William C. Fowler, of Massachusetts, Samuel E. Hall of Ver- 
mont, Francis Wayland and John Kingsbury of Ehode Island, and 
many others whose names are as familiar as those of our households. 
These are a few of the names of that company of pioneers and reform- 
ers, the products and the forces of a movement which generated its own 
agents and agencies, and who have filled the world with their influ- 
ences on that and succeeding generations. 
758 



INTJERNATiONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 521 ' 

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OP EDUCATION 

was published monthly, containing 64 small octavo pages in each num- 
ber, or 768 pages a year, at the price of $4 a year. It wc-s at first pro- 
posed to have 48 pages in each number, but the editors say that they 
found it impossible to do justice to their subjects without introducing 
a greater number and variety of topics than could be brought within 
that limit. The reasons for the undertaking are clearly set forth in the 
prospectus in the first number : 

The spirit of inqniry, which has of late years exteuded to everything connected 
with human improvf^ment, has been directed with peculiar earnestuess to the subject 
of education. In our own country, the basis of whose institutions is felt to be intel- 
ligence and virtue, this topic has been regarded as one of no ordinary interest, and 
has excited a zeal and an activity worthy of its importance. 

. A periodical work, devoted exclusively to education, would seem likely to be of 
peculiar service at the present day, when an interest in this subject is so deejjly and 
extensively felt. At no period have opportunity and disposition for the extensive 
interchange and difi'usion of thought been so favorably combined. Science and lit- 
erature have their respective publications, issuing at regular intervals from the press 
and contributing incalculably to the dissemination of knowledge and taste. But 
education, — a subject of the highest practical moment to every school, every family 
and every community, — remains unprovided with one of those useful vehicles of in- 
formation. 

The leading objects of the Journal are declared to be — 

I. A record of facts regarding the past and present state of educa- 
tion in the United States and foreign countries. 

II. The diffusion of ^'■enlarged and liberal views of education.''^ "Edu- 
cation should, we think, be regarded as the means of fitting man for 
the discharge of all his duties," including physical education, or the 
training of healthy bodies, moral education, domestic and personal edu- 
cation, or that which consists in the voluntary formation of individual 
character. 

III. Female education, "a matter of unspeakable importance." 

lY. Early and elementary education — "more important than that of 
any other period or department." 

Y. Higher and scientific education. 

The title, say the proprietors, was originally intended to be local, 
probably the "']S^ew England Journal of Education," but its change to 
"American" was that it might " subserve the cause, not in one State 
or country, but throughout the continent." 

The subjects treated in the first American sc"hool journal show the 
thought trend of that day. The initial article in this journal, which 
was continued through the first five numbers, relates to what are styled 
infant or dame's schools, giving their history, plans, and progress, 
in Bristol, Brighton, Liverpool, and London, England. The monitorial 
and inductive systems, as inculcated by Lancaster and Pestalozzi and 
then much studied in America, are fully discussed, with a complete his- 
tory of the monitorial experiments in Boston. Several pages of each 
number are devoted to careful reviews of methods, theories, and books, 
while under the head of Intelligence we have accounts of educational 
movements in Eugland, France, India, Germany, South America, Greece, 
as well as in all parts of our own country. Mechanics' institutes and 
lyceums, then being generally established in England and America, are 
given great prominence, while a i)roposed institution in Massachusetts 
for that class of persons " who do not desire, or are not able, to obtain 
a college education," is outlined under the title of "An Agricultural 
Seminary," the basis of our present agricultural colleges. Among other 
leading subjects, we And high schools for females, Church Sunday- 

759 



5^'^ EDUCATIONAL COl^VEkfiONS AT NEW OlRLEANS ElPOSlflON. 

schools, monitorial instruction, the education of females, the public 
schools of New York and Massachusetts, academical education in Eng- 
land, and a proposed " Society of Education," in the plans of which was 
outlined the foundation of all our present educational associations. 
Among the objects to be secured by this society or college for teachers 
were the following: 

(1) The promotion of infant or domestic education. 

(2) The increase of facilities for t-he instruction of teachers, including 
professional schools. 

(3) The establishment of a teachers' library of useful works on edu- 
cation. 

(4) The improvement of school text books. 

(5) The study of new systems of education as developed abroad. 

(6) The organization of a society with branches in all leading cities, 
after the plan of the French Society of Education, or the British and 
Foreign School Society. 

Indian civilization through education occupies the thought of these 
pioneers. The defects of liberal education are pointed out ; classical 
education has its advocates and opponents. One writer deplores the me- 
chanical modes of instruction of the time, by which, he declares, "chil- 
dren are treated as mere imitative animals and not as intelligent beings ;^' 
and he also affirms that '■ the man or system that communicates one dis- 
tinct idea to the mind of a child confers a greater blessing on the human 
race than to teach him a thousand words without ideas." 

In the prospectus of the January number of 1828, the editors an- 
nounce a wider range of topics to be discussed, including practical sci- 
ence and useful information. Tiiey suggest that the magazine may 
become a family book, that " the lyceum, that useful and prosperous 
institution so rapidly extending throughout New England," will leceive 
special attention, and for the first time it is hinted at that the circula- 
tion of the Journal has not been equal to expectations, and that " a more 
extensive and liberal support is demanded." Here we begin to feel a 
vital kinship with these editorial brethren, and our sympathies are 
stirred as the appeal is made, as it has often been since, for a more cor 
dial, appreciative, and generous patronage of school publications. 

The Journal of Education in 1829 became a bi-monthly, with longer 
articles, and a fuller discussion of the topics treated. The leading 
topics relate to infant schools, maternal instruction, the American ly- 
ceum, self-culture, Christian schools, Bacon's philosophy, Pestalozzi's 
methods, errors in common education, military academies, influence of 
novels, Combe's " Constitution of Man," phrenology, etc., etc., with able 
reviews, and educational intelligence the wide world over. 

In 1830 was formed at Boston the American Institute of Instruction, 
an outgrowth of the public sentiment and unity of purpose produced 
by the four years' work of the American Journal of Education. The 
same leaders are found in the Association as in the establishment of 
the Journal^ and their strong co-operative influence leads to a revival 
of interest in the periodical, the only mouthpiece of American teachers. 
In January, 1831. the name of the magazine is changed to American 
Annals of Education and Instruction and Journal of Literary Institutions, 
and it resumed its monthly visits to its readers. In this and the suc- 
ceeding years of the Annals, until its suspension in 1838-'39, the dis- 
cussions of the magazine are more practical, have a wider range, and 
the intelligence relating to the great movements of education is full 
and interesting. Teachers' conventions were held in all parts of the 
land, in which were discussed better teaching, better teachers, better 

760 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDtfCAToES — PAPERS. 6^3 

school-houses, improved text-books, a more iutelligeDt public sentiment, 
teachers' seminaries or normal schools, and kindred themes- Education 
societies are reported from Maine to Florida, and from Ohio to Missis- 
sippi, and local county and State institutes and associations grow out 
of the general forward movement. A Board of Education had been 
established in Massachusetts, lyceums and teachers' associations and 
libraries were on the increase, and the cause of education had made its 
greatest conquest of that day in drawing from a irrespectively brilliant 
political career Horace Mann, to become the great expounder of edu- 
cational truth and doctrines to the world, as was Daniel Webster the 
eloquent defender of our Constitutional faith; and how fitting it is 
that in front of the State House at Boston stand the bronze statues of 
these two men, as the Joachim and Boaz of our political temple ! 

A crisis arrives in the history of educational jouroalism in January, 
1835, just a half century ago. It was none other than the question of 
the suspension of the Annals, to the editorship of which Mr. William C. 
Woodbridge, its very able managing editor at this period, had devoted 
time, strength, and money. " Education " is again one of the " eternal 
subjects," and "The necessity of a periodical on education," is the open- 
ing sentence of " The Prospects of the Annals " for that year. The edi- 
tor declares that after three years of unrewarded toil and expenditure 
of all his surplus means to sustain the only periodical on education in 
our great and growing country, the editor still found it involved, beyond 
bis power to extricate it ; yet without abandoning its future publica- 
tion, he makes an appeal for the sale of two hundred sets of the maga- 
zine. Here we have to record one of the most remarkable deliverances 
that ever came to save the life of a worthy etlucatioual journal. A [;lan 
was devised for meeting the exigency, and the subscribers who came to 
the rescue are no less than Daniel Webster, William E. Channing, John 
Quincy Adams, Josiah Quincy, Leonard Woods, Edward Everett, Jo- 
se[)h Story, Moses Stuart, John J. Palfrey, George Ticknor, Baron Stow, 
Eufus Anderson, Hubbard Winslow, William Hayne, William Wirt, 
Caleb Cushing, A. Alexander, W. T. Dwight, and fifty others whose 
names are of national renown. What other paper ever had the honor 
of such a list of subscribers ! ! 

On the 20th of April, 1837, the Legislature of Massachusetts created 
the Board of Education; Edward Everett was its first President, and 
the Honorable Horace Mann, then late President of the Massachusetts 
Senate, was unanimously elected Secretary of the Board, at an annual 
salary of 1 1,000, "provided he should devote himself exclusively to the 
duties of the office." 

This was on the 29th of June, 1837. Mr. Woodbridge, the editor of 
the Annals, was then in Europe, detained by ill health, and Dr. W. A. 
Alcott conducted the magazine. In an editorial introducing Mr. Alcott 
he indulged the hope that our American periodical on education icill be 
sustained, and that the spirit of inquiry which is aroused will demand 
and maintain many others, and thus render the existence of any one of 
far less importance. In December, 1837, Mr. Woodbridge withdrew 
from the editorship of the Annals, a work to which he had devoted the 
best years of his hfe, and in the prosecution of which he had sacrificed 
his health and diminished his fortune, and it may be said that the cause 
of education had no clearer mind to expand its i)rinciple8, and no more 
earnest friend to promote its interests. Educational journalists in 
America have good reason to be i)roud of the three self denying, talented, 
and devoted men, who made professional educational literature a suc- 
cess in the days when personal faith and courage were the main sup- 

761 



524 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

ports of a noble cause. These men were Woodbridge, Eussell, and 
Alcott. 

The withdrawal of Mr. Woodbridge was followed by the retirement 
of Dr. W. A. Alcott, and the Annals was intrusted to the editorship of 
M. G. Hubbard, Esq., who turned it from its original purpose in the 
advocacy of the interests of common schools to a magazine in which 
high schools, academies, and colleges should have a special record. 

This step, which was fatal to the life of the old magazine, led Mr. 
Mann to contemjjlate the establishment of a journal in which he could 
give expression to his views, and the more readily reach the teachers 
and people of Massachusetts. Prompt action followed contemplation, 
and in November, 1838, the Common School Journal was issued, with 
Horace Mann as editor. His great object in the Journal, he said in bis 
prospectus, was to improve the common schools and other means of 
education; to diffuse, rather than to discover knowledge; to make that 
which is now known to any, as far as possible, known to all. Concern- 
ing the new departure of the Annals, he said, "we propose to sail 
through widely distant and different latitudes on an all-embracing 
ocean of education. If, however, we should ever chance to come within 
hailing distance of the Annals, we assure it that we shall run up a 
friendly flag, give it a cordial greeting, and hope to hear of the good 
success of its voyage." 

The Common School Journal was published semi-monthly, after the 
first two numbers, and was furnished to subscribers at the low price of 
$1 a year. It was edited by Mr. Mann for ten years, and embodies his 
most mature thought on education in all its varied phases, as they were 
presented to his fertile mind and vivid imagination. The results of his 
thorough and constant study of educational problems were here first 
given to the people of Massachusetts and to the world, and it is doubt- 
ful if any other educational journal contains so rich and valuable con- 
tributions to a permanent literature of education. Mr. Mann regarded 
the Common School Journal as the right arm of his power and influence, 
and the great reforms which lie inaugurated in teaching and the revo- 
lution in public sentiment effected during his remarkable administration, 
may be traced to the Journal as the most important agency. But little 
note has ever been made of the fact that Horace Maun was for ten years 
of his secretaryship sole editor of a great school journal, which, though 
almost forgotten by men, is an enduring monument to his power as a 
journalist and his fame as an educator. 

It was not an easy task for Horace Mann to secure a large subscrip- 
tion list, or a very generous support; and, strange as it may seem, we 
find his appeals vigorous and urgent for more readers and subscribers. 
What a comfort to us, his successors, that our great leader once begged 
his fellows to support his paper, and one of his most vigorous editorials 
related to the threatened death in 1840 of the SchoolJonrnal of Connecti- 
cut, edited by the Hon. Henry Barnard. Listen to a few of his sharp 
words, which applied almost as well to his own. beloved Commonwealth 
as to the educators of the sister State of Connecticut : 

We are grieved to hear, from the May nnmher of the Connecticut Common School 
Journal, that the publication of that wise and stronj^ auxiliary in the cause of educa- 
tion is to cease. It dies from waut of patronage. Its zealous, talented, and phil- 
anthropic editor, Henry Barnard, Esq., Secretary of the Connecticut Commission of 
Common Schools, has sustained it by his mind and his purse, until the burden has 
become too heavy to be longer borne. Thus the only periodical in that State fails, 
through public apathy. One would suppose, beforehand, that a fact of such signifi- 
cance, in regard to the present condition and future well being of the body politic, 
would reanimate its frame and till its members with new life, except they are, not 
762 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 525 

moroly dead, but decomposed. Tbe present excited state of the public mind breeds a 
liolitical newspaper almost, every hour. These are paid for, read, conversed about, 
and dreamed about. The public mails are distended with party documents; drunken 
liiecou<Ths are set to music; while one of the best of papers, conducted by <me of the 
best of men, and devoted to the best of causes, dies in a New England State of public 
neglect. The Connecticut Legislature is now in session, and we earnestly hope that 
it will provide means for the continuance of this excellent paper. 

Ill 1848 Mr. Mann q,llowed his name to be used as a candidate for a 
Eepresentative to the National Congress, on account of his well-known' 
views respecting slavery and the condition of the American Indian. He 
was elected, and his labors were now transferred from the educational 
to the ])olitical arena at Washington. Mr. Mann's valedictory (Dec. 18, 
1848) gives us a distinct view of the condition of educational journalism 
of that day : 

It came to the public as their fate, rather than as a consequence of their free will. 
It was born, not; because it was wanted, but because it was needed. Though the 
Journal is but 10 years old, yet compared with any other journal devoted to the cause 
of education in this country its age is patriarchal. One, the Albany District School 
Journal, which was established about two years after this, having been nourished by 
the bounty of the State, still survives. But numerous others, subsequently com- 
menced, have been sad remembrances of the brevity of life. Some have died as soon 
as born because they had no life, no vital organs Avithin them; but others, and the 
far greater number, have perished from the bleak atmosphere, — the coldness of the 
world into which they were born. May the survivors long live to earn the highest 
of all rewards, — the reward of well doing, and may their last days be their best days. 

Our motto used to be, "The cause of education, the first of all causes." Recent 
events, however, of a national character, have forced upon the public attention the 
great truth, that before a man can be educated he must be a free man. It. is in obe- 
dience to this truth that the editor of the Journal now leaves the immediate field of 
education to assist in securing, as far as one vote among two hundred and thirty votes 
in one department of the national councils can do it, the freedom of man in regions 
yet unoccupied by civilized races; so that the vast territories which are now roamed 
over by savage hordes may rise from barbarian life into civilization, instead of sink- 
ing, in this nineteenth century of the Christian era, from the depths of barbarism 
into the abyss of slavery. 

It is no alienation, therefore, from the cause of education, but only to sAure a 
sphere where education may "run and be glorified," that occasions this apparent 
departure from his long-loved field of labor. Than these causes what can be nobler? 
For these causes, who -would not be "willing to fall, though he should fall like Arnold 
of Winkelried — his body a " sheaf of spears " ? 

With a comprehensiveness of meaning that embraces both worlds, we wish our 
readers and friends, Farewell. 

The Common ScJiool Journal was contimied by William B. Fowle, of 
Boston, a jjrominent educator of that day, until the establishment of 
the Massachusetts Teacher, which was founded by the State Teachers' 
Association in 1847, and became its organ, its editors, twelve in number, 
one for each month of its publication, being elected at the annual meet- 
ing of the Association. The first number of the Massachusetts Teacher 
was issued January 1, 1848, with Thomas Sherwiu, S. W. Bates, Charles 
Northend, and John D. Philbricli, as publishing committee, with Messrs. 
Bates, Carlton, Emerson, North end. Parish, Peunell, Philbrick, Sherwin, 
Sweetser, Thayer, Tweed, and Wells, as editors. It was published at 
first semi-monthly, sixteen pages duodecimo, at a subscription price of 
one dollar a year in advance. The ownership was vested in the Mas- 
sachusetts Teachers' Association. 

As an aid in the financial support of the Teacher the State of Massa- 
chusetts became a subscriber to the amount of $500, in lieu of which 
the association circulated five hundred copies of the Teacher gratui- 
tously, among the school oflicers of the State. This policy of a State 
subsidy was continued until January, 1875, when the Massachusetts 
Teacher was merged in the Neio England Journal of Education. The 
Teacher was published in the interests of the common schools of the 

763 



526 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

State, and the general ability of its editorial corps made it one of the 
most valuable and influential papers of the country. It is the good for- 
tune of any educational library which possesses a full file of the thirty-six 
years of the Massachusetts Teacher, the foundation of which was laid in 
the Journal of Education in 1826, and further built up by the Annals 
and the Common School Journal. An index of the articles published in 
this succession of periodicals, from 1826 to 1875, .would outline the his- 
tory of the most remarkable period of the educational work of the 
country, and the contents would furnish valuable material for the his- 
torian. 

EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN CONNECTICUT. 

Connecticut was the second of the New England States to enjoy the 
benefits and to bear the burdens of an educational journal. The Co7i- 
necticut Common School Journal was a monthly periodical devoted to edu- 
cation, and was established by Hon. Henry Barnard, then Secretary of the 
Board of Commissioners for Common Schools. Mr. Barnard owned, 
edited, and published it, and it was continued by him until the abolition 
of the oifice in 1842. The Urst Journal was mainly intended to circulate 
school laws and other information to school officers and teachers, Mr. 
Barnard assuming the expenses of the publication. 

The Connecticut Common School Journal was re-established by Mr. 
Barnard in 1850, on his appointment to the office of State. Superin- 
tendent of Schools, and conducted by him on the same terms as at first, 
until 1854, when it passed into the hands of the Connecticut State 
Teachers' Association, by whom it was published until it was merged 
in the Wew England Journal of Education, established in 1875. Its first 
board of editors appointed by the State Association in 1853, consisted 
of Hon. Henry Barnard, Hartford: Prof. John Brocklesby, Trinity Col- 
lege, Hartford ; T. W. T. Curtiss, Principal of High School, Hartford ; 
Davi^l N. Camp, Normal School, New Britain; Eev. E. B. Huntington, 
High School, Waterbury; Prof. John Johnston, Wesley College, Mid- 
dletown; E. A. Lawrence, High School, Stamford; P. B. Perkins (now 
librarian at San Francisco, Cal.), Hartford; Prof. Thomas A. Thacher, 
Yale College, New Haven; and John D.Philbrick, Normal School, New 
Britain, Conn. 

This board was changed somewhat from year to year. The resident 
editors commencing with the new. series, 1854, were John D. Philbrick, 
Charles Northend, and David N. Camp, successively. The price con- 
tinued the same, one dollar per annum. The Journal was fairly sus- 
tained by the teachers of Connecticut, but was probably never a source 
of profit. Some of the teachers had to make up deficiencies in some 
years. It was considered an important aid, not only to teachers and 
local school officers, but to the State departments of education. Dur- 
ing the latter years of its publication it was sent to the school visitors 
of each town in the State, through the aid of a small State appropria- 
tion. 

The Connecticut School Manual was established in January, 1847, by 
Eev. Merrill Richardson, editor. Its price was fifty cents per annum, 
and it was issued monthly by Case, Lockwood & Co., for Messrs. Eich- 
ardson, etc. It was continued two years, Avhile the Connecticut Common 
School Journal was suspended, and was given up because it did not 
pay expenses and the friends of education had decided to use other 
in strumeiitalities. 

Mr. Eichardson was the first president, and David N. Camp the first 
secretary, of the Connecticut State Teachers' Association, formed in 

764 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 527 

1847, and the Conneeficut School Manual was issued to call attention to 
this organization, and to try to arouse some interest in education. Mr. 
Eicharclson and Mr. Camp were then employed to hold teach'fers' insti- 
tutes through the State under the direction of the superintendents of 
common schools. 

BARNARD'S JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 

The plan of a series of publications embracing a periodical to be is- 
sued monthly or quarterly, devoted exclusively to the history, discus- 
sion, and statistics of systems, institutions, and methods of education, 
in different countries, with special reference to the condition and wants 
of American schools, was formed by Hon. Henry Barnard in 1842, on 
the discontinuance of the Connecticut Common School Jour7ial, which 
was commenced in 1838. A large amount of material was collected, 
and several pamphlets were published by Mr. Barnard prior to 1855, 
when, after failing to enlist the American Institute of Instruction, the 
Smithsonian Institute, or the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, in the establishment of a central agency, he undertook 
on his own responsibility the publication of a journal and library 
of education. Arrangements were accordingly made to publish the 
" American Journal of Education" in April, 1855. After much of the 
copy of the first number was in type, a conference was held with Eev. 
Absalom Peters, D. D., who contemplated publishing a jjeriodical en- 
titled the " American College Eeview and Educational Magazine [or 
Journal]." A partnership was formed, and Dr. Peters and Dr. Bar- 
nard became co-editors of ;ti^e American Journal of Education and College 
Review. 

Alter the publication of the first number, in August, 1855, and the 
second in January, 1856, it was found that the two editors could not 
agree as to the character of the magazine, and the co-editorship and part- 
nership were dissolved, leaving each party free with " the privilege of 
publishing an educational magazine for which he was entitled to use 
the first and second numbers of the American Journal of Education and 
College Eeview as numbers one and two of his work." Dr. Barnard then 
proceeded with the work, carefully planned and prepared for, and in 
March, 1856, commenced the series of educational magazines styled 
the American Journal of Education^ which has now reached the thirty- 
fourth volume, each volume averaging over 600 octavo pages of impor- 
tant matter, relating to all departments of educational work. 

Dr. Barnard's service in this direction has ^iven him a world-wide 
reputation as an editor as well as an educator. The Journal is an 
encyclopedia of knowledge on all topics relating to education, and its 
completeness and thoroughness have won for it and its author the high- 
est testimonials from the educators of all lauds. No work in any lan- 
guage is so full of instruction as to systems, institutions, public and 
])rivate, technical and special schools, history, biography, philosophy, 
etc., etc. In fact, no library can be said to be complete that does not 
contain Barnard's American Journal of Education, and although pub- 
lished in Connecticut by an enterprising Hartford house, and edited by 
a Connecticut educator, it belongs to the nation and to the world. 

SCHOOL JOURNALS IN MAINE. 

The earliest efforts in Maine to establish a school literature were in 
J849. Jn that year a pai^er for scholars entitled the Scholar^s Leaf, and 

765 



528 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

another for teachers called the Common School Advocate appeared. The 
Leaf flourished for some time 5 the Advocate had a briefer life. 

Mr. Dttnnell, iu 1858, while State Superintendent, started a paper 
called the Maine Teacher. It was printed monthly. Each number 
contained thirty-two pages. Mr. Bunnell continued its publication 
till he completed his term of office, nearly two years. This journal ap- 
pears in the Eeport of Mr. Weston, Superintendent, for 1860. Under his 
direction it lived till 1864. In that year it was suspended. 

The next year it was renewed by Mr. Gage, of the Western Normal 
School, under the name of the Maine Journal^ and among its contribu- 
tors were Eev. Jacob Abbott, then living at Farmington, Hon. E. P. 
Weston, State Superintendent of Schools, A. P. Stone, LL. D., of Port- 
land (now Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass.), and many of 
the leading teachers of the State. A Mr. Swift was the publisher. 

In 1868, the Journal was issued from Portland, Brown Thurston being 
the publisher, and Mr. Gage continued as editor until the close of the 
year, when he removed to Minnesota to become principal of the normal 
school at Mankato. 

In January, 1869, the name was changed to the Maine Journal of Ed- 
ucation. Mr. Thurston was proprietor and publisher, and A. P. Stone 
principal editor, assisted by twelve monthly editors, comprising the 
normal school principals, leading teachers, and some of the county 
school supervisors of the State. 

In August, 1873, Mr. Stone removed from the State, and Albro E. 
Chase, of the Portland High School, became editor. This arrangement 
continued until the absorption of the Journal by the New England Jour- 
nal of Education, in 1875. 

SCHOOL JOURNALISM IN VERMONT. 

The School Journal and Vermont Agriculturist was i^ublished monthly 
for three years, beginning in May, 1847, by Messrs. Bishop & Tracy, of 
Windsor, Vt. 

It was a pamphlet of sixteen pages, measuring 5^- by 12 inches per 
page, exclusive of margin ; the first eight pages were devoted to the 
schools and the other eight to agriculture. The price for a single copy 
was fifty cents a year, for sixteen copies, $4 a year. It was a sensible 
and spirited journal, but was not profitable to the j)ublishers. After- 
ward Z. K. Pangborn, since an editor and politician in New Jersey, then 
a Vermont schoolmaster, published the Teacher^s Voice jTor something 
like a year and a half. • 

The Vermont School Journal was established in April, 1859, and was 
edited by a comtuittee of the Yermont Teachers' Association. Gov. 
William Slade was .one of its warm supporters, but he soon died. A. 
E. Leavenworth and G. S. Spaulding were acting editors on their own 
])ecuniary responsibility. One attempt before this to sustain such a 
journal had failed. (See Vol. I, p. 221.) 

For two years it was so conducted; then Hiram Orcutt and Mr. 
Leavenworth became the editors and proprietors. At the beginning of 
Vol. IV Hiram Orcutt took entire charge and responsibility of and for 
the Journal's success, and continued its publicatioa for three years, 
when he left the State to take charge of Tilden Seminary, West Leb- 
anon, N. H. At this time two thousand copies of the Vermont Journal 
were published each month. Paper cost twenty-five cents per pound 
and all other expenses equally increased, yet the Vermont Journal was 
furnished at fifty cents in advance, and under Dr, Orcutt was a x^aying 
766 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATOKS PAPEES. 529 

business. (3uly one number was published after his withdrawal, and 
that was not put in circulation. 

THE RHODE ISLAND SCHOOLMASTER. 

This educational monthly, so well known in all parts of the country 
during its publication, was born of the Ehode Island Institute of In- 
struction and the Commissioner of Public Schools, Eev. itobert Allyn, 
now Principal of the Southern Illinois Normal University. At the Jan- 
uary session of the Institute, 1855, a committee was chosen, consisting 
of Dana P. Colburn and others, to consider the advisability of establish- 
ing a State journal of education. The committee advised it, and the In- 
stitute adopted the advice, and as a result Ko. 1, Vol. I, of the ScJiool- 
master, was published in March, 1855, and was continued through vary- 
ing fortunes till Jan. 1, 1875, when it was merged in the New England 
Journal of Education. Its editors were for several years the school com- 
missioners of the State, who brought their official intiuence to the pat- 
ronage of the magazine. Toward its support the State appropriated 
$300, for wbich 300 copies were gratuitously distributed among the 
school officers of the State, as in Massachusetts. The ownership of the 
Schoolmaster was vested in the Ehode Island Institute of Instruction, 
and its editors and management were chosen annually by that educa- 
tional body. Its circulation was sufficient to make it a self-supporting 
paper, and its jiopularity gave it a powerful influence at home and 
abroad. 

THE NEW HAMPSHIRE SCHOOL JOURNAL. 

I^ew Hampshire was the next in order to establish a school journal, 
and Eev. W. L. Gage had the honor of leading in the movement, as an 
independent school journal editor and publisher, in January, 1857. The 
New Hampshire Journal of Education, like its cotemporaries, was a large 
duodecimo, published monthly, and devoted to the discussion of State 
educational affairs. It was not edited, however, to the full satisfaction 
of the teachers of the State, and, pecuniary support being wanting, Mr. 
Gage trausferrejl the subscription lists and good-will of his paper to the 
IS'ew Hampshire Teachers' Association, and in 1858 Henry E. Sawyer, 
now engaged as superintendent of Mr. Moody's school at N"orthfleld, 
Mass., became the editor, with an associate board of twelve monthly 
assistants. 

In 1861 Jonathan Tenney succeeded Mr. Sawyer in the management 
of the Journal, which yielded to the inevitable at the end of its sixth 
volume. The circulation of the Journal varied from 300 to 500 sub- 
scriptions, "died for want of sustenance," and was never restored to 
life by later adventurers. 

THE NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 

In 1874 a new departure was taken in educational journalism in New 
England in the establishment of the Journal of Education. 

The ijublication of the Neio England Journal of Education was first 
suggested in practical form at the meeting of the American Institute of 
Instruction at North Adams, Mass., in July, 1874, and a committee was 
appointed, consisting of two jiersons from each of the New England 
States, to consider the expediency of the establishment of a weekly 
paper which should represent New England educational opinions. This 
7950 COT., PT. 2 34 767 



530 EDL'CATIONAL COXVEXTIOXS AT NEW OKLEAXS EXPOSITIOX. 

coinmitt(;o,coii.si.stiDf; of Messrs. Eounds and Jolmson of Maine, Simonds 
and Oioiitt of Xew Ilampsbire, French and Conant of Vermont, Ham- 
mond and Hag-ar of Massarbusetts, Mowry and Bicknell of libode 
Island, and Xortbrop and Carleton of Connecticut, held their first meet- 
ing at Boston, October, 1874, and, after a full discussion and a careful 
consideration of ibe whole matter, resolved unanimously that it was 
both expedient and desirable to establish a ZS^ew England school jour- 
nal, in which the departm<-nts of primary and secondary instruction, of 
normal schools, and of school supervision should be represented. It 
was also recommended by this comnjittee that the American Institute 
of Instruction, the teachers' associations of the several Xew England 
States, and the managers of the several school journals of Xew Eng- 
land be invited to co-operate in securing the union of these educational 
agencies for the establishment of such a journal as would meet the 
wants and demands of educators in and out of Xew England. 

As a response to this invitation, more than thirt\' gentlemen, repre- 
senting all of the interests above mentioned, met at City Hall, Boston, 
November 27, 1874. Dr. Hagar, of Salem, chairman of the committee 
on the adoption of a plan for the publication of a weekly educational 
paper, reported, and called upon the representatives of the State asso- 
ciations and papers to give the views of their constituents. All declared 
in favor of the movement, and, with an enthusiasm seldom witnessed, 
in educational circles, in the discussion that followed, it was voted 
unanimously to enter upon and 6ui>port the new enterprise. We shall 
never forget the mea and the measures of that memorable trans- 
action, when Mr. Charles C, Chatfield, of Xew Haven, Conn., editor 
and publisher of the College Courant, was elected publisher, and the 
present editor-in-chief was elected editor of what was to be the 
Xew England Journal of Education. It was recommended that a 
weekly paper of sixteen pages, of the size of the Courant, be pub- 
lished; and to its establishment, under the joint business management 
of Messrs. Bicknell and Chatfield, its future was committed, with pledges 
of the good will and support of the associations, whose action had been 
marked with so much unity, harmony, and enthusiasm. As soon as the 
vote was declared establishing the Journal, the venerable George B. 
Emerson, then over eighty years of age, rose, and asked to be the first 
subscriber to the new x>aper, taking five copies, a subscription which he 
continued till his death. Another enthusiastic friend, one of the Boston 
grammar-school masters, pledged one hundred subscribers, and more 
than fulfilled his pledge in his zeal for the success of the enterprise. 

And so we were encouraged to f-nter upon a service, upon whose first 
years, at least, the word experiment was written. At the outset, the 
Massachusetts Teacher, the Rhode Island Schmlmaster, the Connecticiit 
i^chool Journal, and the College Courant were the foundation stones on 
which the Journal was built, ^ot many months later, the Maine Jour- 
nal of Education was added to the supporting columns, and, since the 
commencement of our work, six other educational papers have merged 
their interests and subscription-lists with the Journal. Xo. 1, Vol. I, is 
before us. Colonel T. W. Higgiuson leads the contributors with an arti- 
cle on " How to Study History." President Buckham of the University 
of Vermont discusses "The Co operation of Parents and Teachers." W. 
W. Bailey wrote one of his charming pen-pictures on "The December 
Woods." Pres't J. C. Greenough gave a practical article on "Thor- 
oughness." "How to Teach Composition" was shown bv Prof. J. E. 
Vose. Dr. Orcutt showed "The Kelation of the Public School to the 
State." Professor Greene wrote a most valuable article on "Teaching 

768 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRP:SS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 531 

in Answer to a Conscious Want." The Rogers High School at New- 
port was described and illustrated by cuts. Then came the editorial 
pages, Avith our salutatory and other words relative to the new jiaper, 
with hosts of "Good Words" to cheer us. Mrs. Blade's department was 
full of good tilings, and a scientific department was ably edited by Pro- 
fessor Hoy t of Providence. Then came State departments, etc., etc., etc. 

The first New England Journal of Education was printed and mailed at 
New Haven, Conn., from the office of the old College Gourant, when thefore- 
man and compositors removed to Boston, and type, furniture, presses, 
etc., were set up at 16 Hawley Street, where we had chosen our future 
home. Mr. Chatfield's business experience, and great hopefulness and 
courage, stood as a tower of strength in our first days, and his faith 
never failed him even in the hours of his weakness, and in his final sur- 
render to the All-conqueror, in July, 1876. Then we were called upon 
to assume the capacity of publisher as well as editor, both of which we 
have continued to hold, with able assistants, in the several departments 
of the work. 

On the death of Mr. Chatfield, in 1876, we sought for an efficient 
assistant in our business department, and found him in Mr, W. E. 
Shehlon. He has done the Journal and the cause of education noble 
and faithful service, and his assistance in the editorship of the Primary 
Teacher and the American Teacher have given much of the success which 
those popular papers have secured. 

After the Journal had been established three years, a demand arose 
for a i)aper devoted to primary work, and the Primary Teacher was es- 
tablished. This magazine was continued until it was merged in the 
American Teacher^ which was the union of the P%Z;Kc >S^c/iooi, established 
ill 1881, and the Teacher in 1878. In 1880, Education^ our bi-monthly 
magazine, was founded, and has reached a good circulation in England 
and on the Continent, as well as in America. It is, in fact, the only 
magazine of its kind in the world, and meets a want quite general among 
our more advanced teachers and thinkers. 

Our increasing labors have compelled us to call to our aid the services 
of able editorial assistants. Dr. Mayo is well known throughout the 
country. More recently we have called J)r. Mowry to the chair of man- 
aging editor, and we have much to expect from his talents and experi- 
ence. 

SUMMARY. 

I. Establishment.— {a) Private enter[>rise. {h) State associations of 
teachers, (c) Both. 

II. Support.— {a) Donations. (&) Subscriptions, (c) State aid. 

III. Editorships. — (a) State committee. (6) Associa.tion editors. 
[c) Private enterprise and editorship. 

IV. Scope. — [a) Common schools. (&) Colleges, (c) Higher educa- 
tion, philosophy, history, etc. {d) All grades, kindergarten to college. 

Y. Existence. — From two to twenty-six years. 

YI. Siirvival. — Journals in Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- 
necticut, which united in 1874 in the publications of the New England 
Publishing Company of Boston. 

769 



COMPETITIVE STUDIES AND RESULTANT PRIZES. 
By Prop. L. G. Bakbour, M. A., D.D., 

Central University of Kentucky. 



Let us begin by consideriDg some of the motives that have led men 
to an ardent pursuit of km)wledge hitherto. 

(1) The promotion of the honor of the Almighty. This surely is the 
noblest of all motives. We see its influence exemplified in such men as 
Clement of Alexandria, Basil of Csesarea, Tertullian of North Africa, 
Jerome of Palestine, Augustine of Hippo, and other Fathers of the 
Church ; as Anselm of Aosta, Thomas Aquinas, the Doctor Angelicas, 
Bonaventara, the Doctor Seraphicus, and Roger Bacon, the Doctor Mi- 
rabilis; as Luther and Melancthon, John Calvin and Theodore Beza, 
John Knox and Alexander Henderson, John Milton and Jeremy Tay- 
lor, besides Seldeu and Lightfoot, Bishops Butler and Prideaux, Hors- 
ley and Washburton, of the Church of England, Moses Stuart, Samuel 
Miller, Joseph Addison Alexander, and many others of whom the world 
was not worthy. 

These, indeed, except that illustrious Rabbinical scholar, John Sel- 
den, were theologians as well as Orientalists ; but may we not add 
to the list Michael Faraday, Stephen Alexander of Princeton, and, if 
we may judge from the general scholium of the Principia, Sir Isaac 
Newton ? 

This motive has prompted much of the most ardent labor of the past, 
and it will doubtless continue to do so in the future. If Man is the 
priest and interpreter of nature, and if by nature we ultimately mean 
the Author of nature, Man will always catch and echo the whispers of 
the Oracle, whether they come from sun or star, comet or dim and dis- 
tant nebula above us, from fauna and flora about us, or from the geo- 
logical treasures buried beneath our feet. And it cannot but add to 
the interest of phenomena to think of the chief Efficient Cause to 
which their occurrence is due, Who is a Person like ourselves, and of 
the final causes that called His efiiciency into play. This must always 
be so, as long as we ourselves are eflicient causes, and aim at final 
causes ; i. e., as long as Man is Man. 

(2) The welfare of mankind. This, too, is a noble motive. Old 
Cotton Mather's little volume, " Essays to do G-ood," stirred the mind of 
the young Benjamin Franklin, as Franklin himself states, and he adds 
that it largely influenced his subsequent life. Here might be men- 
tioned with honor the names of the Marquis of Worcester, Watt, Fulton, 
Stephenson, Professor Henry, Morse, Arkwright, Whitney, of the cotton 
gin, Edison, and numberless others, without whom we could hardly 
have been in New Orleans to-day, or should have found here only an 
insignificant mart, and a few flatboats tied up at the levee. 

The great physicians come in here ; Jenner with his vaccination has 
nearly driven small-pox out of the civilized world; McDowell of my 
770 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 533 

own State, Kentucky, -who by his capital operation for ovarian tumor 
has added 40,000 years to the life of woman. 

This is a high ambition to set before the students in our colleges and 
universities. Dr. McDowell was urged on to his great inveution by 
hearing his preceptor, Dr. Bell of Edinburgh, lament that there was no 
relief for ovarian tumor, no prospect to the afflicted one but that of a 
year or two of suffering, eudiug hopelessly in death. Such examples 
as Jenner and McDowell are calculated to impress young men in a 
powerful, and at the same time most salutary, manner. 

(3) A desire for pecuniary emolument has always had, and must 
always have, a place, when we treat of the real as distinguished from 
the ideal world. There is, of course, a sordid seeking after gold, a love 
of filthy lucre that .may stimulate to some attainment of scholarship, 
and particularly of professional skill. Yet it produces a low type of 
character, and the world pays heavily for scholarship and skill so 
tainted with baseness. 

On the other hand, without some means of decent support there can 
hardly be a manly self-respect. We do not reproach the English Gov- 
ernment for granting Dr. Samuel Johnson a pension in his later life. 
It may have been well as it was, but it might have been far from well 
if that pension had been conferred on him when he first set foot in Lon- 
don. Better, perhaps, for him to wrestle with poverty, and scrofula, 
and hunger, and loneliness, and withal to be a man; infinitely rugged, 
infinitely bigoted, infinitely dogmatic and overbearing, yet with a great 
tender heart within him. Perhaps his pension did him no harm; but, 
as a rule, pensions are not adapted to the production of manhood ; and 
it is better that learning and literary ability should be a means of sup- 
port without such subsidies. Lord Byron sneered at the idea of a lit- 
^erary man's receiving money for his work; but he afterward received 
considerable sums for his own poems. 

If men devote themselves to literature or science, we see nothing de- 
grading in their being paid for their labor. We do not think less of 
Faraday when we learn that he sometimes received as much as $5,000 
per year for laboratory work. ISfor do we see any good reason why the 
hope of an honorable competence may not wisely be set before the un- 
dergraduates in all our institutions. And it ma.y serve as an incentive 
to be told that the Irvings, the Prescotts, the Motleys, and the Long- 
fellows have been munificently rewarded by the muse, and that Judah 
P. Benjamin, formerly of this city, went to London after the late war 
and rose to the most lucrative practice at the English bar by publish- 
ing a book on law. For the days of Grub Street have passed away, 
and authors now do not live in garrets festooned with cobwebs. Mil- 
ton does not sell the copyright of Paradise Lost for $25, with the hope 
of a little more if it goes to a second edition ; nor does Bunyan get for 
the Paradise Regained, his Pilgrim's Progress, nothing, — except, indeed, 
glory and honor and immortality. 

(4) Fame has always appealed very strongly to intellectual men. 
Often perhaps too strongly, yet, in due subordination to higher mo- 
tives the love of reputation is a useful factor in our constitution. If 
the soldier 

"Seeks the bubble reputation 
Even in the cannon's mouth," 

scholars may pursue it over the peaceful fields of knowledge. We en- 
ter a protest against Shakespeare's disparaging phrase, " the bubble 
reputation.^ A wiser man than he^ guided too by inspiration, teaches 

771 



6B4 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS E:Js:POSiTioN. 

US that " a good name is better than precious ointment." If the love 
of glory should conflict with the love of property, the question becomes 
quantitative; how much property do we mean? Enough money to 
furnish us food and clothing is more needful than fame; but if the 
choice lie between a wide and honorable reputation and an overgrown 
opulence, most scholarly men would prefer the former. We confess to 
no little admiration of John Bernouilli when he says, in propounding 
to the mathematicians of Europe his famous problem of the "Curve of 
swiftest descent": 

Eapiat qui potest prseruium, quod solutori. paravimus, non quidem auri, non ar- 
gent! summam, quo abjecta tantum et naercenaria conducuntur ingenia, a quibus 
ut nihil laudabile, sic nihiJ, quod scientiis fructuosum, expectamus ; sed cum virtus 
sibi ipse sit merces pulcberrima, atque gloria immeuaum habeat calcar, ofif'erimus 
prtemiuui quale convenit ingeuui sanguinis viro, consertum ex honore, laude, et 
plausu ; quibus magni nostri Apollinis perspicacitem, publice et privatim, scriptis et 
dictis coronabimus, condecorabimus, et celebrabimus.^ 

[Let him who can, seize the reward which we have prepared for the solver; not 
indeed a sum of gold or silver, by which only abject and mercenary souls are enticed, 
from whom we expect nothing praiseworthy, nothing fruitful in the sciences ; but 
since virtue is her own most beautiful recompeuse, and glory has an immense spur, 
we offer a reward such as befits a man of noble blood, (a reward) woven of honor, 
praise, and applause, wherewith we will crown, adorn, and celebrate, publicly and 
privately, by pen and mouth, the perspicacity of our great Apollo.] . 

This utterance of John Bernouilli is one of the things we admire 
without absolutely indorsing. Greed of. gain shows very ill when as- 
sociated with high meutal endowments, and when, as in the case of 
Lord Bacon, it leads to ttie prostitution of super-eminent abilities, it 
becomes simply abominable. On the other hand, an unbounded love 
of applause has very often been a snare and a curse. iSTevertheless in 
its place the desi»'e for fame has always been, and will always be, a 
powerful stimulus to learning. Under this head may be included the ' 
approbation of the home circle. More than one distinguished man has 
nerved himself to supreme eftbrt by the thought of the smile of grati- 
fication and of love awaiting him at the ingle side. 

(5) A very high place among these motives must be assigned to our 
inborn love of knowledge, which may be called the hunger of the soul. 
It is a fine thought of Jonathan Edwards that the most suitable and 
right thing for the mind to do is to Jcnotc. The bodily hunger of child- 
hood is ])erhaps more intense than that of middle or old age ; but the 
hunger of the mind grows with our mental growth and strengthens 
with our strength, until in many instances it becomes an absorbing pas- 
sion. 

Amusing stories have been told of the absent-mindedness of Sir 
Isaac Newton. In general, that evenly balanced, man was free from 
the eccentricities of lesser wits. But one of his biographers suggests 
that if he ever exhibited a notable mental preoccupation, it was during 
the elaboration of his Prinoipia. Then it was, if ever, that he would 
stop in the midst of his morning toilet and sit half dressed on the side 
of his bed, wrapped in thought, or that he would not be able to say 
positively whether he had, or had not, eaten his dinner. 

Under the spell of this desire for knowledge men will say with Agas- 
siz, "I have no time to make money." The great laws which the Al- 
mighty has stamped upon His creation will charm us by their discovery; 
ihey will seem better than gold twice refined; sweeter also is it than 
honey and the honey-comb to think again the thoughts of God. If our 
own spirits have been kindled with this fire, let us ai)ply the torch to 

■ Kewtohi Opusoula, Vol. I, pp. 287-8. Lausanne and Genevaj 1744. 

772 



IjfTiil-lNlTIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — tAPERS. 535 

the minds of the youug from generation to generation, so that the ves- 
tal flame mny never be extinguished. 

(6) Lastly may be mentioned the principle of emulation, which is ap- 
pealed to by the systems of iDrizes in our various classes of schools. 
Some moralists object to all emulation as being intrinsically evil. It 
seems to us, however, to be one of those constitutional principles of our 
nature which our Maker has implanted in us for good. This appears 
to have been the opinion of Sir William Hamilton. 

If emulation is wrong per se, then every game of chess, of bat and 
ball, of croquet, of marbles, every contest in running or leaping, be- 
comes a sin. Surely the mirth of the play-ground is innocent; and it 
were an ill sort of morals that would frown upon the good-natured shout 
of victory in harmless and healthful pastimes. Who shall condemn a 
Thucydides for weeping when he heard the writings of Heroiiotus read 
in one of the national assemblies of Greece, and then striving to equal 
his prototyped Or who shall blame a Macaulay for longing to be able 
to write history as Thucydides wrote it? 

While the world stands, emulation will more or less influence the 
human heart. We cannot rid mankind of it, nor would it be well for 
mankind if we did. The only practical question for us, then, is how to 
regulate and direct this constitutional principle. 

We have now called attention to six leading motives: (1) A desire 
to honor our Maker. (2) A desire to benefit our fellow-men. (3) Pecun- 
iary emolument. (4) Love of fame. (5) Love of knowledge. (6) Emula- 
tion. 

The question arises, Shall our institutions of learningemphasizethe last 
one of the six by offering prizes of greater or less value, such as scholar- 
ships, or fellowships, or gold coins, or medals? Shall the unavoidable 
rivalries of school life be intensified by an additional appeal to the love 
of applause or the love of property"? Let us ask, (1) Is this spirit of 
emulation naturally feeble, or has it in any way become weaker than the 
other principles in our constitution ? So far from this being the case, 
it is among our youug people one of the strongest, if it be not the very 
strongest one of them all. The first of all, a desire to glorify our Creator, 
is the chief motive in heaven. It, above all others, stimulates the activ- 
ities of archangels. But on earth it is shorn of its power; only here 
and there do we see it in its majesty, the rightful lord of the heart. 
How feeble too, for the most part, is the desire to do good to men! 
And in the young the love of property has not yet become a passion, a 
frenzied cry for 

"Gold, gold, gold, gold, 
Spuriied by tlie youug but hugged by the old, 
Ev'n to tho verge of the churchyard mold." 

But college rivalries, without the superadded stimulus of prizes, are 
often very heated, not to say bitter. The principle is not only too 
strong to need artificial stimulation, but it is peculiarly liable to excess, 
like some valuable chemicals, useful as medicines, but which the drug- 
gist hardljy' dares to pulverize in his mortar for fear of an explosion. 

It may be asked (2) whether the giving of prizes generates a noble 
character. Does it make exalted men? Incur plays and pastimes it 
is well enough to strive to surpass. But is this well in the serious busi- 
ness of life ? Mark it, not to equal, but to excel, to win not merely /or 
ourselves, Imt from others ? " Can we," to repeat honest John Bernouilli 
again, "Can we expect anytliing laudable, anything fruitful, in learning 
from this source?" The competitions of business and professional life 

773 



536 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

will come soon enough ; need we plunge our students into tbetn before 
they leave their alma mater ? 

Two of tbe greatest men of modern times were Isaac Kewton and 
Godfrey William Leibnitz, men who ought surely to have been above 
the petty jealousies of authorship; men who ought not to have lallen 
into a wretched quarrel about the invention of the calculus. It is pain- 
ful to read their letters to Ohamberlayne, and to the Abb6 Conti. Let 
us learn from them, however, that personal rivalry is a dangerous thing, 
even for the best of men and at an advanced period of life, Newton's 
latest animadversions having been written in 1716, when he was over 
seventy-three years of age. How much more dangerous, then, to the 
average youth of our colleges ! 

(3) Another trouble is, that these prizes do not cultivate steadiness 
of purpose. They are too occasional. They are not like the constant 
pressure of a sense of duty. Indeed, they turn away the mind from duty. 
The efforts produced by them are more like the fierce leap of the mount- 
ain cataract than the continuous majestic flow of a river. They culti- 
vate the spirit of short-lived dash. They foster cram. The prize once 
received, the public presentation over, and what has the lucky recipient 
to f:ill back upon I He has not strengthened tbe ever enduring prin- 
ciples that lead men into pi'ofound research. The love of knowledge 
has not become a ruling passion in his bosom. He is victor ; that is 
all, so far as competition is concerned. But we must not forget those 
who are not victors, and who are in danger of conceiving a disgust at 
learning in general. It would have been quite different if they had 
been fascinated with the true, tbe beautiful, and the good. 

(4) Once more, the number of contestants in such cases is necessarily 
small. Two months of the scholastic year have not elapsed before 
nine-tenths of tbe class have lost all hope ; and before the final struggle 
comes the remaining one-tenth is cut down to a few individuals. In 
one aspect this is a blessing, for the nine-tenths or ninety-five hun- 
dredths are preserved from evil. But this is no recommendation of the 
system. If it hurts even a few and does no good to the overwhelming 
majority, it fails all around. 

If prizes shall continue to be given, as seems ine\itable, may not the 
competitive element be eliminated % Suppose that all who reach a cer 
tain mark receive a medal or a certificate, and that thus the success of 
one shall not be the failure of another. Suppose again that aflairs are 
so arranged that steady and prolonged effort shall be rewarded ; and 
again, that the nobility of tbe motives prompting to labor shall be duly 
taken into account. Shall we not then be imitating the course of the 
All-wise Arbiter of our destinies, who hath so adjusted the economy of 
his vast realm that for one to win a prize is not for another to lose it, 
but on the contrary to be more likely to win? nay, more, so that the 
splendor of our own prize depends materially on boV we have stretched 
out a helping hand to others"^ and so that not so much any spasm of 
isolated effort, as a uTtopiori], a patient continuance, a faithful endur- 
ance, a vigil protracted to the second or the third watch of the night, 
shall be crowned on eternity's great Commencement Day ? 
774 



SOME EEFLECTTONS OlS^ EAOE IN" EDUCATION, WITH 
SPECIAL EEFEREKOE TO THE NEGEO PEOBLEM. 

By Peof. Wm. Taylor Thom, 

Georgetown, D. C. 



It is i^roper to state, in advance, that the term "negro" will be used 
throughout this paper for the sake of convenience, because, iirst, 
it is the correct term, " African" being too broad and teudiug to divert 
the mind away from this country 5 and because, in the second place, the 
term "colored man" is both somewhat ridiculous in itself, and has the 
very serious objection that it is thoroughly misleading^ inasmuch as it 
suggests a false ideal. 

The "colored man," as he is known to the northerb part of the Cnited 
States, is probably a fit subject for the educational experiments to which 
he has been subjected; but he is no more the negro of the southern and 
south-western States than the English aristocracy is the English people. 
Hence have arisen many misconceptions a.nd many grievous mistakes; 
and accuracy of conception, truths is what we most need and should 
most strive to attain in this, as in other matters. In a government, 
like ours, "of the people, by the people, and for the people," homogene- 
ity in population and in ideals is of far greater consequence than in a 
monarchy or in an aristocracy. In those governments social caste, 
social customs, social restraints can and do, like outlying defenses, 
withstand assaults on the body politic, which in our government must 
be met and dealt with by the public conscience immediately. For a 
free, intelligent, homogeneous people, that should be a source of safety 
rather than of danger. But our population is diverse, so mwch so as 
to cause violent friction in our midst to be a thing dangerously prob- 
able. It has already caused one convulsion which will not be forgotten ; 
for there is no parallel in recent history to the fratricidal war which 
ended almost exactly twenty years ago. Difference of race caused that 
strife. That difference still exists, and what it may produce in the 
future if left to itself, no man knows. Hence the greater need for 
homogeneity of ideals to obviate the dangers arising from diversity of 
population. 

Of the great race ideals, that of the Family is, with the exception of 
the Mormon monstrosity, well settled in this country, although in some 
of our States the divorce laws seem contrived purposely to strike at 
this, the very foundation of our national existence. 

But the ^thoughtful mind cannot, without disquietude, contemplate 
the contingencies which may arise should Mormonism once get a foot- 
hold among the negroes of America, by whom the ideal of the family is 
so frequently and so grossly disregarded.* For if Mormonism is making 
such rapid progress among the whites, who have been predisposed 
against it by their laws, by their religious training, by their inherited 
race customs and instinct for a thousand years and more, what conse- 

775 



538 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

quences may not follow upon the dissemination of Mormon ideas among 
a people prone to embrace tliem from recent ancestral disposition, from 
still more recent slave habits and customs, and but ill protected against 
them by their necessarily crude conception of law and of religion. 

The ideal of Religion as a system of morality is quite uniform in this 
country, in spite of the variations of dogmatic Christianity, the excep- 
tions being- this same Mormouism, and the crudeness of tlie negro con- 
ception of religion as a matter of emotion and as a matter of morality. 

One Language^ the strongest of all national bonds, the greatest of ua- 
tional ideals, as containing and modifying all others, our own masterlul 
English, is supreme in our land ; but it is not universal. Localities in 
the North and West are to be excepted, and also, and more important, 
those sections of the southern States where the divergence of the 
negro dialects from the standard of the vernacular is so great as par- 
tially to destroy by dialectic variety the uplifting idealism contained in 
the English tongue, so far, at least, as the negroes themselves are con- 
cerned. 

Family, Eeligion, Speech, these are the three great limitations within 
which the genius of a people moves to work out its social and govern- 
mental organization and its destiny on earth. Their harmonious iuflu- 
once in this country is in danger of disturbance, chiefly from the i>artly 
involuntary opposition of the negro race in the ways already indicated. 
That opposition must be overcome — education is the best instruinent to 
do it. The genius of our race, its mission, is Freedom. Toward the 
realization of that high calling it is pressing steadfastly on, as it has 
been unconsciously doing for ages past. This struggle for freedom has 
become auarchial, if not anarchy itself, again and again in our history, 
as some new phase of the national existence was developed, or as the 
extension of the principle of freedom was forcibly demanded by or for 
some additional class of population — which is the case here under con- 
sideration. The danger of anarchy lies crouching now at our doors, 
and will lift its bloody head again, should the negro race in America fail 
to learn the full lesson of freedom. True freedom is individual liberty, 
the largest, restrained by individual responsibility, the most exact — 
self-government, in one word. 

Our people received the negro into this country, taught him in the 
stern school of slavery to give up barbarism for civilization, and then 
gave him personal liberty. Has he ever learned of himself, or been 
taught by us, the personal responsibility necessary to maintain social 
and governmental freedom? It is more than doubtful. And that iy 
the duty which the white race of the United States owes to-day to it- 
self and to the negro race. He must be helped and made to learn the 
lesson of pergonal responsibility. The development of cJiaracter is the 
iirst and highest aim of any general system of education for him. 

"' To know something, to do something, to be something, — that is to be 
educated," has been well said. To do and to he are more important for 
the bulk of mankind, and vastly more important for the negro and his 
interests, than to Imow knowledge, as suctr is for the few, not for the 
many, white or black. 

What, then, is the proper type of public education in the southern 
States for the negro, as a clas;^? It should be evidently on a loiv plane, 
and be confined to elementary subjects and methods. So much book in- 
struction as is sufficient to give him a fair start as a citizen, that meas- 
ures the ])resent requirement of the State as to meie intellectual fur- 
nishing for the negro as a race. The American people cannot aftbid to 
let him remain ignorant of less than that. But why not go further? 
776 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 639 

Because, on the other hand, the public, as sn|Ch, cannot afford to bring 
upon itself the risks consequent upon thrusting too much intellectual 
leaven, suddenly, into this already fermenting mass. From the evils of 
dense ignorance we are all suffering now, and have been these twenty 
years jjast. But the cramming of mere ideafe into empty heads is not 
the true remedy. Some of the most disastrous experieuces of mankind, 
iu government and society, have resulted from the undue prominence 
of an idea or the spread of ideas among a x^eople not possessing the 
substratum of inherited or acquired moral character necessary to modify 
and counteract the fatal logic of pure idealism. The latei' history of 
Athens, the histories of the Greek States generally, are illustrations of 
ideas impressed upon peoples and goy^ernments, and carried logically 
ont to their consequences without regard to the character requirements 
of a people's growth. Precocious growth and premature decay were the 
result. The French Eevolution passed from justifiable revolt, such as 
the American Eevolution was, such as La Fayette hoped for, to merci- 
less massacre because the compound theory, Liberie, Fraternite, EgaMte, 
had fired the brains of the masses of Parisian populace, incapable of 
self-control by training or by inherited character. 

The history of Eussia since the freeing of the serfs is, on the side of 
the PjCople, the history of ideas unduly exercising minds whose owners 
are ^not grown up, morally, to the full conception of liberty, and whose 
notion of it is therefore wrong and full of danger to the State and to 
liberty itself. Eussian methods of education seem to be responsible, 
since the utter neglect of proper elementary instruction sends the youth 
of the country to the upjDer schools with minds incapable of resisting 
the dangerous doctrines which they find there. 

The history of negro suffrage in our southern States, up to this time, 
is the story of a superb idea converted by over-hasty application into 
a blunder, working out its irievitable course of harm. With no pre- 
vious education for this, the highest prerogative of free citizenship, 
with scarcely any instruction in its use since his liberation from slavery 
except that which appealed to his fears or his prejudices, the negro can- 
not know and understand the ijolitical, governmental, and social harm 
he does himself as well as others. Let us hope that he will speedily 
learn. That there has not been more outbreak is honorable alike to 
the amiability of the negroes and to the self-control of the whites. As 
time rolls on we see with clearer eyes how great was the loss this whole 
people sustained when Abraham Lincoln fell before* a crack-brained 
assassin's pistol. 

Half-educated, irresponsible thinking is the root of the nihilism and 
the savage socialism which are threatening the social fabric in Europe, 
and are beginning to make themselves felt in this country. The danger 
to American institutions from this wrong-headed thinking, when the 
negroes shall have ten times their present population, is not to be esti- 
mated, unless in the mean time they be educated, and unless some other 
than merely intellectual elements be made influential in their training. 
iSTaturally the first element which occurs is religious and moral training, 
but with that the community, as such, has in our society nothing to do. 
That teaching, as teaching, is forbidden in direct form ; we must seek 
other means to our end. They are at han^l in the kind of training which 
teaches how to be industrious, how to work intelligently; the boy who 
has learned to do something is apt to respect himself as being something. 

The type of instruction at the cost of the community, then, iu addi- 
tion to rudimentary " ).>ooklearning," sliould be, as far as possible, 
industrial, both iu the technical and in the moral sense of the word. 

777 



540 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

There seems no good reason why the State systems of public instruc- 
tion should not include industrial institutions of low grade as well as 
agricultural and mechanical colleges ; nor why these low grade insti- 
tutions should not be available for each race; nor why some of the 
public money wasted annually in pushing studies beyond the reason- 
able limits of instruction at State expense should not be used in fitting 
the youth of the country for the actual demands of daily, life by practi- 
cal industrial training. If the intelligent among the young negroes 
could, along with their rudimentary book instruction, acquire the 
practical information necessary for them to become eventually good 
icarpenters, and cooks, and house-maids, and mechanics, and dairy- 
maids, and bricklayers, and hostlers, and dining-room servants; could 
learn something real and tangible about the crops and the soils which 
they are to cultivate, and the horses, and sheep, and cattle which 
they are to tend, undoubtedly the public common school would become 
at once a prolific source of blessing to the country as well as to the 
negroes themselves, who are essentially an agricultural people. But 
such a scheme of education, i^erhaps it is objected, seems to relegate 
the negro, broadly speaking, to the peasant condition. Unquestionably 
it does, and rightly and wisely does ; or rather.it recognizes this Ms act- 
ual condition as his proper condition. His proper condition, if he is in- 
capable of rising abo\^e it; and his ]proper condition, too, if his future 
be great. For it is impossible to imagine that the negro race, as a race 
and not as individuals, is to escape or ought to escape the burden 
which has been borne by every j)eople in the history of the world who 
have achieved a commanding position. That he will be helped and fa- 
vored beyond any other race in his struggle to make the most of him- 
self, by being under the influence and protection of a people far in ad- 
vance of his own, is evident. That he should be exempt from working- 
out his own race-salvation himself, is neither to be expected nor to be 
desired. Our forefathers did this very thing for hundreds of years and 
lifted themselves gradually, by dint of the strength and virtues slowly 
acquired during that long time ; our blood kin are doing this veny 
same thing to-day in this very country, in England, Scotland, Ireland, 
Holland, and Germany. 

King Alfred set his subjects the example of labor with hand and 
brain; William Shakespeare worked for his living; Ben Jonson was a 
bricklayer; John Bunyan was a roving, half- starved tinker; stalwart 
John Smith toiled and bled for the Virgin Land ; George Washington 
worked for years surveying trackless forests ; Abraham Lincoln mauled 
rails. It is in the sweat of such men's brows that our race has earned 
the bread upon which it has grown so great. For the negro race to 
escape this probation would mean to condemn tlsem to rapid lapse back 
to barbarism, perhaps to extermination at the hands ot the whites. 
Unless they know hoAv to work and do work, their destruction geems a 
natural consequence. The history of the American Indians makes fur- 
ther insistence on this point unnecessary. 

Freedom has usually been earned slowly, at the cost of such toil and 
blood as, in comparison, would laugh to scorn the worst features of 
American slavery. In this case, freedom came as a sudden gift, and 
in a way tending to disturb, if not destroy, character. Therefore let the 
negro race prove itself worthy of freedom by earning it over again, yet 
without ever again losing it. No amount of philanthropic good- will can 
do for them what they alone can do for themselves ; but good-will and 
wise guidance can and should give them the help and encouragement 
not inconsistent with the principle of self-heli^. Some of the negro's 
778 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 541 

worst enemies have been among his most unselfish but misguided 
IVieuds. In the education of a people the blunder as to method is usually 
fatal for the generation which makes it, though reaction is possible, and 
bjunders many and weighty have been made about this people. I ijause 
to note a brilliant exception. Not among the blunderers stands Gen- 
eral S. C. Armstrong, of the Hampton Normal Institute in Virginia, 
who, so far as my information goes, is doing a more excellent work for 
and with the negroes than any man in the South. He teaches them to 
study, and he teaches them to work, and to respect themselves because 
they have duties aud recognize them and perform them. It is a pleasure 
to refer to him and to his sensible and successful methods. 

In this light alone does the solution of the negro problem look hope- 
ful ; that Is to say, by means of a system of education confined, for the 
masses, to rudimentary instruction in text-books, supplemented by such 
instruction and training in industrial handicrafts, in real worip, as will 
be practical aud eifective for the individual and for the community. 
This, of course, need not exclude provision for those proving them- 
selves, capable of higher things. But private enterprise and philan- 
thropy will provide for that, should the State not do so. That has been 
the history of education in this country, so far, and will continue to be^. 

It is by this means alone, further, that there can be formed, soon 
enough, a " better class," an " upper society," 9,mong the negroes them- 
selves, who will become the natural leaders of their race, as has been 
the case with other races in the past. To the formation of this " better 
class" foreseeing men i\re looking with hope as the means of averting 
trouble and disaster between the two races. 

As long as the negroes follow the lead of designing, selfish white men, 
so long must the antagonism of conflict continue, and so long must the 
negroes be thrown, back upon their own race instincts and upon what 
is worst in the civilization of the whites. That is most unfortunate for 
them. Such a better class implies property, intelligence, aud the sense 
of responsibility accompanying them. Under its lead the negro race 
will become more and more American and less and less Africati, since 
the very fact of the existence of these native leaders will show that they 
have themselves attained the white man's standpoint in attaining and 
successfully maintaining their own position. Led by this class, helped 
by the whites, the negro race may hope for the attainment of ideals 
homogeneous, perhaps identical, with those of the Anglo-American rnlers 
of this country ; not well otherwise ; nor otherwise does harmonious co- 
existence of the two races seem probable. The formation of that class 
means the partial solution of the negro iDroblem. 

The history of the United States is that of a tremendous experiment 
in government, and on an enormous scale. The negro element is in 
itself a vast experiment in civilization, and its presence renders the 
general experiment much more complicated and difficult. It is the sin- 
gle element in our j)opulation containing dangerous tendencies which 
are distinctly race tendencies. The Indians are too few to affect us ma- 
terially. The American-born child of European immigrants is, gen- 
erally speaking, an American, the diii'erence of race not being marked 
enough to prevent such rapid absorption. Not so with the negroes of 

1 The Report of the Commissioner of EcUicatiou for 1882-'ri3 shows fifty-six normal 
schools, forty-three institutions for secon(U),ry instruction, eighteen universities and 
colleges, and twenty-four schools of theology, for the eicclusive benefit of the negro 
race, wbich have been established and are snjjported by private jiersons or associa- 
tions. That enumeration does not include the million-dollar Slater Fund, nor other 
large contributions made since the report was compiled. 

779 



542 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

the southern States. Eace, previous condition of servitude, ingrained 
habits, all tend in the other direction. And besides, amalgamation un- 
der existing conditions would be most disastrous to both races. The 
peacefal solution of the problem depends upon the partial destruction 
of the inherited African spirit, by its absorption into the American 
spirit — upon the firm establishment of American race ideals as the com- 
mon standard for all Americans, white and black, in the practical needs 
of life and of citizenship. That process is now going on; to hasten it is 
most desirable. For the completion of that process, lapse of time is 
necessary, and earnest, jjersistent, sober adaptation of means to the end 
in view, as contingencies may arise. 

The limitations of the discussion of Eace in Education in this paper, 
it will be seen, are twofold : as to the States representing the white race, 
the assumption that it should give the negroes rudimentary instruction 
and industrial training; as to the negro, the assumption that, as a race, 
he should not be carried forward in mere intellectual instruction too fast. 
These limitations are arbitrary; they are in fact a compromise between 
the whole public and a part of it. They do not possess that logic of 
system so dear to the theorist. But it is believed that the ideas herein 
set forth are thoroughly in accord with the method of our Anglo- Ameri- 
can race, which has ever shown its wisdom in dealing with great ques- 
tions by recognizing plainly that life is not logic, either for the state or 
for the individual. The history of England and of the United States is 
one long succession of compromises between social theories and princi- 
ples, either made to avoid impending logical results or brought about by 
means of these logical results. This paper moves, then, in the national 
course of procedure which is tentative, which would allow the race ele- 
ment time and opportunity to do its own work. That only is true liberty 
which is developed freely by a race itself. It cannot be' made to order 
at once by a proclamation, by a school system, ol- by anything else ; 
but it can be cultivated, helped forward, educed. The actual liberty of 
the negro is not true liberty, not American liberty. The proper educa- 
tion which will cultivate in him this true freedom, and at the same time 
train him to meet all its requirements, to use it and not to abuse it — that 
is a great part of the greatest problem before the American people to- 
day. To quote the language ot a great thinker: 

You are undertaking the greatest political experiment that has ever been performed 
l^y any people whatever. You are at this present centenary a nation of forty mill- 
ions of people. At your next centenary rational and probable expectation may 
look to see you two hundred millions, and you have before you the problem whether 
two hundred millions of English speaking,' strong-willed people will be able to hold 
together under republican institutions and under the real despotism of universal 
suffrage ; whether States' rights will hold their own against the necessary centraliza- 
tion ot a great nation, if it is to act as a whole, or whether centralization will gam 
the day without breaking down republican institutions. The territory you cover is 
as large as Europe, as diverse in clima.te as England and Spain, as France and Russia, 
and you have to see whether with the diversity of interests, mercantile and other, 
which arise under these circumstances, uationarties will be stronger than the ten- 
dency to separation ; and as you grow and the pressure of population makes itself 
manifest, the spectre of pauperism will stalk among you, and you will be very unlike 
Europe if communism and socialism do not claim to he heard.* 

Great will be your honor, great will be your position, if you solve [the problem] 
righteously and honestly ; great your shjime and mi ery if you fail. But let me ex- 
press my most strong conviction tha.t the key to success, the essential condition to 
success, is one and one only: that it rests entirely upon intellectual clearness and 
upon the moral worth of the individual citizen. Education cannot give intellectual 
clearness. It cannot give moral Avorth, but it may cherish them and bring them to 
the front. 

780 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 543 

lA't every lover of our country take earnestly to heart Professor Hux- 
ley's words of wisdom. 

Education, intellectual and moral, is tbe greatest need of a free, self- 
governing people. But it must be education adapted to the conditions 
of tbe people's life. When these conditions change the type of popular 
education can be changed or enlarged. One-sided or over-hasty intel- 
lectual growth is dangerous. Semblance becomes mistaken for sub- 
stance. The negroes are esi^entially an agricultural race. Their edu- 
cation should proceed in accordance with that fact. Thereby will they 
be enabled to rise most surely to whatever attainment their race may 
be capable of under its very advantageous surroundings. Their educa- 
tion at i^reseut ought to be chiefly agricultural and industrial ; such 
education must be to them power and not a delusion. Unfortunately, 
as a class, they already regard the mere smatterings of primary tuition, 
the simple going to school, as education. Let us beware of setting up 
for them a "fetich" to worship in mere school instruction, especially now 
just as our institutions in the higher education seem, under the wise 
lead of Washington and Lee University in Virginia, and of Harvard 
University in Massachusetts, on the point of breaking away from the 
too exclusive worship of the "college fetich," by substituting for it the 
cultivation of our mother tougue and of the sciences which prop civili- 
zation. 

In conclusion, the point of view of this paper is American; it is 
neither Southern nor Northern, for educational questions know no such 
territorial limitations; and it is believed that the views herein set forth 
are in consonance with the present imperative needs of American pop- 
ular institutions. Plain language has been used to make plain state- 
ments, not to imply censure nor to make harsh criticisms. The aim of 
the i)aper is educational, not controversial; to elicit truth, not to make 
a point ; to avoid a race conflict, not to stir up strife. If anything con- 
tained in it should be found helpful in furthering the great interests 
w^hich have called us together from so many parts of our common country, 
the purpose of its writing will be fulfilled. 

781 



MEMORANDUM RESPECTING SIMULTANEOUS AND UNI- 
FORM EXAMINATIONS UNDER REGULATIONS OF THE 
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT FOR THE PROVINCE OF ON- 
TARIO, CANADA. 

By Alexander Marling, LL. B., 

Secretary to tJie Education Department, Ontario, Canada. 



In the Province of Ontario there are uniform and simultaneous exam- 
inations in the literary and scientific course required as a condition of 
obtaining certificates of qualification to teach in the public (or element- 
ary) schools. * 

The candidates who pass these are eligible for admission to training 
schools, and after a period of such attendance they are examined chiefly 
in the branches that are more distinctly professional, their ability to 
teach the several subjects of a public school coUrse being also prac- 
tically tested. 

The certificates granted are of Class III (lowest), Class II, and Class L 

The preliminary or r» on -professional examination is held annually in 
July. The question papers are prepared by a central committee of ex- 
aminers appointed by the provincial Government on the recommenda- 
tion of the Minister of Education, the present committee consisting of 
Prof. G. P. Young, of University College, Toronto, as Chairman, the 
inspectors of normal and high schools, and certain inspectors of public 
schools. 

Suitable regulations are made for the conduct of the examinations, 
the presiding examiner for Class II and Class III examinations in each 
locality being a public school inspector or a substitute approved by the 
Minister. The papers are confidentially printed in the Education De- 
partment and transmitted to the several inspectors, who conduct the 
examinations at about one hundred centers. The place of examination 
is usually a high (secondary) school, the candidates being generally 
])repared at those institutions. The duty of the local examiner is sim- 
ply to receive and distribute the papers, to preside, to enforce the ob- 
servance of the regulations, and to transmit the answers to theEducation 
Departmieut in Toronto. The answers are then referred to the commit- 
tee, assisted by about forty sub-examiners, also appointed on the rec- 
ommendation of the Minister. 

If a candidate is reported by the committee to have passed this ex- 
amination, he is awarded a preliminary certificate of Class II or Class 
III, which does not, however, allow him to undertake teaching until he 
has been trained and examined at the county model school, and received 
his full (or professional) certificate. 

Those awarded Class II at the non-professional examination are ex- 
empted from further examination in these subjects as' a preliminary 
condition of admission to the provincial normal school, to be trained for 
the Class II professional (or full) certificate ; but they are required, as 
well as the Class III candidates, to undergo training and examination 
before the Iqcal examiners at the county model school, for the Class lU 
782 



INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



i45 



(full) certificate, and like them must also teach, a full year before being 
eli.Q'ible to go into training for the second class provincial certificate. 
The scope of the preliminary examination above described is as follows: 

Requirements for the third-class non-professional examination. 

Reading, oral. — To read with proper expression, emphasis, inflectioi], and force. 

EeadiiKj, principles of. — A general knowledge of the principles of elocution, with 
special reference to pronunciation. Candidates will do well to consult Ayres' Orthoe- 
pist. 

JFrithifi and hooklceeping. — In writing, to he ahle to write neatly and legihly — a round 
hand preferred; in hooklceeping, single and douhle entry, commercial forms, general 
hiisineas transactions. 

Spelling. — To be able to write correctly a passage dictated from any English author, 
and to spell all non-technical English words. 

Grammar. — To be thoroughly acquainted with the di'finitions and grammatical 
forms and rules of syntax, and to be able to analyze and parse, with application of 
said rules, any sentence in prose or verse. 

Composition and practical English. — The framing of sentences. Familiar and busi- 
ness letters. Rendering of poetry into prose. Tnemes, synonyms, and correction of 
errors. Consult Ayres' Verbalist. 

History. — To have a good knowledge of the leading events of Canadian and English 
history. 

Geography. — To have a fair knowledge of political, physical, and mathematical 
geography. Map geography generally ; Canada and the British Empire more par- 
ticularly. 

English literature. — The critical reading of such works as may he prescribed from time 
to time by the Education Department. ( For 1885 : Scott— The Lady of the Lake, with 
special reference to Canto V; Irving — Rip Van Wiukle.) 

Arithmetic and mensuraiion. — To be thoroughly familiar with arithmetic in theory 
and practice. Areas of rectilinear figures, aud volumes of right iiarallelopipeds and 
prisms. The circle, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Mental arithmetic (consult Mental 
Arithmetic by McLellan, Part II.) 

Algebra. — Elementary rules ; factoring; greatest common measure; least common 
multiple; fractions; simple equations of one, two, and three unknown quantities; 
simple problems. 

Euclid. — Book I, with easy problems. 

Physics. — To be acquainted with the elements of physics as treated in Huxley's In- 
troductory Science Primer aud Balfour Stewart's Science Primer. 

Drauing. — Freehand, practical geometry, perspective, and industrial designs. 

Candidates taking music will be allowed a bonus not exceeding 75 marks, which 
will be added to the aggregate of marks obtained in the obligatory subjects; such 
candidates will also be allowed to take, as an additional bonus subject, one — but not 
more than one — of the following : Botany, 75 marks ; or Latin, or French, or German, 
each 150 maiks. 

For third class (1885) the work in Latin will be Cato Major; in German, Belagerung, 
Von Antwerpeu ; aud in French, Lazare Hoche, omiMing Chapters VII aud VIII. In 
each of the languages an easy paper in grammar and composition will be set. Music 
and botany, the same as for second class. The work in botany will be the game as 
last year's work. 

For the third-class non-professional examination the marks assigned shall be as fol- 
lows: 




Mininmra 
required. 



C Heading, oral 

\ Eeading, principles of 

AVritiiig 

English Grrammar 

Englisli Literature 

Composition and Practical Englisli 

Dictation 

Aiitlimetic and Mensuration 

Mental Arriiimetic 

Algebra 

Euclid 

History, Englisli and Canadian 

Geography 

Drawing 

BooIj keeping . 

Physics 



25 
20 
20 
45 
45 
35 
20 
45 
20 
25 
25 
25 
25 
20 
20 
20 



7950 COT., PT. 2 35 



783 



546 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 
Eequirements for the second-class non-professional examination. 

Candidates writing for second-class certificates will take the following course, as well 
as that required for third class : tt ■, , -n • j-i. 

Composition and practical ^M^fZisft.— Candidates may consult Hodgson's Lrrors mthe 
Use of English. 

^?r/e6ra.— Elementary rules; factoring; elementary notions on symmetry, with easy 
applications; greatest 'common measure ; least common multiple; square root ; frac- 
tions ; surds ; simple equations of one, two, and three unknown quantities ; easy quad- 
ratics ; problems. 

Euclid.— Boo^a I and II, with easy problems. 

CVfemrs^ri/.— Combustion. The structure and properties of flame. Nature and com- 
position of ordinary fuel.— The atmosphere. Its constitution. Effects of animal and 
vegetable life on its composition.— Water. Chemical peculiarities of natural waters, 
such as rain-water, river-water, spring-water, sea- water. — Hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- 
gen, carbon, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, and their more important compounds. — 
Combining proportions by weight and by volume. Symbols and nomenclature. 

Physics.— The same as for third class, with the addition of statics and hydrostatics. 

OPTIONAL SUBJECTS FOR SECOND CLASS. 

Music. — Normal music course, Part II. 

Latin. — The accidence and the principal rules of syntax and prosody; exercises; re- 
translation into Latin of easy passages; j)ortions of works in jjrose and verse as pre- 
scribed from time to time. 

French. — The accidence and the principal rules of syntax; exercises; French au- 
thors as prescribed from time to time ; rudiments of conversation. 

German. — The accidence and the principal rules of syntax; exercises; portions of 
German authors, as prescribed from time to time ; retranslation of easy passages Into 
German ; rudiments of conversation. 

Candidates taking music will be allowed a bonus not exceeding 7.5 marks, which 
will be added to the aggregate of marks obtained in the obligatory subjects; such 
candidates will also be allowed to take, as an additional bonus subject, one — but 
not more than one — of the following : Botany, 75 marks ; or Latin, or French, or Ger- 
man, each 150 marks. 

The following option will be allowed at the examination in 1885 only, viz: Candi- 
dates for second-class certificates may take Latin, or French, or G&vta.&'n, Instead of 
chemistry, statics, and hydrostatics. These languages, if taken as options, cannot, of 
course, be reckoned as ioims subjects. In all languages, papers in grammar and 
composition will be set. 

Latin (1^85): Cicero— Cato Major; Ovid— Fasti, B. I., vv. 1-300. French (1885): 
Bonnechose — Lazare Hoche. German (1885) : Schiller — Belagerung Von Antwerpen, 
Der Tancher. 

For the second-class non-professional examination the marks assigned shall be as 
follows : 



Minimum 
required. 



, C Keading, oral 

■ I Beading, principles of 

2. Writing 

3. English Grammar 

4. English Literature , 

5. CompoHition and Practical English 

fi. Dictation 

7- Mental Arithmetic 

8. Arithmetic and Mensuration 

9. Algebra , 

10. Euclid. 

11. History, English and Canadian 

12. Geography 

13. Drawing.'. 

14. Book-keeping 

15. Physics 

16. Chemistry 

784 



25 
20 
20 
75 
75 
55 
20 
20 
75 
45 
45 
25 
25 
20 
20 
40 
20 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES ^PAPERS. 



547 



Non-professional Exam motions. 
The results for the last three years were as follows 



Tears. 



1882 
1883 
1884 



Examined. 




Passed. 




Inter- 
mediate.! 


HA. 


II B. 


ni. 


3,090 
3,90] 
5, 128 


230 

98 

414 


951 
279 
657 


452 

1,205 

860 


!N'one. 
1,264 
1,676 



Failed. 



1,457 
1,055 
1,521 



1 Same .examination as Class TTT, but lower percentage. 

Candidates for Intermediate were not passed as teachers. This grade 
is now discontinued. 

The candidate is required to pay a fee of $2 for each examination, *. e., 
if lie tries for both II and III he will pay $4, which is to be applied 
towards the expenses of the examination. 

One effect of the introduction of this system of examination has been 
to stimulate and give more definite direction to the work of the high 
schools, in consequence of the fact that so many of the intending ,can- 
didates have resorted thither for instruction, the high-school course of 
study being constructed upon njuch the same lines as the literary course 
for teachers. Another effect is that a more thorough preparation 
and a more strict and impartial judgment of the merits of the ])apers 
have upon the whole been obtained than upon the old system of leav- 
ing the examination of teachers entirely to the local authorities. It is 
to be feared that no system of examination is without its drawbacks, 
or can provide such a perfect test as will always ascertain who is 
worthy, and some unfortunate results undoubtedly arise in individual 
cases. A j)rovision is, however, made for an appeal and reconsideration 
in the case of any unsatisfied candidate, who may pay a fee of $2 and 
have his papers re-examined. If he succeed his fee is returned ; other- 
wise it goes to the provincial revenue. Auy special case of hardship, 
if reported to the Minister of Education, is made the subject of inquiry, 
and redress so far as possible is secured. 

In the preparation of papers, the precautions are taken, (1) of securing 
experienced and highly qualified men on the committee ; (2) that each 
paper is approved by two members of the committee, and any doubtful 
matters may also be brought before the whole committee by the chair- 
man, before the papers are reported to the Minister of Education, who 
may require them to be further reviewed if he sees fit; (3) the best se- 
curity against fraud is obtained by the papers being printed at the De- 
partment. 

It may be added that the teachers' non-professional examination is 
used as the matriculation examination for medical students by the 
Provincial College of Physicians and Surgeons, and quoad the subjects 
it embraces, it is also accepted for matriculation in certain of the uni- 
versities. 

In the case of the professional examination for the full Class III certifi- 
cates at the county model or training schools, it has not been the prac- 
tice to aim at such a complete uniformity as in the literary examination, 
each coilnty board of examiners (themselves exi^erienced teachers) be- 

785 



548 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

ing allowed liberty of action within the limits of the x)rescribed subjects, 

viz: 

Education — methods. Physiology and Hygiene. 

Education — theory. School Law. 

Governing Power. Music. 

Teaching Power. Drill. 

Manner. Drawing. 

The only papers sent from Toronto for these examinations are in the 
subjects of, education — methods, education — theory, school law, physi- 
ology, and hygiene, and the answers are read and valued by tbe county 
boards. As the training at all tbe county model schools is based on a 
certain course laid down for them, tbe sev^eral examinations at the close 
of tbe session are of as uniform a character as is perhaps desirable. 

Tbe examination for tbe professional or full second-class certificate 
takes place at the close of each session of the provincial normal schools. 
There are two of these schools — one at Toronto, tbe other at Ottawa. 
Tbere are two sessions of five months' duration annually. In addition 
to testing the candidate's aptness in teaching, in connection with the 
report given of him by tbe teaching staff, the examiners require answers 
to papers in the subjects of education, psychology, botany, practical 
English, arithmetic — metbods, aritbmetic — mental, reading — methods, 
chemistry, physics, grammar — methods, literature, algebra — methods^ 
music, drawing, writing, and bookkeeping. 

These papers are prepared and printed in the same manner as previ- 
ously mentioned. 

Candidates for first-class certificates are also examined on uniform 
])apers, but the examination is conducted at tbe normal schools in July 
annually. Tbe candidates may either take the whole examination on 
one occasion, or may take the literary course one year, and the re- 
mainder or more professional subjects in a subsequent year. Formerly 
the normal schools provided for the instruction and training of first- 
class candidates, but this has not been the case in recent years. The 
candidates at present are prepared chiefly at the high schools or colle- 
giate institutions, and no professional training is provided in addition 
to what they have already received in securing their third- and second- 
class certificfites, the possession of which, however, is one of tbe neces- 
sary conditions of their obtaining the first-class professional certificate. 
A project is under consideration for securing a more thorough profes- 
sional training for this class of certificate. 

FIRST-CLASS EXAMINATION. 

The non-professional examination for Grade C will he limited as follows : 
English Language and Literature. 

Grammar. — A thorough acquaintance with the subject will be required. 

Composition. — Candidates will be required to show, by passing an examination on 
this subject, and by the character of their answers in other subjects, that they are in 
the habit of writing the English language correctly. 

Literature. — Candidates will be required to have a general acquaintance with Eng- 
lish literature and its history, and a fuller knowledge of special eras and authors to 
be prescribed from time to time by the Department. 

English Literature : 

Slia^esiieare — Coriolanus. 

Scott — The Lady of the Lake, with special reference to Canto V; Irving — Rip Van 
Winkle. 

786 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 549 

History and Geography, 

History. — A special knowledge of the history of Enpjland between 1688 and 1820, as 
presented in Green's Short History of the English People. 

Geography. — Political geography of North America, Europe, and the British Em- 
pire, with physical geography as treated in Geikie's Primer of Physical Geography, and 
mathematical and physical geography as treated in Su Uivan's Geography Generalized. 

Matlmnatics. 

Algebra. — Fundamental operations; involution and evolution ; resolution into fac- 
tors; principle of symmetry ; theory of divisors; fractions; ratio; proportion and va- 
riation; theory of irwSices; 'surds; arithmetical, geometrical, and harmonical progres- 
sion; scales of notation; permutations and combinations ; introduction to binomial 
theorem as far as positive and negative integral exponents ; simjile and quadratic 
equations, with relations betwfeen roots and coefficients; problems. 

Arithmetio and mensuration. — The candidate will be required to know the subject 
in theory and practice; to be able to solve problems with accuracy, neatness, and 
dispatch ; to be familiar with rules for mensuration of surfaces and solids. 

Geometry .—'EncYiQi, Books I to IV (inclusive), Book VI, and definitions of Book V. 
Exercises. 

Elementary Mechanics. 

Statics. — Equilibrium of forces acting in one plane ; parallelogram of forces, paral- 
lel forces, moments, couples, center of gravity, virtual work, machines, friction, ex- 
perimental verifications. 

Dynamics. — Measurement of velocities and of accelerations ; laws of motion, energy, 
momentum, uniform and uniformly accelerated motion, falling bodies, experimental 
verifications. 

Hydrostatics. — Pressure of fluids, specific gravities, floating bodies, density of gases 
as depending on pressure and temperature, construction and use of the more simple 
instruments and machines. 

Physical Science, 

Chemistry. — The examination in this subject will be based on Reynolds' Experi- 
mental Chemistry, Parts I and II, and Tilden's Chemical Philosophy. 
Heat. — Stewart's Elementary Treatise on Heat, third edition. 

The limitation for Grades A and B will be as follows : 

DEPARTMENT OP ENGLISH. 

Comi)osition ; history and etymology of the English language; rhetorical forms ; 
prosody. 

Books of reference : Earle's Philology of the English Tongue ; Abbot and Seeley's 
English for English People: Bain's Composition and Rhetoric, or Hill's Rhetoric; 
Marsh's English Language and Literature, Lectures VI to XI inclusive. 

Literature : 

History of English literature, from Chaucer to the end of the reign of James I. 
Books o-*^ reference : Craik's History of the English Literature and Language, or Ar- 
nold's Literature, English edition;* Marsh's English Language and Literature, Lect- 
ures VI to XI inclusive. 

English Literature: 

Shakespeare. — Romeo and Juliet. 

Chaucer — Prologue to the Canterbury Tales ; The Nonne Prestes Tale. Pope — Pro- 
logue to the Satires. Addison — The selections from Addison's contributions to the 
Spectator, made by J. Arnold, under the headings, (1) Manners, Fashions, and Humors ; 
(2) Tales and Allegories (Clarendon Press Series). Wordsworth — Sonnets in Matthew 
Arnold's Selection. Macaulay — Life and Writings of Addison. Consult ''English Men 
of Letters " on these authors. 

History : 

Greece, — The Persian to the Peloponnesian War inclusive. — Cox's History of Greece 
(unabridged). 

Rome. — From the beginning of the Second Punie War to the death of Julius Ceesar. 
— Mommseu's History of Rqma. 

787 



550 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

England. — The Tudor and Stuart periods, as presented in Green's Short History of 
the English People, Macaulay's History of England (or Franck Bright's History of 
England, Second Volume), and Hallam's Constitutional History. 

Cajiada. — Parkman's Old E6gime in Canada. 
Geography : 

So much ancient geography as is necessary for the proper understanding of the por- 
tions of the histories of Greece and Rome prfescribed. 



DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS. 



Algebra. — Symmetry, binomial theorem, multinomial theorem, exponential and 
logarithmic series, interest and annuities, indeterminate coefiScients; partial frac- 
tions, series (convergency and divergency, reversion, summation), inequalities, de- 
terminants as far as in Gross, reduction and resolution of equations of first four degrees 
and of binomial equations, relations between roots and coefficients of equations, inde- 
terminate equations, problems. 

Analytical 'plane geometry. — The point (including transformatiou of co-ordinates), 
the right liae, the circle, the parabola, the ellipse, the hyperbola, the general equa- 
tion of the second degree, abridged notation. 

Trigonometry. — Trigonometrical ratios, general values of angles, functions of sum 
and difference of angles, multiples and sub-multiples of angles, trigonometrical equa- 
tions, solutions of triangles, measurement of heights and distances. Inscribed, cir- 
cumscribed, and escribed circles of a triangle; quadrilaterals; description of vernier 
and theodolite ; trigonometrical and logarithmic tables; Demoivre's theorem. 

Dynamics. — Moments of inertia, uniform circular motion, projectiles in vacuo, col- 
lisions, simple pendulum, experimental verifications. 

Elementary geometrical optics. — Reflection and refraction of light at plane and spheri- 
cal surfaces, including prisms and lenses (aberration not considered) ; the eye; con- 
strnction and use of the more simple instruments. 

The professional examination for all grades of first-class certificates will be the 
same. Papers will be required on the following subjects : 

1. Education, viz: {a) Education Methods (the candidate may consult the following 
Avorks : Teacher's Manual of Method and Organization, by Robert Robinson, Inspector 
of National Schools, Ireland; Methods of Instruction, by J. P. Wickersham, A. M., 
Principal of the Pennsylvania State Normal School; Jewell on School Government ; 
Lectures on Teaching, byJ.G. Fitch, M. A.). (6) History of Education (the following 
works may be consulted : Essays on Educational Reformers, by Robert Henry Quick, 
M. A. ; Practical Educationists and their Systems of Teaching, by James Leitch, 
Principal of the Church of Scotland Normal School, Glasgow), (c) Psychological Foun- 
dations of Education {^''Education as a Science," by Alexander ^^ain, LL. D. ; Sully's 
Psychology). 

2. Reading and elocution. 

3. Music and drawing. 

4. Drill and calisthenics. 

Candidates for first-class certificates at the non-professional examination must 
make fifty per cent, for grade C, sixty per cent, for grade B, and seventy per cent, 
for Grade A, of the aggregate marks attainable on all subjects. 

Professional (Teaehers^) Examinations. 
The results for the last three years were as follows : 



Tear. 


Certificates granted. 


1882 : 


I Class. 
7 
30 
33 


II Class. 
330 
458 
422 


III Class. 
837 


1883 


791 


1884 


1 017 







788 



INTEENATIOi^AL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 551 
HIGH SCHOOL ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS. 

The examinations for admission to the high (secondary) schools are 
also conducted on a uniform and simultaneous system, the papers being 
prepared by the central committee, confldentially printed and sent to 
the high schools, where examinations are annually held in June and 
December. The answers are not valued in Toronto, but by the local 
examiners, a board for this purpose being constituted as follows : 

Public school inspector of the county or district. 

Public school inspector of the town.^ \ 

Head master of the high school or collegiate institute.^ 

Chairman of the high school board. 

Chairman of the public school board. 

Chairman of the separate school board.^ 
But although the results are thus determined, they are subject in any 
case to disallowance, and the answers arcaccordingly sent to the Depart- 
ment in Toronto with the report of the examiners thereon. Any tend- 
ency to laxity in the examination is thus checked. 
The scope of the examination is as follows : 

Orthography and orthoepy. — The pronunciation, the syllabification, and the spelling 
from dictation, of words in common use. The correction of words improperly spelt 
or pronounced. The distinctions between words in common use iu regard to spelling, 
pronunciation, and meaning. 

Writing. — The proper formatioh of the small and the capital letters. The candidate 
will be expected to be able to write neatly and legibly. The special examination 
will be of a practical character. 

Arithmetic. — Principles of Arabic and Roman notation; vulgar fractions ; decimal 
fractions ; simple proportion, with reasons of rules ; elementary percentage and in- 
terest ; mental arithmetic. 

Grammar. — The sentence: its different forms. Words: their chief classes and in- 
flections. Different grammatical values of the same word. The meanings of the 
chief grammatical terms. The grammatical values of phrases and of clauses. The 
nature of the clauses in easy compound and complex sentences. The government, the^ 
agreement, and the arrangement of v.'ords. The correction, with reasons therefor, of 
wrong forms of words and of false syntax. The parsing of simple sentences. The 
a.nalysis of simple sentences into the subject and its adjuncts, the predicate and its 
adjuncts, the predicate object and its adjuncts. 

Composition. — The nature and the construction of different kinds of sentences. The 
combination of separate statements into sentences. The nature and the construction 
of paragraphs. The combination of separate statements into paragraphs. Variety 
of expression, with the following classes of exercises : Changing the voice of the verb ; 
expanding a word or a phrase into a clause ; contracting a clause into a word or a 
phrase; changing from direct into indirect narration, or the converse ; transposition ; 
changing the form of a sentence; expansion of given heads or hints into a composi- 
tion ; the contraction of passages ; paraphrasing prose or easy poetry. The elements 
of punctuation. Short narratives or descriptions. Familiar letters. 

Geography. — The form and the motions of the earth. The chief definitions as con- 
tained in the authorized text-book: divisions of the land and the water; circles on 
the globe; political divisions; natural phenomena. Maps of America, Europe, Asia, 
and Africa. Maps of Canada and Ontario, including the railway systems. The prod- 
ucts and the commercial relations of Canada. 

Drawing. — Candidates for examination must place th^ir drawing books in the 
hands of the presiding examiner on the morning of the first day of the examination. 
Every exercise must be certified by the teacher as being the candidate's own work, 
and should show his progress during, at least, three months. Examiners should in- 
spect the books, and return them to the candidates on the evening of the second day. 
An additional paper on drawing will be submitted. 

* These three constitute the examining board in cities and towns separated from 
the county ; for other places, where there are the six officials named, they will be the 
examiners. 

789 



552 ^EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

History. — The outlines of English and of Canadian history ; how England, Canada, 
and Ontario are governed ; the niuDicipal institutions of Ontario — all as contained in 
a History Primer, to be authorized by the Education Department about August, 18^5. 

Until then the examination on this snbject will be confined, as heretofore, to the 
outlines of English history. 

Beading. — A general knowledge of the elements of vocal expression, with special 
reference to emphasis, inflection, and pause. The reading, witli proper expression, of 
any selection in the Reader authorized for Fourth Book classes. The passage or pas- 
sages for each examination will be selected by the Department. The candidate will, 
in addition, be expected to satisfy the examiners that he rends intelligently , as well as 
inlelliyibly. 

Literature. — The candidate will be required to give for words or phrases, meanings 
which may be substituted thexefor without impairing the sense of the passage ; to 
illustrate and show the appropriateness of important words or phrases ; to distinguish 
between synonyms in common use ; to paraphrase difficult passages so as to show the 
meaniug clearly ; to show the connection of the thoughts in any selected passage ; to 
explain allusions; to write explanatory or descriptive notes on proper or other names; 
to show that lie has studied the lesson thoughtfully, by being able to give an intelli- 
gent opinion on any subject treated of therein that comes within the range of his 
fixperience or comprehension ; and especially to show that he has entered into the 
spirit of the passage, by being able to read it with proper expression. He will be re- 
quired to quote passages of special beauty from the selections prescribed, and to re- 
produce iu his own words the substance of any of these selections, or of any part 
thereof. Some knowledge will also be expected of the authors from whose works 
these selections have been made. 

Valuation of the answers. 



Reading 50 

Writing 50 

Orthography and orthoepy 50 

Literature 100 

Arithmetic 100 



Grammar 100 

Geography 75 

Composition 100 

History 75 

Drawing 50 



Total, 750; minimum for pass, 375. 

One-third of the maximum of the marks on each paper is also required. 

N. B. — (1) Of the marks for writing, 15 will be assigned to the paper on that sub- 
ject, and a maximum of 5 marks may be assigned for writing and neatness in each of 
the following papers : Orthography and orthoepy, literature, grammar, arithmetic, 
geography, composition, and history. 

(2) The 50 marks for orthography and orthoepy will be assigned to the paper on 
that subject ; but in valuing the answers in literature, grammar, geography, composi- 
tion, aud history, one mark is to be deducted for every mistake in spelling. Such mis- 
spelt words are to be indicated by the examiner on the candidate's papers. 

(3) Of the marks for composition, 70 will be assigned to the paper on that subject, 
and a maximum of 15 to history, and of 15 to literature. 

C4) Of the marks for drawing, 25 will be assigned to the paper on that subject, and 
a maximum of 25 may be awarded as the result of the inspection of the candidate's 
drawing book. 

(5) In examining in reading, the local boards will pay special attention to the fol- 
lowing: Pronunciation, emphasis, inflection, and pause. 

(6) As iu the case of the Fourth Book and Spelling Paper for December, 1884, the 
value of the correct answers to the questions set on^ach paper will exceed the maxi- 
mum prescribed above, except on writing, reading, and orthography and orthoepy. 
But the papers will be so constructed that a well-prepared candidate may obtain the 
prescribed maximum within the given time. 

The object of the preceding regulation is to allow the departmental examiners ta 
present a greater variety of questions, and thereby to enable the candidate to show 
more readily than heretofore whether he is in a condition to proiit by a high sqhool 
conrt»e. 

Except in the matter of providing the examination questions, the 
cost of this examination is thrown upon the local authorities. 
790 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRP^SS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 



553 



The effect of this esainination is reported to be beneficial in infusing 
life and spirit into the teaching of the public (or elementary) schools, 
from which by far the greater portion of the candidates for admission 
to the high schools is drawn. The examination gives the same stimu- 
lus to the public schools as the teachers' examination gives to the high 
schools. In both cases the examination marks the limit beyond which 
comparativeh' few of the pupils of the school are taken, although both 
in the high and public schools a more complete course is ijrovided for 
and accomplished in the more important towns. 

The successful candidates at these entrance examinations receive a 
certificate. 

The results for the last three years were as follows : 



Month and year. 



December, 1881 

Jnno, 1881 

December, 1882 

June, 1882 

December, 1883 

,Juuo, 1883 

June, 1884 



Number of 
caudidatea. 


Passed. 


4,522 


1,947 


5, 293 


2.804 


4,300 


1, 820 


5,307 


2,551 


5,000 


;{, 921 


5,662 


3,119 


6,286 


2,997 



791 



HOW SHALL WE AMERICANIZE AND OHEISTIANIZE THE 

INCOMING TIDE? 

By D. a. Long, A. M., 

President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio. 



Mr. President — This I regard the question of the hour. An un- 
Americanized and un-Christianized voter threatens the Eepublic. 

" American. A native of America; — originally applied to the aborigi- 
nal inhabitants, but now applied to the descendants of Europeans born 
in America ; and in a restricted sense to the inhabitants of the United 
States." (Webster.) It is in this restricted sense that I shall consider 
the subject. 

Webster quotes Washington on the same page: "The name American 
must always exalt the pride of patriotism." Then he quotes Bartlett 
as saying: 

"Americanize. To render American; to naturalize in America." 

Worcester quotes Jackson, the hero of New Orleans : 

"Americanize. To render American ; to naturalize in America." 

An alien may be naturalized after living in this country five years. 
Naturalization and the right to vote are separate matters. 

"Christianity," says Bouvier (page 312), "is the religion established 
by Jesus Christ." "Christian," says Webster, "is especially one whose 
inward and outward life is conformed to the doctrines of Christ." 
" Christianize, to imbue with Christian principles." Worcester, page 
239, says, "To Christianize (from the Greek ypKrnavi'^u) -^ Latin, Chris- 
tianizo; French, Christianiser) is to render Christian; to convert to 
Christianity ; as to Christianise heathen nations." 

If the Christian Church were not divided, the union of Church and 
State would be inevitable. Until men shall cease to say, "Behold how 
good and how pleasant it is to see brethren dwell separate and apart 
in sects and divisions," I think it is better for the Church and State to 
remain separate. 

The common law of all the States, except Louisiana, is taken from the 
common law of England. Archbishop Whately, in his preface to the 
"Elements of Ehetoric," says, "It has been declared by the highest 
legal authorities that Christiauity is part of the law of the land, and 
consequently any one who impugns it is liable to prosecution." 

The meaning of Chief Justice Hale, to whom the learned Bishop refers, 
cannot be expressed more plainly than in his own words. An information 
was exhibited against one Taylor, for uttering blasphemous expres- 
sions too horrible to repeat. Chief Justice Hale observed that "such 
kind of wicked, blasphemous words were not only an offense to God 
and religion, but a crime against the laws, state, and government, and 
therefore punishable in the Court of King's Bench. For to say religion 
is a cheat, is to subvert all those obligations whereby civil society is 
preserved." (Ventr., 293; Bouvier, 313.) 

Although we have no established church, our fathers declared that 
"all men were created.'' A great part of the securities of the legal 
792 



INTEENATIOIiTAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS ^PAPERS. 555 

system of our Federal Union consists in judicial and official oaths sworn 
upon the Gospels. 

Christianity has been judicially declared to be a part of the common 
law of Pennsylyania (11 S. and E., 394), of New York (8 Johns., 291), 
of Connecticut (2 Swift, System, 321), and of Massachusetts (7 Dane, 
Abr. c. 219, a 2, 19). To write or speak contemptuously and maliciously 
against it is an indictable oifense (Cooper, Libel, 59, 144). L think a 
law to preyent the employment of profane school-teachers would do 
more to Christianize the "incoming tide" than all the laws forbidding 
the people to speak against Christianity. It is a pitiful sight to see a 
human being speaking against the religion of the only One who can 
saye him ; it is pitiful to hear a man talk who does not know that re- 
liaion is retarded more by the inconsistencies of its professed followers 
than by the bitter ' assaults of its professed enemies; it is sad, too, to 
see our young graduates, with a little smattering of science, hurrying 
for the professor's chair, or rushing into the pulpit in order to demolish 
Mill, Tyndall, and Huxley. The words of Coleridge in regard to the 
great teachers and diyines of the seyenteenth century are worth repeat- 
ing as the nineteenth draws to a close : 

They were not ashamed of the learned discipline to which they had submitted their 
minds under Aristotle audTully, but brought the purified products as sacrificial gifts 
to Christ. They bax^tized the logic and manly rhetoric of ancient Greece. They made 
incursions into every province oflearning,andreturned laden with the choicest plunder. 
The scheme of the philosopher, the narrative of the historian, the vision of the poet, 
were all rendered subservient to the one predominant object of their researches; the 
gold of idolatrous shrines was transmuted into a pure ore by their spiritual alchemy. 

When our teachers and preachers are thus consecrated, the questions 
in regard to how the incoming tide is to be Christianized will be an- 
swered. 

I wonder if unbelief was not thoroughly organized in the Jewish 
Church when Christ was on earth? Will any man deny that the logic 
of the philosophers of two thousand years ago was not about as keen, 
subtile, bold, and commanding the attention of the intellectual elements 
of society and the best reasoners of the world, as any of to day? A 
speculatiye philosopher might spend much time in proying that man has 
a soul. Yet I defy any man to point to chapter and yerse where Jesus 
undertook to prove that man has a soul, and that his soul is immortal. 
He appealed to consciousness. He roused the proud reasoner who was 
demanding proof and looking for signs when he said, " What shall it 
profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own souH" 

I ara glad to say that the United States has neyer had an infidel Pres- 
ident; some of them were profoundly religious men. Our Christian 
philanthropists have built hospitals, asylums, alms-houses, and orphan- 
ages, for the relief of all conditions of suffering, and this work is being 
pushed forward more energetically at present than ever before. This 
will have a mighty influence towards Christianizing the incoming tide. 
Evolution, with cold brow, book in hand, and an air of superior wisdom, 
carefully notes the " survival of the fittest" in the struggle for existence. 
I like that very well. Christianity modestly goes to work to " make 
something more fit to survive." I like tha.t still better. The Christian 
Church has organized institutions of learning from Chicago to New 
Orleans, from Boston to San Francisco. That is very good. Infidelity 
has founded and endowed one college, so far as I recollect, Girard Col- 
lege. That is very good, too, as far as it goes. 

Again, when we speak of Christianizing the incoming tide, we must 
remember that the United States has received not only the immigrants 

793 



556 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

from other lands, but it has been the recipient of their ideas. If we 
strike out the history of any prominent nation, our history would be 
changed. Some of our hymns were first heard in Arabia and Judea; 
our religion is from Palestinie; the disciples were first called Christians 
at a city in Upper Syria, on the banks of the Orontes ; Spain was led 
by the sailor from Genoa to open up America to emigration ; the lily of 
France was with the star spangled banner at Yorktown ; old England 
gave us our system of representative government; our jurisprudence 
is principally from Rome ; our arts are from Greece ; our maritime code 
was taken x)rincipally from Russia; and in searching out the roots of 
many of the best words of the language we speak we are carried back 
to ludia.^ "As the reciprocal relation between God and humanity con- 
stitutes the unity of our race," our country stands to-day, in my humble 
opinion, not only the most desirable that the sun shines on, but nearer 
the realization of the unity of the human race. Schools are cheaper 
than standing armies. 

As the "incoming tide" from foreign lands is so great, the statesman 
may well ask, is there any ooe efficient source of influence in our country 
which is naturally calculated to heal those antipathies and animosities 
that separate the rich from the poor, to act as a check upon those sec- 
tarian jealousies that divide us as Christians and break down those 
distinctions of language and nationality that arise from the different 
European races composing our population, so as to bind us all together 
in the bonds of a common brotherhood ? I answer, yes. These bitter 
waters are healed at the fountain-head, by casting the salt of a com- 
mon education, a common i^atriotism, and a common Christianity into 
our common schools. Here the white and black children have equal 
privileges in separate schools. They work harmoniously. This is bet- 
ter than to undertake to conduct common schools with the two races in 
the same house. 

We should love the common school because it is intensely American. 
The pathology of drunkenness will soon be taught in all our free schools. 
Then will the children of America understand more fully that whisky 
and the religion of Christ do not hitch horses at the same rack. 

From the inception of the common school down to 1885, in every stage 
of its progress, amid the storm and tempests that have attended the mu- 
tations of political parties, amid the rancor of theological controversy 
and the heat of war and religious excitements, our common-school sys- 
tem has moved quietly and majestically along from the smallest begin- 
nings to the present magnificent proportions; its blessings falling upon 
the children of all colors, all nationalities, "like the dew of heaven," 
upon the high and low, rich and ])oor, Catholic and Protestant, " with- 
out prejudice and without i)artiality." 

There is another incoming tide. The haggard superstition of the 
West is sending out its apostles of lust all over the world. Blind in- 

^If we look to the negro blessed througli slavery in being brought iu contact with 
the Anglo-Saxon until he learned to speak a better language, to use the implemeuts 
of civilization, to worship the true God, then to have the manacles taken from his 
hands, the sliackles from his feet, the toga of manhood placed on his dark body, 
and tlie rights of citizensihip flash throngh bis soul, we realize that Africa is repre- 
sented. Two hundred and lii'ty years of servitude proved to be both a schooling and 
a protection to the African. Every Christianized American is glad that the African 
is free. What two hundred and fifty years of freedom may do for the African is an 
unsolved jjroblem. He is more proliiic than the Saxon. Here is an " incoming tide " 
that mugt be educated and Christianized or there will be a war of races, 

Which \7ill result in one 

Disapjjearing with the setting euu. 
794 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 557 

deed must be the American citizen who does not see that heroic treat- 
ment is necessary, and the sooner it is applied the better. 

Trades- Unions. 

I am aware that united action is, in many cases, the best and most 
effective means for labor to secure fair terras in dealing with capital, 
and apart from the outrages sometimes perpetrated in the name of the 
unions, I find nothing to call for reprobation. Yet it should not be for- 
gotten that labor and cai)ital when in conflict are in an unnatural state; 
harmony is their true relation. These unions started in England about 
fifty years ago merely as benefit societies. They are an exotic on our 
soil ; their strikes are generally in the hands of persons of foreign birth, 
who have only become Americanized in name. The way to American- 
ize tliem is to teach them that there is really no need of them in a 
country where the land is not entailed, where every man can leave the 
workshop and become a farmer, where social and political prestige is 
on the side of the laborer, and numbers more than on that of the capi- 
talist. 

America invites the oppressed, the lovers of civil and religious liberty, 
of everj^ land, to her hospitable shores. Many are coming who have 
graduated from the dynamite school of yellow-covered literature. They 
take shelter under the flag under which Washington fought and Warren 
fell, in order to manufacture dynamite and preach assassination. These 
un-Americauized and un-Christianized men who have drifted to our 
country should have the strong arm of the law thrown around them, 
until they were taught that the inciter to assassination is as bad as the 
assassin, and that both are enemies to civilieation, and enemies to God 
and humanity. 

Monopolies. 

Tliere are four kinds : personal, landed, legal, and concentrative. The 
last may be useful or injurious, according to the spirit of their use and 
control. It will require wise and level-headed statesmen to enact laws 
lor the Republic, if these monopolies do not eventually change and con- 
trol our country. It is said that "corporations have no souls." They 
ought to have. This is a republic. We do not permit our citizens to 
receive royal titles from beyond the ocean. Yet public opinion crowns 
them at home: railroad kings, bona.nza kings, cotton kings, cattle kings, 
etc. Unless these kings are Christianized, the Grand Army of the Ke- 
public will not be able to save the country. The cry will go out through 
the land, " Who shall unlock the fingers of these kings whose arms have 
been thrown around the pillars of our political and social fabric 1 " We 
should never forget that we cannot leave God out of our hearts and 
live. There is not a page of human history, there is no earth-rocking 
convulsion, no time-agitating change, which does not teach the people, 
sooner or later, that God and liberty can never pass away. 

There is an "incoming tide" of boys and girls who will quickly ripen 
into manhood and womanhood. Thousands of them will graduate from 
our hundreds of colleges, leave their country homes, and crowd into New 
York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, Saint Louis, Cincinnati, Baltimore, 
iiTew Orleans, or other cities, where the maelstrom of commercial life 
has already drawn its thousands into the rapid current. Here they are 
shut up in counting houses for fifteen out of every twenty-four hours. 
They are released only when Christian families have closed their doors 
to visitors. The gates which they find ajar as they start out on the 

795 



558 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Streets, are tbose leading to the gilded palaces that fatten our grave- 
yards an(l populate hell! 

Here is work for those who will lend a helping hand in order to save 
the rising generation from the evil by which they are surrounded. 

Europe has 3,800,000 square miles of land. The present people in- 
habiting Europe, exclusive of those in the Caucasus, are said to be 
derived from ten distinct races or families. The more ancient the stock, 
the less numerous are its representatives. The several states of Europe 
present everj^ form of government, from the absolute despotism to that 
of little republics and free cities. The Turks alone, as a people, deny 
the authenticity of Christianity. It is from Europe that the " incoming- 
tide " rolls in its thousands weekly. In Europe civilization has attained 
its most perfect development. Whence this Samsonian strength, this 
power, this diversity ? It may be attributed more or less to certain 
physico-geographical conditions, such as climate, productions, maritime 
convenience, as well as to age and education. 

At the treaty of peace, 1783, the United States had 815,615 square 
miles ; now it possesses a grand total of 3,578,392 square miles, only 
lacking 221,608 square miles of being as large as Europe. Before the 
last ray of the setting sun has ceased to linger upon the mountains of 
snow in Alaska, the rays of the rising sun begin to kiss the tops of the 
white pines of Maine. We have ribbed the continent with steel, and 
whispered liberty around the world swifter than the voices of the morn- 
ing. The world grows wiser and better as it grows older. This is the 
age of light and liberty. 

When the nineteenth century came in, every nation on the face of the 
earth engaged in the slave trade. Before the nineteenth century ends, 
except to his passions, a slave will not walk this earth. 

It is not science which retards the advancement of Christianity. The 
first telegram ever sent was " What hath God wrought!" The first one 
ever sent around the globe was the angel chant which shook Bethle- 
hem, " Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will to 
men." If bitter sectional text-books are to be used in our schools, if 
the gospel of hate is to ring out from our pulpits, then the time cannot 
be far distant when the pleasa.nt gardens of our prosperity will be up- 
rooted by the whirlwinds of anarchy or iron bound by the polar frosts 
of despotism, and this beautiful government which now looms up in the 
horizon to the admiration of all the earth, become the mournful dream 
of the past. If the doctrine of peace and good-will shaU be preached 
from pulpit and press, and taught in the thousands of schools that 
dot our land, "the incoming tide will be Americanized and Christian- 
ized," the rising generation will love their country and their God. 
There will not be a " soul so dead " as not to love this " land of the 
free" and this " home of the brave." Eor me, her rivers are the most 
majestic, her mountains the grandest, her ladies the fairest, her men 
the bravest, her flowers the sweetest, the song of her uncaged birds the 
freest, and the sun above her broad savannas the brightest on earth. 
The attrition of the tide of time and these great international gather- 
ings will serve to draw closer the ties that bind us. I rejoice to believe 
that the heart of the solid granite masses of the people of this great 
American Union beats in unison to the music of the Union and the 
Constitution as it never did before. May our country live and grow 
and bless humanity until the muse of history shall write j^wis with a pen 
of tire, and the nations shall come to judgment at the ringing blast of 
angel trump. 
796 



THE HAEMOMOUS DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACULTIES. 
By Brother Barbas, 

Of ihe Brothers of the Christian Schools. 



Education, to be genuine, must lead forth, train, and direct itat-Hioni- 
ously the several faculties or powers innate in man, giving to each a 
care and attention proportiuued to its relative importance, which im-^ 
portance is to be determined in view of man's destiny or final end. 

To be able to do this intelligently and wisely, the educator must 
know the hatttre of these faculties, and the end they are intended to 
subserve. Without knowing their nature, he could not direct them to 
their proper objects, and consequently could not aid in their develop- 
hientj could not lead them forth successfully. Without leading them 
forth httrraOhioUslyi he would do violence to nature, where they exist 
together for mutual aid, aUd would thus create disorder where order 
should eminently reign, in the grahdest object in creation, its lord, the 
microcosm, man. Without knowing- man'^ end, he could not direttrt 
them wisely ; and it might well be said of the most highly cultured fac- 
ulties, Cui bono f What advantage would they all bring"? Were the 
faculties developed without a view to this end, or were they exercised 
in contravention to this end, then indeed might it be asked, "Is life 
worth living"?" For, in that event, all the. goods attainable would be 
UDsatisfactory, because transitory, and because not conducting to the 
permanent good, man's end, in which alone are rest, peace, and tru<d 
happiness. 

Now the faculties become known by their operations, and these by 
their objects. For there must be a due proportion between the opera- 
tion and its term, on one side, and between the same operation and its 
agent or faculty, on the other. As Socrates has it : Toioutov r}.iT,fxa 
rkjAvEjai TO tefuvoiiavov oiov to rt/ivov rajj-vsi, which we can convert 
and say : Toioutov rj.i7^/.ia refivei to rt/xror oiov ro r€/j.vo/x€vov re^ve- 
rai. The color perceived, for instance, makes known the act of seeing, 
and this reveals the faculty, or sense, of sight. Were the eye to speak, 
it might say : Video, ergo sum. 

Again, as the object is a material quality, we know that sight is an 
organic faculty, or one acting through a bodily organ, since matter can 
act directly only on matter. Furthermore, in perceiving color we feel 
a sensation, which shows that the bodily organ is vital, and conse- 
quently that seeing is the operation of both the life-giving principle or 
soul and the body united. For the simplest exercise, therefore, of the 
simplest faculty, as of sight, the soul and body must act in harmony, 
and contribute each its proper share toward the one effect. Hence the 
first duty of the educator, who assumes the responsibility of leading 
forth alfthe faculties or powers implanted in the child, is to attend 
himself and lead his pupil to attend to physical well-being. The sym- 
pathy between soul and body is so great, that if one ails, the other is 

797 



5 GO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

immediately iudisposed. Sickness affects the mind, sadness or anger 
or envy preys upon the body. 

It will be seen in the sequel how advantage may be taken of una- 
voidable physical evil for the furtherance of the highest good, the 
moral good, and how "all the ills that flesh is hgir to" may be con- 
verted into so many blessings by the simple act of an upright will. 
But the same moral law that rewards* the voluntary acceptance of una- 
voidable ])hysical evil, tells us that it is a crime to neglect the first law 
of nature — self-preservation, both laws emanating from the same Sov- 
ereign Legislator, and man being amenable before His supreme tribunal 
for every voluntary infraction of either. 

Mens Sana in corpore sano must be the motto of the educator. He 
t^hould know the general principles of hygiene, and point out the ad- 
vantages accruing from following the simple laws of nature, especially 
in curbing the passions under the rein of right reason, and in being vir- 
tuous. He should be careful how he unduly exaggerates the value of 
mere literary attainments, lest the pupil, by sacrificing too much of the 
l)hysical for the intellectual goods, may end with having neither. Much 
less should he impose such burdens upon the mind as will endanger the 
body to succumb. He mast be persuaded that reasonable recreation is 
as much a duty for the student as study itself; that time taken from 
necessary sleep and given to study is an injustice even to the faculties 
it is intended to benefit, a folly which, sooner or later, brings its own 
punishment in lack oi: energy, in lassitude and distaste, leaving uu- 
knitted " the raveled sleeve of care," disorder at the fountain head. In 
laying down principles to guide his pupil in after life, he should not 
shrink from exposing this among other evils of the theater, — time taken 
jrom necessary repose. Sensational reading — novels, romances, etc., 
should also suggest a salutary warning, lest their devotees may become 
puny dreamers i)hysically no less than intellectually. Mechanical pur- 
suits should not be discountenanced, nor made the object of invidious 
comparison with the learned professions. Manual labor should be held 
as honorable, and rather encouraged than otherwise, pointing out Ciu- 
cinnatus, Cato, Washington, and others, as instances of nobility allied 
to rural labor. 

These are among the dict«ates of a true and disinterested regard for 
the real welfare of the whole man, unswayed and unbiased by the con- 
ventionalities of a questionable progress in refinement, excellence, and 
genuine worth. 

To impress still more upon the pupil's mind the great im^jortance of 
physical development and well-being, he should be taught that most 
usetul lesson, gratitude to his parents — his first educators physically, 
aye, and intellectually, too, and morally. All after-educators are build- 
ing upon the foundation they laid. To the jDarents belongs the sacred 
and inalienable right of determining who shall be the educators and 
what shall be the education of their offspring, as it is their bounden 
duty to see to the welfare of that precious deposit Heaveu has lent them 
— an immortal soul clothed in their own flesh and blood. 

To return to color. We jierceive color as inhering in a subject, and 
we distinguish between the color and the colored, the accident and the 
substance, which we could not do were we not possessed of a higher 
faculty than sense. For color is evidently all the eye perceives. But 
color is not the colored. How then do we know the substance col- 
ored'? By intellect, which tells us a quality cannot exist without a 
subject to support it. This we call substance. Again, we cognize the 
color of an apple apart from its flavor, savor, and tactile qualities. 

798 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 661 

The eye reaches only the color, the taste only the savor, the smell 
only the flavor, and the touch only the tactile qualities. How then do 
we know that they exist united in the apple? Certainly not one nor 
all of the senses can give us this knowledge, since each severally per- 
ceives but its own ijroper object. There must be a higher power or 
faculty, then, viz, the intellect. I do not speak here of the sensations 
caused by color, flavor, etc., but of the objective realities themselves. 
Tlie perception of the former, indeed, and the distinction we make be 
tween them demand another faculty beyond the external senses, viz, 
an internal sensitive faculty, which, as cognizing, distinguishing, and 
comparing the different sensations produced through means of the ex- 
ternal senses, may rightly be called common sense, whose organ is the 
sensorium or encephalon [kyxicpalov). 

Here we find that the operation of an external sense calls forth that 
of an internal sense, and both call into action a faculty above, but not, 
in our present state, absolutely independent of sense, as we see, viz, 
intellect. Thus, at each step, we see the necessity of harmonious devel- 
opment, or leading forth, of the faculties. The child might, for in- 
stance, be asked some simple questions as to the nature of what he per- 
ceives by the senses, their causes, their uses, etc., and thus led on 
insensibly to connect reasoning and reflection with direct observation. 
Can you hear the color of a rose or see its odor ? Why do not the 
same sort of flowers grow in every garden I Where does the rain come 
from ? How did it get there ? He may not be able to answer your 
questions, but they will bring him to think. And if once he has learned 
to think, he may and will take many a profound lesson from the ordi- 
nary occurrences around him, and accustom himself to read in the first 
and grandest of all books, nature, and thus have access to a perennial 
source of highest enjoyment to the simple, upright, and virtuous mind. 
" Cceli enarrant Deum,^'' ^'■Domini est terra et plenitudo ejus,''^ will resound 
on all sides, filling the ears of his delighted reason with exquisite mel- 
ody, sublimating and enrapturing all the powers of his SMil in the con- 
templation of so much beauty and magnificence. 

That we possess the higher faculty of intellect may also be thus shown 
from its operation. We are intimately aware that some of our opera- 
tions have truth for their object; or, as Sir William Hamilton would say, 
we know that we know the truth. But truth has no dimensions, and 
therefore cannot be the object of a material operation, nor be reached 
by an organic faculty. A material organ can act only on a material 
object. If the object is immaterial, so likewise is the faculty. The eye 
sees that which is true, not truth. To perceive truth, the knowing fac- 
ulty must see the relation which itself bears to the object known, for in 
this relation of conformity between the knowing and the known truth 
consists. But this requires a reflex act on the part of the faculty, a 
turning back upon itself, which no organic faculty can do, the direct 
act alone being competent to such faculty. The eye cannot see itself. 
It is its image it sees in a mirror. 

There is, then, an inorganic or spiritual faculty in us, and therefore 
a spiritual substance possessing that faculty ; for in finite entities no 
faculty is capable of existing except in an essence, in which it may be 
said to have its root or foundation, but from which it is distinct, even 
as color must belong to a subject and yet is distinct from it. But a 
spiritual substance cannot perish, for it is simple, and therefore incapa- 
ble of dissolution. And no finite power, moreover, can annihilate it, 
for it is the effect of a creative act, and it requires the same power to 
reduce to nothing that it does to produce from nothing. The soul is 
• 799 



562 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

therefore immortal, and man's true welfare is then only consulted when 
provision is made for the life that will not end ; and his faculties are 
then only rightly employed when directed toward securing- their pos- 
sessor this welfare. 

But to show still more clearly the connection of the several faculties, 
their interdependence, and the consequent necessity of their harmoni- 
ous development or calling forth, let us return a moment to the apple 
we were considering. Here we lind a new faculty called into play. We 
do recall our past experiences about the apple and what we have remarked 
thereon. There is then the faculty of memory in us, which retains and 
recalls the past. But this is i^ossible only from the x^revious operation 
of other faculties, which furnish it with its proper object; otherwise 
there would be nothing to retain, nothing to recall, is'ow memory re- 
tains only the images or impressions of things, from which it reproduces 
past scenes and experiences. To do this effectually and easily, the im- 
pressions must be sufficiently deep, the images sufficiently vivid, both 
of which require energetic and vigorous action of the faculties. This 
again exacts attention, a calling home of wandering thoughts, a concen- 
tration of the powers of the soul. For as the total energy of man is 
limited, the more it is divided on different objects, the more its efficiency 
on any one of them is diminished. It is for this reason that indulging 
the passions is ruinous to intellectual vigor, no less than to moral strength 
and rectitude. What is wasted on the animal man is taken from the in- 
tellectual and spiritual man. Aye, and even intellectual pursuits, if 
allowed to engross more than a just share of our attention, will iuevi 
tably dry up the unction of soul necessary to diffuse the aroma of virtue 
ovei" all our actions. 

That justice, therefore, may be rendered to all, and the rights of each 
acuity respected, there must be a sovereign ruler in the kingdom of 
man's mind. Let us see if there is such a ruling faculty. The apple 1 
just now spoke of I conjure up before me. I see it in my mind's eye. 
The tree on which it hangs, the orchard where the tree grows, its envi- 
rons — all are here. This very act of conjuring up reveals a new faculty, 
perfectly distinct from though nearly allied to memory. 1 saw an ap- 
ple, and a tree, and an orchard before. I never saw the i)articular apple, 
tree, and orchard I now see before me, nor did I ever see either of them 
where this new jjower, imagination, locates them. It is this taking 
away of objects from some of the relations and circumstances in which 
we originally found them, and putting them into positions and giving 
them surroundings of our own choosing, that constitutes the difference 
between imagination and memory. Memory recalls the object with its 
own surroundings. Imagination brings forward the object in borrowed 
or stolen surroundings. 

Too much attention cannot be drawn by the educator to this differ- 
ence. The one faculty gives us the whole truth, as far as its report 
goes ; the other a particle of truth with the semblance of the whole, a 
grain of truth in a bushel of error. But as a microscope is not necessa- 
rily a falsifier because it gives you ten feet of error for every barley-corn 
of truth, since it makes no secret of doing this; so neither is imagina- 
tion a false witness for bringing real figures into unreal situations, 
clothing them in the full dress of reality ; for it too professes to de- 
ceive. You can hardly call a man a liar, if you convict him of telling 
you a lie after he has told you he is a liar; unless indeed you want to 
be hypocritical, and argue thus : If the man told me truly he was a liar, 
he was no liar ; for Ue told me the truth, and I should believe him as 
800 



INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 563 

one who thus far has told the truth ; therefore he is a liar for telling 
me he is a liar when he is not. 

Imagination gets its name from giving us an image or picture made 
up partly of what is and partly of what might be. In order to impress 
upon the minds of his pupils the excellence, beauty, and grandeur of 
truth, the educator who knows its paramount value will not fail to note 
the fact that, to be crecUtable, fiction, even when most bent upon de- 
ceiving, must put on all the appearance of truth, just as the most ac- 
complished forger gives to his counterfeit the nearest resemblance lo 
the genuine article to give it currency. So much the more must the 
pupil be put on his guard against the allurements of pretended reali 
ties set forth as valuables by the cunning device and wondrous dex- 
terity of poet or novelist, lest the gaudy display, absorbing all the 
energies of the soul through sensational excitement, may lull reason to 
sleep, and betray the ruler, will, into the hands of voluptuousness, 
leaving the unwary simpleton, alas! too frequently, deep down in the 
mire, wearied, yawning, helpless, a moral wreck. Would that this were 
a poetic picture! But it must be admitted that but too many of the 
poets, novelists, and romancers of most of our vaunted literatures have 
drawn many a hapless wight into the vortex of erotic passion. But 
happily every honest imagination can find ample matter for its most 
daring and pleasing flights in the pure, and sublime, and beautiful con 
ceptions of many of our own poets of classic fame. But no sparkling 
gem should tempt the mind to seek it by wading through filth; the 
soul's fjurity is a thousand times a brighter gem; and wisdom says, 
reason says, common sense says, we ought not lose the greater for 
the lesser gem. Besides, both would then be lost ; for the sullied soul 
cannot have a bright mind, nor one brilliant faculty. 

But imagination's simpler and more ordinary occupation is to prepare 
matter for the intellect, to hold up before it the phantasma which calls 
it forth to act. In this .sense it precedes and accompanies every act of 
understanding, every process of reasoning, all our thinking, which is 
vigorous in proportion to the vivacity of this faculty. Imagination is 
wrong only when it asserts independence of reason. 

But intellect or reason itself is subject to higher authority. It may 
not exercise itself upon all objects indifferently, nor search for truth 
irrespective of times and circumstances and conditions. It would not 
do to sit down quietly pursuing a train of reasoning while the house 
was on fire; nor to spend twenty years in counting the joints of a cater- 
pillar or grasshopper, or in studying the anatomy of ants and flies; nor 
to ransack all the records of the past to find 

" Who nursed Anchises ; from what country came 
The step-dam of Archemorus, what her name; 
How long Acestes flourished, and, in short, 
With how much wine the Trojans left his court." 

We may, in these and similar instances, reason unreasonably. There 
must be something, then, to determine reason itself, and make it right 
reason, following which no man goes astray. For following a higher 
light in matters transcending the powers of reason, is eminently reason- 
able. 

Fow it is the will that controls the intellect, directing it to seek truth 
in this or that direction, as it listeth. But there must be some mover 
of the will to bring it from the possible into the actual state, for it is not 
always in act, and nothing can of itself leave the possible state. This 
mover or motive is the good, in the possession of which lies happiness, 

801 



564 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

and which therefore moves or attracts toward itself all beings capable 
of happiness. Aristotle goes farther and says that "all things desire 
the good." This innate desire of happiness is therefore the ultimate 
reason why man is moved by the good; and as it is God who implant- 
ed in us this desire, He is the first mover of our will, as He is of all 
things. Not only is it true that ''in Him we live, move, and have our 
being," but that by Him we are moved through the inclination that He 
gave us. 

-But just here a grand difficulty meets us: the will needs the light 
of intellect to point out the good it wills, as nothing is willed if it is not 
known. How can the will govern the intellect, if it is dependent on the 
intellect? How can we, admitting this dependence, still maintain the 
sovereignty of the will? Just as in a monarchy a sovereign is truly 
sovereign, though he may not be able to govern without the aid of his 
council; for he can command his council to confine themselves to a sub- 
ject of his choosing, and can choose his own course of action after they 
have thrown all their light upon the subject. 

But to return to our mode of knowing the nature of the faculties. 
We have seen how the sight of the color of an apple led to the opera- 
tion of three internal senses, thence to the operation of intellect. Let 
us see if no other faculty or power was evoked. It is not a very improb- 
able case to suppose that the first motion, on seeing the apple, was 
toward plucking it, making it our own. But a voice within whispers, 
"It is not right; that apple belongs to another; you must have the 
owner's permission before you can take it," and I immediately check 
my hand in the very act of reaching for it, and turn away. Here three 
new faculties have come into action, — sensile appetite following sensile 
perception, conscience warning about the moral rectitude of the then 
contemplated act, and rational appetite or will giving the final decision, 
after weighing the reasons for and against. Here, too, is a conflict 
between the higher and the lower appetite ; here a victory of the higher, 
moral strength, virtue. That the will was free to go against the voice 
of conscience, and consequently that the act of resisting the lower appe- 
tite was a virtuous act, is again known from the operation or volition, 
and this from the object. Whoever remembers to have on one occa- 
sion rejected the solicitation to a certain act to which he at another 
time, similarly circumstanced, yielded, has in himself a palpable proof 
that his will is free. For to do a certain act and not to do it are two 
contraries, and no necessitated agent can choose between two contra- 
ries. If it must go to one of them, it cannot go to the other; and if it 
can go to either, it must go to neither of them. There is but one re- 
spect in which the will is not free : it is not free not to wish happiness. 
But as the good is as extensive as entity, there is an immense variety 
of objects in wliich man may place his happiness, and therefore has an 
almost illimitable range for the freedom of will to exercise itself, though 
too often happiness is sought where it is not, and not sought where it is. 

From the very nature and office of the will we see at once the superla 
five importance of cultivating, directing, and strengthening this faculty. 
Now every faculty is called forth unto act and consequently developed 
by presenting it with its proper object. The eye is informed by color, 
the intellect waxes large and strong on truth, and the will by having 
presented to it the good. But as the appearance of truth without the 
i-sality only dwarfs the intellect, so merely apjjarent good enervates and 
sickens the will. The real good is that which hinders no greater good. 
But every good hinders a greater good, if it be not itself the summum 
honum or conducts not to it. The moment a physical good destroys or 

80!2 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 565 

biuders an intellectnal good, except iu the interest of a higher good, it 
becomes a positive evil. And when either of these goods destroys or 
hinders a moral good, they are so far still greater evils. The real good 
is the permanent, unchangeable, iniinite good, with all that in any 
way tends to it ; and all things tend to it, if we will them as means to 
this end. This is no other than God, the true, the beautiful, and the 
good in one, iu their fullness and in their source, man's last end as He is 
also his first beginning. The science that instructs man how to reach 
this his end is the science of religion, rightly styled the queen of all the 
sciences, not that of man's own choosing, but of God's revealing; that 
religion which not only enlightens the mind by faith, but strengthens 
the will by grace, of which it is the divinely appointed channel. 

Kow the will of the Almighty is man's supreme, unending happiness. 
Man's will, therefore, to be perfect, must be conformed to the will of his 
Creator. That is the sublime standard and grand criterion to which he 
must look as to his guiding star, in sailing over the sea of life. This 
l)erfection of the will, so desirable, may indeed, nay, most certainly (let; 
us not hide the truth) will cost many a hard conflict with the most dif- 
ficult of all enemies — self, many a denial of the cravings of lower appe- 
tites. But the contest is a glorious one, the victory magnificent. Rea- 
son is on our side, exhorting, " Courage is half the battle! What is 
of so immense value is cheap at any and every cost, even that of life." 
Justice, and right, and truth, and fortitude, and honor, and all the vir- 
tues, are on our side, ennobling and elevating our every energy. The 
truly great and good of every age from long before Socrates to more 
than a century after Washington, have been on our side. 

When the will is right, all in man is right, all is orderly, all harmoni- 
ous. Intellect busies itself in the service of the will, discovering the 
truth, and by its light pointing out to the will the good that is its ob- 
ject, for every entity is true for the intellect, good for the will in ,some 
way. The intellect again is served by imagination, whose normal and 
ordinary office it is to prepare for intellect its proper object by present- 
ing to it the phantasma, on which the wieZZee^MS aryews operates prepara- 
tory to its reception by intellect proper or possiftZe intellect, as it has 
been called. But imagination has need of memory to retain the images 
or representatives of things, on which alone imagination works. But 
memory proper, or sensile memory, must have sensations or sensile im- 
pressions, already distinguished and classified by common sense. But 
this last must have sensations before it can distinguish or classify them, 
which sensations are partly preliminary to and partly concomitant with 
sensile perception or cognition. Here we have a grand chain of suc- 
cessive causes rising iu relative importance up to the sovereign will, 
which directs and controls all. The highest cannot say to the lowes^/, 
"We have no need of you"; nor can the senses claim any of the privi- 
leges of humanity, except iu so far as they are subservient to reason 
or intellect under the control of the will, itself regulated by the Divine 
will. 

I have not, in this disquisition of the faculties, referred directly to 
reason or to consciousness, for I hold that neither of them is a distinct 
faculty, but only names for special exercises of the intellect. Neither 
do I agree with Eeid or Hobbes in considering common sense, or the 
cognitive faculty found in all men, as a distinct faculty from intellect 
found in all men. Common sense is nothing else than intellect reveal- 
ing to all men either self evident truths, or such as require very lit' le 
reasoning for their discovery, and which are necessary to be known for 
the physical, intellectual, and moral well-being of man. 

803 



566 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

One remark must here be added, as a fitting conclusion to this paper. 
Since the ills of life are unavoidable, it is the part of wisdom to study 
how to make them as tolerable as possible. jSTow the best way, be- 
cause the only trne way, is to take them for what they really are, — 
trials for the highest exercise of the highest faculty in man — the will, 
wherein he can prove that he makes it his pleasure to conform his will 
to that of his Creator. Such disposition brings a peace no adversity 
can ruffle. It is thus that unavoidable physical evil becomes a moral 
good. 

804 



ON YARIATIONS OF MENTAL EECBPTIVITY. 
By Edwin Chadwick, A. B,, 

Chairman of Education Committee, Society of Arts, London, England. 



The effect of a low physical conclition in weakening mental receptivity 
and in debilitating the power of attention, has been dwelt upon by the 
earliest educationists. Dr. Crichton, in his "Inquiry into the Nature 
and Origin of Mental Derangement," places poor diet at the head of a 
list of causes which weaken attention, and consequently debilitate all 
the faculties of the mind. But there are to be observed in education 
wide natural variations displayed in £he receptivity of members of the 
same family, and in diilerent races of well-fed people. In a wealthy 
family of high position there will commonly be found considerable varia- 
tions in the receptivity of its different members. One, the sharpest 
boy, is designated for the legal profession, or is trained to try for the 
scientific corps. Of another of less promise, it is judged that he will 
not succeed in the open professions ; formerly such a one would be 
given some position in the public service, but now the competitive ex- 
aminatioDS have barred the way for him to governrpent emi)loyment, 
and he is usually left for the family living, where there is one, or some 
position iu which there is little mental strain. 

The variations of mental receptivity may be shown on a large scale, 
in the results of the great public competitive examinations. Thus, to 
take the variations in the attainments of even the successful candidates 
for admission to the scientific corps at Woolwich : the mean of the marks 
obtained by the upper third of the last batch was 4,013.6 ; of the inter- 
mediate third, 3,576 ; and of the lowest third, 2,845.8. Of the last batch 
of successful competitors for the civil service in India, the mean of marks 
obtained by the upper third were 1,947 ; of the intermediate third, 1,628 5 
and of the lowest third, 1,434. In the case of the competition for the 
clerkships of the lower division, in the last batch the mean of the upper 
third was 1,576; of the intermediate third, 1,333; and of the lower third, 
1,245. In these several instances, the best efforts were doubtless made, 
and wide variations of mental receptivity were determined among classes 
uninfluenced bj'^ variations in feeding. 

Of course the school teachers of children of a lower class have to deal 
with variations in feeding, in addition to natural variations of capacity, 
and also with racial variations. School teachers of experience in different 
parts of the country are aware of wide variations of racial receptivity be- 
tween the children of one part of the country and those of another : for 
instance, the receptivity of the children in the elementary schools of Lan- 
cashire, compared with that of the children of some of the southern coun- 
ties, is as three to two. I have notes from practical educationists in France 
regarding the wide variations between the quick children of the. Sou th and 
the slow children of the North. From such experiences will be seen the 
serious mistake in the fundamental policy on the part of our Education 

805 



568 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Department, wliich puts forward one uniform code, irrespectiv^e of all the 
variations of receptivity that are to be found in children c^ like ages 
in the same school. School teachers readily appreciate the division of re- 
ceptivities into quarts, pints, or half-pints of mental receptivity. In the 
same school, among a group of children of average capacity, there are 
found to be 40 per cent, of children classed as of quart capacity, 35 per 
cent, of pint, and 23 per cent, of half pint. The teacher gets on easily 
and satisfactorily for three hours with the quarts of *his class ; but the 
pints in that time become wearisome, and with the half-pints it is 
sad and heavy work to get them up at the same time as the quaits. 
Yet they are all to be got up in the time. For the pints it would re- 
quire a year or more to bring them up to the quarts ; with the half- pints 
full two years, and with many not at all. With the pints and the half- 
pints the effect is more or less of over-pressure, and with the half-pints 
very severe over-pressure upon them ; that is to say, bodily as well as 
mental pain is the result of the effort to get them up at the same time 
to the requirements of the code. 

These mental evils are accompanied by habitual headaches in 40 per 
cent, of the children, together with complaints of mothers. The inspector 
of tb e school, when told of this, declared that he did n ot believe a word of the 
statement, for he had seen all the mothers, and had not heard one com- 
plaint from them ; and such appears to be the testimony on which reli- 
ance is placed by the Department. The fact is, that the mothers do 
not make complaints to the inspectors against the requirement of home 
lessons, but they do make them to the teachers at the school. 

I have been led to make these inquiries into the variations of mental 
receptivity in the interests of the half-time principle which I got intro- 
duced into the Factories Eegulation Act, and into the education of the or- 
phan children under the poor-law administration. I made inquiries of an 
experienced practical educationist in France as to the racial variations of 
receptivity of the school children, which he described as very wide indeed 
between the quick children of the South and the slow, heavy children of 
the North. It is related of a political chief, the head of the Education 
Department of France, that to show the extent of excellence to which 
the Department had got the system in France, he said, " iSTow if 1 
take oat my watch, I shall be sure that the same lesson is being given 
at that precise time to the children of every school in France ! " If he 
had been aware of the old educational maxim, Quidquid recepitur, re- 
cepitur ad modum redpientis, and of the wide differences in the recipi- 
ents, he would be aware that he was surely frustrating the objects of 
education, that he was inflicting extensive overpressure and torment 
on the children, and perplexity, vexation, and weariness on the teachers^. 
The school teachers of England declare 'that if they were left to their 
own devices they would save two years of the school life to all the 
children ; that is to say, to the four millions of children in school at- 
tendance eight millions of years of wasted and tormented life would be 
saved, to say nothing of the diminution in the rates. I believe that, if 
a proper system were pursued, there might be saved four annual exam- 
inations out of five, and the pupils be left to what is called in Germany 
a " leaving examination." 
806 



INDEX TO PART II. 



A.L.A. Catalog, 412-417. 

Accuracy, want of, in educational matters, 496. 
Adams, Mr., remarks by, 38. 
Administration of school affairs. See School sys- 
tem. 
Africa needs railroads, 506. 
Agnostic school, rejects the ideal, 466-4C8. 

character of the writers of the, 470. 
Agricultural education in Ontario, 204-208. 
Air, gaseous constituents of, 351-352. 
solid particles in, 35V354. 
vitiated, composition of, 354-355. 
expired, compo,«ition of, 356. 
organic matter in, 357-359, 360, 362. 
permeability of walls of buildings to, 3.59. 
experiments of De Chaumont to determine the 

vitiation of, 3fi2-364. 
experiments of R. Angus Smith lo determine 

the effects of vitiation of, 365-36(5. 
statistics of composition of, in inhabited 

rooms, 375-379. 
See also Carbonic ncid and Ventilation. 
Alaska, state of education in, 132. 
Albert College (Ontario), 242-243. 
Alcott, Dr. W. A., editor of the American Annals 

of Edueatinn, 523-524. 
Allyn, Rev. Robert, mention of, ,529. 
Alma College (for ladies, Ontario), 199, 203. 
American Annals nf Education, 522-524. 
American Journal of Education, f)21. 
Americanize and Christianize the incoming tide,- 

how shall we ? 554-558. 
Amherst College, physical training at, 428-430. 
Analostan School (Washington, D. C), examina- 
tion of air of, 372. 
Angell, James B., Vice-President International 

Congress of Educators, 9. 
Apparatus for instruction in primary schools, 118. 
Architectural beauty, influence of, 411. 
Architecture, school, in Ontario, 408-411. 
Arthur, Chester A., Honorary President Interna- 
tional Congress of Educators, 9. 
Ashton, R , account of Mohawk Institute (Can- 
ada) by, 318. 
As^ciation of Mechanics' Institutes of Ontario, 

214-215. 
Atherlon, G. "W., Assistant Secretary of Section 

0,221. 
Authority, in the school-room, respect for, 447-455. 
evidence of, everywhere visible, 447. 
sanction of, 448. 

responsibility of those vested with, 449-450. 
Azarias, Brother, mention of, 48. 

on literarv and scientific habits of thought, 
456-473." 

Bailey, Hon. A. A., on examinations in California, 

'125. 
Baptist school for the Indians, 513. 
Baptist theological college in Ontario, 277-280, 281. 
Barbas. Brother, on the harmonious development 

of the faculties, 559-566. 
Barbour, Dr. L. G-., mention of, 49. 

on competitive studies and resultant prizes, 
532-536. 
Barnard, Hon. Henry. Vice-President Interna- 
tional Congress of Educators, 9. 
quoted, 88. 
mention of, 524, 526. 
Barnard'' s American Journal of Education, 527. 
Bartholomew, Professor, remarks by, 52-53. 



Bell, A. Graham, Honorary Chairman of Section 
D, 283. 
labors for the instiuction of the deaf, 293. 
device of for testing the hearing, 298. 
Berea College (Kentucky), 230-232. 
Bernouilli, John, quoted, 534, 535. 
Bible, extracts from, for use in pu'blic schools, 142. 
effort to banish the, from the schools of Onta- 
rio, 140-141 . 
See also Religious training and Moral training. 
Bicknel). Hon. T.W., Vice-President International 
Congress of Educators, 9. 
referred to, 11,48,49,530. 
on national aid to education, 282-292. 
on educational journalism in New England, 
517-531. 
Billings, Dr. J. S., Chairman of Section E, 347. 
Bishop Strachan School (for ladies, Ontario), 200. 

sketch of, 202. 
Blind, education of the, in Ontario, 299-302. 
Blow, Miss Susan E., referred to, 40. 
Body, Rev. C. "W. E. (Ontario), mention of, 246, 267. 
Bond, Edward A. (England), Honorary Chairman 

• of Section E, 347. 
Book depository of Ontario Education Depart- 
ment, 420-421. 
Botany, study of. in common schools, 147-149. 
BrantiPord Ladies' College (Ontario), 200, 203. 
Brooklyn Bridge, the, 496. 
Brown,' Hon. Le Roy D., mention of, 9. 

quoted, 123. 
Buchan, I. M. (Ontario), mention of, 238. 
Baell, C. J., Chairman, 397-408. 
Buiason, B., referred to, 11. 
remarks by, 49. 

on recent reforms in public instruction in 
France. 111-119. 
Buisson. F., Honorary Chairman of Elementary 

Section, 57. 
Bureau of Education, referred to, 115, 126, 128, 410, 
417. 
circular of, relating to the instruction of the 
deaf, referred to, 292. 
Bureau of Indian Affairs hampered by want of 

funds, 515. 
Burke, Hon. E. A.., Director-General of the Ex- 
position, 7. 
Burns, Rev. Alexander, on female education in 

Ontario, 199-203. 
Bush, Hon. Lewis, remarks of, 11. 
Butcher, Hon. B. L., Secretary International Con- 
gress of Educators, 9. 

Campbell, Principal F. J. (England), Honorary 

Secretary of Section D, 283. 
Capper, Hon. Thomas, Chief Inspector of Schools 

in J amaica. 68. 
Carbonic acid and other impurities in school-room 
air, 349-392. 
in the atmosphere, normal amount of, 351. 
iimnuntof, in vitinted air, 35-1-355, 359. 
limit of, .Tllowable in rooms, 361. 
Pettenkofer's method for the determination of 
the amount of, in the air of a room, 366-370. 
Hesse's method for (ho deterrainatinn of the 

amount of, in the air of a room, 38.5-388. 
other methods for the same, 388-392. 
See also Air and Ventilation. 
Carling, Hon. John (Ontario), quoted, 206. 
Carlyle, William, on examinations in public 
schools, 154-157. 

807 



570 



INDEX TO PAET 11. 



Carpenter, "W. L., promotea science instruction in 

England, 160. 
Castle, Eev. John H. (Ontario), mention of, 278. 
Catalog, the A. L. A., 412-417. 
features of, 413-415. 
uses of, 415-416. 

preparation and pnhlication of, 417. 
Catalogues for libraries, expense and unsatisfac- 
tory character of, 412-413. 
functions of, 413. 
Caven, Eev. Principal (Ontario), mention of, 276. 
Chadwick, Edwin (England), on corporal punish- 
ment, 133-136. 
on variations of mental receptivity, 567-568. 
Character, importance of, in teachers, 142, 144-145, 
1^2, 262-263. 
developed by the discipline of the school-room, 

143. 
influenced by the associations of the school- 
room, 144. 
Christianity a part of the common law of the land, 

554. 
Christianize the incoming tide, how shall we ? 

554-558. 
Christie, Hon. David (Ontario), on agricnltural 

education, 206. 
Church of England theological colleges in Onta- 
rio, 266-272. 
Church, position of the, in regard to education, 

22-23, 125. 
Cities, the education demanded by the modern 

growth of, 474-481. 
Clarli , T. M. , A ssistant Secretary of Section E, 347. 

author of circular of information, 410. 
Clarke, James Freeman, on time lost by recita- 
tions, 260. 
Cla.isics, Garfield on the study of the, 260. 
no liberal education without the, 494. 
Clay for modeling, uses of, in the educatio:^of 

children, 43-48. • 

Co-education of the races, at Berea College (Ken- 
tucky), 230-232. 
Co-education of the sexes, in the field of superior 
instruction, 42. 
in Ontario, 191, 200-201. 
in normal schools in Ontario not practiced, 

226. 
at Berea College (Kentucky), 230-232. 
at University College (Ontario), 237 and note. 
College gymnasia in the United States, 425-436. 
Colleges, how to increase tbe attendance in, 251- 
263. 
how the time required to master course of 

study of, may be abridged, 181, 258-261. 
expensiveness of, 261-202. 
should be centers of Christian influence, 262. 
Collegiate Institutes of Ontario, 185-195. 
Colored children, inadequate provisioii for the 

education of, in the South, 231. 
Colored people, status of the education of, in Ken- 
tucky, 53. 
See also Negro. 
Commissioner of Education, Report of, referred 

to, 126, 350, 433, 489, 541. 
Gomtnon School Journal, 524-526. 
Common schools. See Public schools. 
Competitive studies and resultant prizes, 532-536. 
Compulsory attendance, no need of in Jamaica, 75. 
in Ontario, 86, 89. 
in Ma.ssachusetts, 104. 
in Japan, 109. 
in France, 116-117. 
Connecticut, educational journals in, 526-527. 
Connecticut Common School Journal, 524-525, 526- 

527. 
Connecticut School Manual, 526-527. 
Cookery, instruction in, in public schools of Liv- 
erpool, 162. 
Corporal punishment discussed, 133-136. 
antiquity of, 134-135. 
inefficiency of, 135. 
Country school-house, description of an improved, 

Country schools productive o* better results than 
city schools, 120. 
inspection of, 122-123. 
gradiag of, 124-126. 
, condition of teachers in, 125-126. 
808 



County model school system of Ontario, 169-173. 
Course of study, in the schools of Jamaica, 70-71. 

what it should be based on, 92. 

in common schools of Japan, 109. 

in primary schools of France, 118. 

for public schools, advantages of, 125. 

for nigh schools of Ontario, 192. 

at Wesleyan Ladies' College, Ontario, 200-201. 

of Ontario Agricultural College, 206-207. 

for mechanics' institutes, 214. 

in Onlario normal schools, 226-227. 

in Ontario School of Art, 239. 

in higher institiitic^ns in Ontario, 238, 243. 

in theological colleges of Ontario, 267, 271, 272- 
273, 274, 276, 278-279, 280. 
Coward, Hon. Asbuiy, mention of, 9, 48. 
Coxe, Hon. Eckley B., referred to, 209. 
Crooks, Hon. Adam, report of, on Indian schools in 

Ontario, 324-346. 
Cniry, J. L. M., Vice-President International Con- 
gress of Educators, 9. 

Deaf children, classification of, 285-290. 
varieties of deafness in, 286-288, 291. 
should be taught in company with hearing 

children, 289-290, 
should be placed at school at an early age, 290, 

294, 297. 
on the necessity of providing for the better 

education of, in the public schools, 291-298. 
estimate of the number of 293. 
injustice to, from neglect, 295. 
duty of the State in regard to, 296. 
expense of educating the deaf iu the public 

school's. 296. 
teachers of, 297. 
Dearness, John, on school architecture in Ontario, 

408-411. 
De Chaumont'a experiments to determine the vi- 
tiation of room air, 362-364. 
Degrees, examinations for, in theological colleges 

of Ontario, 268-270, 274-275, 276-277, 279-280. 
Delaware Indians, hardships and migrations of 

the, 512. 
Desks used in schools of France, 439-440. 
Desert, the Great American, no desert at all. 506. 
Dewey, Melvil, on the A. L. A. Catalog, 412-4X7. 
Dickinson, Hon. J. "W., referred to. It, 41. 

on the public school system of Massachusetts, 

103-108. 
quoted, 122. 
Discipline of the school-room an important agent. 

in developing character, 143. 
Divine law, no stability without the, 451. 
Dougherty, Hon. N. C., referred to, 11. 
Drawing, extent of application of, 200-212. 
Drifton (Pa ) Industrial School for Miners and 

Mechanics, 209. 
Dymond, Alfred H., on the education of the blind 
in Ontario, 299-302. 

Easton, Hon. "Warren, referred to, 11. 

remarks by, 46, 47. 
Eaton, Hon. John, letter of, to the Secretary of the 
Interior, 7. 

President of the International Congress of 
Educators, 9. 

referred to, 11, 111. 

address by, 17-30. ■ 

quoted, 77. 

Keport of, cited, 252-253. 

See also Commissioner of Education. 
Educated men, how to increase the proportion of, 

251-263. 
Education, asafactor in modem civilization, 17-30. 

not limited to any department of man's na- 
ture, 17, 28. 

modifies the hereditary nature of man, 18. 

influenced by the associations of the school- 
room, 18-19, 144. 

functions and qualifications of the adminis- 
trators of, 19, 197. 

competency of, to ameliorate bodily and men- 
tal defects, 20. 

extent of field of, in modern times, 21. 

universal application of, 21. 

direction of, by the State, 22-23, 126. 

should be free to all, 23-25. 



INDEX TO PART II. 



571 



Edncation, greatest possibilities of man, secured 
by, 26. 
sphere of woman in relation to, 27. 
benefits of, extend to all vocations, 27-28. 
capabilities and true meaning of, 35. 
study of the child lies at the basis of, 37. 
Dr. Eyerson's views as to the principles of, 

S3. 
Froebel's definition of, 92. 
a lil)eral, the object of, 107. 
functions and methods of, 118. 
temptation to vice as a iuctor in, 131. 
necessity of a moral element in, 139. 
methods in, 197. 

better methods in, needed, 254, 256. 
two ends of 255. 
Eichter on the aim of, 255. 
importance of character in the administrators 

of, 26-'-:;63. 
the kind of, demanded by the modern growth 

of cities, 471-481. ' ' 

necessary in a self governed community, 481. 
sujrae.stions concerning national aid to, 482- 

492. 
the lailroad as an element in, 493-507. 
etymological .signification of, 494. 
Indian, historical .sko'rj; of, 508-516. 
the great reviv.Tl of, ia America, 517-518. 
what it shoQld include, 521. 
the object of 538. 
what it can and cannot eflect, 542. 
should develop the faculties harmoniously, 
559. 
Educational association, the first, .520. 
Educational journalism, in New England, a brief 
history of, 517-5.SI. 
in Connecticut, 526-527. 
in, Maine, 527-528. 
in Vermont, 528-529 
Elective system for studies, 198. 
Elementary section, ofiicers of, 57. 
Elgin, Lord, promotes the cause of popular edu- 

catiou in Ontario, 86. 
Eliot, John, work of, among the Indians, 511. 
Emulation, as an incentive to the pursuit of 
knowledge, 535. 
the spirit of does not need stimxilating, 535. 
See also Prizes. 
Endowments of theologfcalinstitutionsin Ontario, 

265. 
Engineering science, triumphs of, 493-496. 
Evening schools, condition of, 489-490. 
Examinations, in Jamaica, 68. 

systems of, in California and Minnesota, 125- 

126. 
in tilie public schools of Ontario, 150-153, 154- 

157, 544-553. 
number of, should be diminished, 568. 
Expenditure for schools in France, progressive 
increase of, 115. 

Eaculties, the harmonious development of the, 

559-566. 
Fairchild. Kev. E. H., account of Berea College bv, 

230-232. 
Eame as an incentive to the ptirsuit of knowl- 
edge, 533-534. 
Fearing. Clarence W., on the promotion of the 

efficiency of high schools, 196-198. 
Females, in schools of Ontario, statistics of, 199. 
totally deal, quicker to learn than males, 289- 
290. 
Fenner, Hon. Chas. E. , referred to, 11. 

address of welcome by, 11-14. 
Fitch, J. G., Honorary Secretary of Elementary 

Section, 57. 
Fleming, Sanford (Ontario) , mention of, 245. 
Fletcher, Miss Alice C, mention of, 49. 

on Indian civilization and education, 508-516. 
Fotheringbam, D., on school hygiene in Ontario, 

4(14-407. 
France, recent reforms in public instruction in, 
111-119, 
early apostles of education in, 112-113. 
scheme of Lakanal, 1 13. 
reforms in primary instruction inaugurated 

by M. Gnizot, 113-114. 
reforms of Carnot and Duray, 114. 



France, popular education completely realized by 

the Third Republic, 114, 
expenditure for public schools in, 115. 
normal instruction in, 115-116. 
all teachers required to obtain certificates in. 

116. 
primary education in, free and compulsory, 

116-117. 
salaries and status of teachers in, 117. 
kindergarten in, 117-118. 
elementary branches taught in the schools of, 

118. 
manual instruction in, 118. 
moral and civic instruction in. 118-119. 
all schools of apprentices for manual work 

adopted by the state, 119. 
plan and arrangement of primary schools in, 

437-443. 
Free schools. See Public schools. 
Freeman, Miss A. E., success of, due largel.y to 

co-education, 42. 

Garfiield, Hon. J. A., on the purpose of study, 256. 
on the defects of the present system of higher 

education, 256. 
on the study of Greek and Latin, 260. 
on character in teachers, 262. 
on illiteracy, 484-485. 
Garrett, Col. John W., benefactions for educa- 
tional purposes of, 504-505. 
Germany, sanitary regulations regarding school- 
houses in, 349. 
Gilman, Dr. D. C, quoted, 78. 

Honorary Secretary of Section C, 221. 
God, the promotion of the glory of, as a stimulus 

to the pursuit of knowledge, 532. 
Gove, Hon. Aaron, Secretary International Con- 
gress of Educators, 9. 
Government, a, depends for stability upon the 

virtue of the people, 453. 
Graded school, a, in the South, 177-184. 
Grading of country schools, 124-126. 
Grammar, the study of, 478,479. 
Grant, Very Eev. Geoige Monro, mention of, 245, 

273. 
Grants by the Government, for education in Ja- 
maica, 60, 71-72. 
in Ontario, 84, 86. 
for inaugurating universal education in 

France, 114. 
total amount of, in the United States, 128, 483- 

484. 
for normal training in Ontario, 172. 
for secondary education in Ontario, 186-188. 
to mechanics' in,stitutes in Ontario, 215, 217, 

421-422. 
for Indian education in Canada, 311, 313, 314. 
to libraries in Ontario, 419-421. 
See also is'ational aid and School fund. 
'Gnizot reforms primary instruction in France, 

li:!-114. 
Gymnasia, college, in the United States, 425-436. 
statistics of 432-433, 435 
See also Physical training. 
Gymnasium of Eound Hill School, 427, 

Hailmann, Prof W. N., referred to, 38. 
remarks by, 40. 

on the application of kindergarten principles 
to primary education, 92-93. 
Hallam, John, on the libraries and library system 

of Ontario. 418-424. 
Hance, Edward M., on science instruction in the 

elementary schools of Liverpool, 158-165. 
Hancock, Hon. John, referred to, 11, 53. 
address of 30-31. 
remarks by, 36-38. 

Chairman of Elementary Section, 57. 
Harris, Dr. Wm. T., mention of, 9, 42, 48, 53. 

on the modern growth of cities and the edu- 
cation demanded by it, 474-481. 
Hartwell, Edward Mussev, on college gymnasia 

in Lhe United States, 425-436. 
Harvard College, physical training at, 430-431. 
Hattori, Tchizo, refeired to, 11,41. 

on the public school system of Japan, 109-110. 
Haworth, Maj. J. M., on the present condition of 
the Indians, 303-306. 

809 



572 



INDEX TO PART II. 



Haygood, Eev. A. G., Honorary Secretary of Sec- 

- tion B, 175. 
Hfllmuth Ladies' Collese (Dntario), 200, 203. 
Ileiueuway Gymuasium, tine, 430-431, 435. 
Hictfi, Col. Geoit;e, referred to, 11,35. 

on educational progress in Jamaica, 59-76. 
High school entrance examinations in Ontario, 

551-553. 
High school system of Ontario, 185-195. 

government grants in aid of, 186-188. 

cost of, 188. 

government supervision of, 189. 
High schools, in Massachusetts, 103, 105. 

advantages claimed for tuition for, 191. 

of Ontario, statistics of, 193-194. 

on the promotion of the efficiency of, 196-198. 
Hine, Hon. Chas. D., description of school-house 

bv, 126. 
History, the study of, 478, 479. 
Hitchcoct, Dr. E., mention of, 429. 

report of, on physical training at Amherst 
College, 430. 
Hitz, Jobn, lemarks by, 40. 

Hodgins, Hon. J. George, Honorary Secretary In- 
ternational Congress of Educators, 9. 

referred to, 3.^ 409, 419. 

on progress of education in Ontario, 77-91. 

notes by, 18.5, 386, 189, 191, 192, 199, 202-503, 312. 

on agricultural education in Ontario, 204-208. 

on the university system of Ontario, 233-250. 

report of, on Parry Sound Indian schools, 344- 
340. 

author of " The School-house," 405, 409. 
Hogg, Eev A. G. (Jamaica), quoted, 72. 
Hogg, Prof. Alexander, mention of, 48. 

on the Railroad as an element in education, 
493-507. 
Howe. Supt. George A., Assistant Secretary of 

Section D, 283. 
Hudson, Pi of. William, on the study of natural 

history in public schools, 147-149. 
Hudson Bay Company, influence of the, upon the 

Indians, 310, 
Hughes, Prof. J. L., referred to, 11. 

address by, 38-39. 
Huxley, Professor, quoted, 542. 
Hygiene, school, in Ontario, 404-407. 

means suggested for the promotion of, 407. 

Ideal, functions of the, 464. 
. Plato's definition of the, 465. 
no reality without the, 465. 
importance of an, in literature, 466. 
our modern life must become possessed of an, 
472-473. 
Illiteracy, in Georgia, 51. 

diminution in Jamaica of, 64. 
in Massachusetts, 108. 
in the United States, statistics of, 484. 
President Garfield on, 484-485. 
Ills of life, how to legard the, 566. 
Imagination, nature and functions of the, 562-563. 
Immigrants, what we owe to, .556. 

how to Americanize, 556. 
Industrial tiaining, of teachers in France, 116. 
in common schools of France, 118, 119. 
of Indians in Canada, 318. 
necessary in common schools in modern times, 
47&-477. 
Inspection of schools, in Jamaica, 70. 
in Japan, 110. 

in country districts, 122-123. 
See also Supervision. 
Instruction, more rational methods of, needed, 

396-397. 
International Congress of Educators, programme 
of the, 9. 
proceedings of the. 11-54. 
field of work of, 36-37. 
papers received by, 59-568. 
Indian civilization and education, historical sketch 

of, 508-516. 
Indian ex pupils in Canada, present condition of, 

318. 
Indian Fund, Canada, table showing condition of 

the, 322-323. 
Indian schools in Ontario, report on, 324-346 
810 



Indians, superior irstruction of, in Ontario. 240. 
present condition of tlie, 303-306. 
capabilities of the, 303. 

schools for the, in the United States, 303-304. 
of both sexes and all ages should be educated. 

305, 306. 
education of the, in Canada, 307-323. 
Canada has kept treaties with the, inviolate, 

308-309, 310. 
law regarding the sale of liquor to the, in 

Canada, 309-310. 
education of the, in Ontario, 311-312. 

in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 312- 

313. 
in Prince Edward Island, 313. 
in Quebec, 313-314. 
in British Columbia. 314. 
in Manitoba, 314-315. 
success of the Canadian system of, 31.5-316. 
list of denominational schools in Canada for 

the, at date of Confederation, 317. 
table showing progress of schools for the, in 

Canada, 319-320. 
faims of the, in Canada, statistics of, 321. 
enfranchisement and municipal piivileges of 

the, in Canada, 322. 
early distribution and condition of, 508-509. 
early contact with white people of \he, 5C9- 

510. 
missionary work among the, 510-513. 
school statistics of the, 513. 
relation of the United States goveinment to 

the, 514, .516. 
ultimate lot of the, 516. 
Intellect, the, 561. 

Jamaica, educational progress in, 59-76 

effects of emancipation upon education in, 59, 

64. 
system of grants to education adopted in, 60. ■ 
influence of emancipation upon the material 
progress of, 61-64. 
upon the moral and religious condition of, 
64. 
increase of population of, 63, 72. 
improvement of dwellings in, 63, 72-75. 
condition of labor in, 65,"75. 
the new educational era in, 67-79. 
character of exhibit of, 69. 
summary of school system of, 70-72. 
reading clubs in, 76. 
Japan, the kindergarten in, 40-41. 
public school system of, 109-110. 
statistics of the schools of, 110. 
promising future of education in. 110. 
Jaques, Rev. Jabez R., mention of 243. 
Jepson, B., on the stud? of music in New Haven, 

Conn.. 166-168 
Jesse, Richard H., Secretary International Con- 
gress of Educators, 9. 
Johns Hopkins University, petitionfor opening, to 

women, 41-42. 
Johnson, "William (Ontario), quoted, 206-207. 
Johnston. "William Preston, referred to, 11, 35. 
address of welcome by, 14-16. 
remarks by, 34. 
Secretary of Section C, 221. 
Josse, Edouard Louis Charles, on the plan and 
arrangement of piimary schools in France, 
437-443. 
Journalism, educational, in New England, 517-531. 
Justin, Brother, referred to, 35. 

on respect for authority developed in the 
school-room, 447-455. 

Kentucky, remarks on the condition of education 

in, 52-53 
Kiehle, Hon. D. L., on the grading of public 

schools in Minnesota, 125-126. 
Kindergarten, the, in Ontario, 3?-39. 

union of tlie public school with the, 39-40 
at Tokio, Japan, 40-41. 
modeling in clay for the, 43-48. 
Kindergarten methods, extent of the adoption of, 
94. 
principles of, 95. 
need of general instruction in, 95-96. 



INDEX TO PART II. 



573 



Kindergarten uiothocls, account of the develop- 
ment of three children under the influence 
of, 90-98. 
men should take an interest in, 99. 
precautions neces.sary in the use of, 100. 
Kindergarten principles' application of, to pri- 
mary education, 92-93. 
to tbe child's earliest development, 94-102. 
Kindergarten, causes of opposition to, 92. 

in France, 117-11.8. 
Kiudergartners' vocation, high character of the, 

101. 
Kindness to school children, efiiciency of, 134. 
Kiikwood, Rev. Samuel, work of, among the 

Indians, 512. 
Klotz, Otto, on mechanics' institutes in Ontario, 

213-219. 
Knowledge, motives that have led men to the pur- 
suit of, 532-535. 
love of, as an incentive for acquiring it, 534- 
535. 
Knox College (Ontario), 275-277,280,281. 

Labor, hours of, have heen shortened through 

machinery, 475. 
Lakaual,.schenle of, for public education in France, 

113. 
Languages, foreign, methods of study of, 2G0. 
Law, school. See School system. 
Liberally educated men, how to increase the pro- 
portion of, 251-263. 
Libraiies, for schools and teachers in Ontario, 87. 
for schools on the Pacific Coast, 130. 
for high schools in Ontario, 19ii. 
free, in Ontario, 216-217, 423-423. 
free, beneficial results of, 218. 
of theological institutions in Ontario, 2t35. 
for schools. Dr. Kyersou on, 419. 
for townships and schools in Canada, govern- 
ment aid to, 419-421. 
depository of hooks for, in Canada, 420-421. 
of mechanics' institutes, 421-422. 
univetsitv and other, in Ontario, 424. 
for common schools in France, 441-442. 
See also Catalogues. 
Libraries and the library system of Ontario, 418- 

424. 
Liddell, Rev. Thomas (Ontario), mention of, 244. 
Literary and scientific habits of thought, 456-473. 
Literature, the study of, 478, 479. 
Liverpool, experimental science instruction in ele- 
mentary schools of, 158-165. 
Long, Rev. JD. A., on how to Americanize and 

Christianize the incoming tide, 554^558. 
Louisiana Educational Society referred to, 54. 
Lubbock, Sir John, quoted, 162. 

Machinery, the condition of workingmen has 

bee.n ameliorated by the introduction of, 473. 

Magnus, Philip (England), Honorarv Chairman of 

Section B, 175. 
Maine, school journals in, 527-528. 
ilaine Journal of Jiducatioii, 528. 
Mankind, the welfare of, as an incentive to the 

•pursuit of knowledge, 532-533. 
Mann, Horace, report of, on the ventilation of 
school-houses, referred to. 350. 
mention of, 517, 520, 523, 5241 
editor of Oommon School Journal, 525-526. 
Manners in school, 137-138. 
Mansfield, D. L., onmorals and manners in school, 

137-138. 
Manual training. See Industrial training. 
Marble, Hon. A. P., mention of, 57. 
Marling, Alexander, on simultaneous and uniform 

examinations in Ontario, 544-553. 
Mason, L. "W., remarks by, 40. 
Massachusetts, school system of, 103-108. 

branches taught in the public schools of, 103. 
duties of school committees in, 104. 
duties and rights of children in, 104. 
statistics of education in, 105. 
' Board of Education of, 105, 106. 
theory upon which the educational institu-. 

tions of, are conducted, 107. 
illiteracy in, 108. 
Massachusetts State Board of Education, extract 
from report of, 490. 



Massachusetts Teacher, 525-52G 
Mather, William, extract, from report of, on tech- 
nical educativin in the United States, 120. 
Mayo, Rev. A. D., referred to, 1 1, 41, 1 LI, 531. 
address by, 31-'!4. 
remarks by , 46.47. 

O'J public schools in the South, 177-184. 
McCaul, Rev. John, referred to, 236. 
McGill, Hon. Peter, indorses Dr. Ryerson's Ap- 
peal. 241. 
McHenry, D. C, on .secondary education in Onta- 
rio, 185-195. 
McKinnon, Donald J., on examinations in the 

public schools of Ontario, 150-153 
Mechanics' institutes in Ontario, 213-219. 
course of study for, 214. 
legislative aid to, 215, 216. 
libraries of, 215-217. 
statistics of, 217. 
Memory, functions of the, 562. 
Mental receptivity, variations of, 567, 568. 
Merrill, Moses, Assistant Secretary ot Section 

B, 175. 
Meteorological stations in connection with public 

schools, 88. 
Methodist theological college in Ontario, 272-27.". 
Military drill in the South, 435. 
Militarv instruction in high schools of Ontario, 

192. 
MiU, John Stuart, the mission of public schools 

as stated by, 107. 
Mills, James (Ontario) referred to, 204, 208. 
Mitchell, Dr., remarks by, 47. 
Model schools of Ontario, 169-173. 
Monopolies, 557. 
iloral instruction in public schools, necessity of, 

49-51, 139. 
Moral nature, growth of the, 452. 
Moral training in schools of Onti^rio, 139-146. 
desirability of text books on, 142-14,'!. 
in the young, indirect agencies of, 143. 
Morals, improvement of, in Jamaica, 64. 75 

instruction in, in public schools of France, 

118-119. 
in school, 137-138. 
Museums for common schools in France, 441-442. 
Musgrave, Sir Anthony, on labor in Jamaica, 75. 
Music, instruction in, in Kew Haven, Conn., 166- 
168. 
should begin with the lowest grade, 166. 
plan of, 167. 

National aid to education referred to, 30. 

remarks on, by Dr. Mayo, 33. 

should be unconditional. 51-52. 

not a novel theory, 482-483. 

provisions adopted by the Inter-State Com- 
mission concerning, 48.5-486. 

the principle of. established, 486 

suggestions concerning, 486-492. 

justification of, 492. 

See also Grants -ind School fund. 
National Council of Education, purpose of, 36. 
Natural history, study of, in common schools, 147- 

149. 
Near-sightedness among school-children, the al- 
leged increase of, 393-397. 

in schools, statistics of, 393-395. 

caused by bad methods of management, 396- 
397, 400-^02, 403. 

report on the causes of, 398-403. 

how to avoid, 399-402. 

age at which most to be apprehended, 402. 

influence of heredity upon, 403. 
Negro, education of the, discussed, 49-53. 

necessity of moral trainintr for the, 49-50. 

capacity of the, for labor, 75. 

education of the, at BereaCollege (Kentucky). 
230-232. 

antipathy of the white race to the, not natu- 
ral, 23L. 

interest taken in education by the, in the 
South, 487. 

problem in education, 537-543. 

development of character the first essential 
in the ertucatiou of the, 538. 

should be educated on a low plane, 538-539. 
. religions and moral training of the, 5-;9. 

811 



674 



INDEX TO PAKT II. 



Negro, industrial training needed for the, 539-541. 

must develop his liberty; 542. 
Nelles, Rev. Dr. S. S. (Ontario), mention of, 83, 
242, 272. 

prosperous career of, 240. 
Newell, Hon. M. A., mention of, 9. 49. 

remarks by, 38, 48, 54. 
Now England, educational journalism in, 517-531. 
Neiv Enrjland Journal of Education, 529-531. 
Neto Hampshire School Journal, 529. 
New Haven, .study of music in, 16tj-168. 
Newman, Prof. Albert H., on theological educa- 
tion in Ontario, 264-281 . 
NbW.spaper, functions of the, in modern society, 

480-481. 
Newton, Sir Isaac, 534. 
Noah, Brother, referred to, 35. 

Vice-Uhairman of Elementary Section, 57. 
Normal school first proposed, 518. 
Normal training, in Jamaica, 68. 

in France, 115-116. 

in Ontario, 169-173, 192, 223-229. 

See also Teachers. 
Norman, Sir Henry W., Governor of Jamaica, 68. 

Ogden, Mrs. Anna B., referred to, 38. 

on the application of kindergarten principles 
to the child's eailiest development, 94-102. 
Ontario, progress of the kindergarten in, 38-39. 

progress of education in, 77-91. 

character of early educational institutions in, 
80. 

former lack of comraon schools in, 81-82. 

outline of school system devised for, by Dr. 

■ Byerson, 83-86, 89'. 

statistics of school system of, 90-91. 

religious and moral training in, 139-146. 

general moral tone of the schools of, 144, 145. 

examinations in the public schools of, 150-153, 
154-1157. 

county model school system of, 169-173. 

secondary instruction in, 185-195. 

female education in, 199-203. 

agricultural education in, 204-208. 

mechanics' institutes in, 213-219. 

normal schools in, 223-229. 

university system of, 233-250. 

theological education in, 264-281. 

education of the blind in, 299-302. 

report on Indian schools in, 324-346. 

school hygiene in, 404-407. 

school architecture in, 408-411. 

libraries and the library system of, 418-424. 

simultaneous and uniform examinations in 
544-553. , 
Ontario Agricultural College, account of, 206-207. 
Ontario Institution for the Blind, 299-302. 
Ontario Ladies' College, 199, 203. 
Ontario Sc-bool of Art, 239. 
Orcntt, Hiram, 428, 430. 
Orr, Hon. G. J , roention of, 48. 

remarks by, 50-52. 

Vice-Chairman of Section 0, 221. 
Ottawa Ladies' College, 200, 203. 

Pacific Coast, sparsenessof population of the, 129- 
130. 

extent of foreign element in the population of 
the, 129. 

cost of education on the, 129-130. 

libraries for schools on the, 130. 

teachers of the, 130. 

cbaracteristics of the children of the, 131. 

supervision of the schools of the, 131-132. 
Packard, E. L., referred to, 41. 

on schoolroom air, and methods of examining 
it, 349-392. 
Palmer, Kev. B. "M , referred to, 11. 
Parents, I'ight and duty of, 560. 
Parbam, Hon. J. G., referred to, 11. 
Pairsh. Ariel, on the study of music in New 

Hvivon, Conn., 168. 
Parker, W. D., Secretary of Section B, 175. 
Parry Sound Indian schools, 344-346. 
Partisanship in school affairs, reference to, 90. 
Pay of teachers on the Pacific Coast, IDO. 

See also Teachers. 

812 



Payne, Rev. C. H., on increasing the proportion 

of liberally educated men, 251-263. 
Payne, Piof. W. H., mention of, 9. 
Pecuniary emolument as an incentive to the pur- 
suit of knowledge, 033. 
Pettenkofer's method for determining the amount 

of carbonic acid in room-air, 366-370. 
Phelps, Wm. .F., Vice-President International 

Congress of Educators, 9. 
Philbrick. John D., Vice-President International 

Congress of Educators, 9. 
Physical trajjiug, Greek, monkish, and knightly 
ideals of, 425-426. 
at Pound Hill School, 427. 
at University of Virginia, 428. 
at Amherst College, 428-430. 
at Harvard College, 430-431. 
influence of the War on, 434. 
play-grounds for, 434. 
amount of, requisite, 443. 
Physical well-being of the pupil the first care of 

the educator, 559-560. 
Pickard, J. L., Secretary International Congress of 

Educators, 9. 
Play-grounds for schools, 438. 
Porter, Rev. Noah, Chaiiman of Se'ction C, 221. 
Prentiss, Sargent S., quoted, 13. 
Presbyterian theological college in Ontario, 273- 

277. 
Primary education, application of kindergarten 
principles to, 92-93. 
See also Public schools. 
Prizes, the giving of, does not generate a noble 
character, 535-536. 
does not cultivate steadiness of purpose, 536. 
Prizes and competitive studies, 532-536. 
Public schools, former opposition to, in Canada, 85 
the mission of, 107. 
of the Pacific Coast, 128-13i 
in the early days of the Republic, 517-519. 
See alf o School system. 
Punishment of school children, what form it 
should take, 134. 

Quakers, missionarv work among the Indians by 

the, 513. 
Queen's College University (Ontario), 243-246. 
theological department of, 273-275, 280, 281. 

Race in education, 537-543. 

Railroad, the, as an element in education, 493-507. 
Railroads, accuracy and precision in tlie manage- 
ment of, 497. 
are solving commercial and .social problems, 

497. 
relation of number of, to school facilities, 498. 
value and earnings of, in Texas, 499. 
have cheapened transportation, 499-500. 
legislative restrictions with regard to, 500-501. 
temperance among employes of, 501. 
are extending civilization, 502-503. 
use of standard time in the management of, 503. 
• needed to develop Africa, 506. 
Railroad magnates, benefactions of, 503-506. 
Rauch, Dr. John H., Vice-Chairman of Section E, 

347. 
Reading, importance of developing a taste for, 144. 
Reading clubs in Jamaica, 69, 76. 
Reay, Lord, Vice-Presidentluternational Congress 

of Educators, 9. 
Receptivity, mental, vaiiations of, 567-568. 
Recitations, time lost by, 260. 
Religion in the school-room, 93. 

what form it should take, 180. 
Religious instruction in common schools, 49-51. 
in schools of Ontario, 139-146. 
effort to banish it from the schools of Ontario, 

140-141. 
See also Moi'al training. 
Religious influence of colleges. 262. 
Rensselaer In.stitute, establishment of, 519. 
lihode Inland Schoolmaster, 529. 
Richardson, Dr. T. G., referred to, 11. 
Riggs, Rev. A. L., a successful educator of Indians, 

304. 
Robertson, T. J. (Ontario), tribute to, 228-229. 
Rogers, Father, undertakes to civilis-.e the Indians 
oi the Carolinaa, 510. 



INDEX TO PART II. 



575 



Rogers, Col. "William O., referred to, 11,41. 

Secretary of Elementary Section, 57. 
Koman Catbolic public schools in Canada, 84. 
education of women in Ontario, 200-203. 
university in Ontario, 248-249. 
theological institutions in Ontario, 280. 
education of the Indians in Canada, 307-308, 

314. 
Indian mission work, 510-511. 
Eoss, Hon. G. W., Minibter of Education for On- 
tario, 141, 41(i. 
Round Hill School, gymnasium of, 427. 
Eulfuer, Hon. Wm." H., Vice-President Interna- 
tional Congress of Educators, 9. 
Rural schools. See Country schools. 
■Rush, Dr. Benjamin, views of, on physical train- 
ing, 427. 
Ryersou, Rev. Dr. Egerton, champion of popular 
education in Ontario, 77. 
■ measures taken by, 80-81. 

founder and lirst presideht of Victoria Col- 
lege, 83. 
administrator of the school system of Ontario, 

83. 
system of education devised by, 83-86. 
proiects a library system, 88. 
final labors of, 88-80. 
opposes the banishment of the Bible from the 

schools of Ontario, 140-141. 
text-book on morals by, 143. 
referredto, 169. 186,418. 
views of, on agricultural education, 204-206. 
measures taken by, to introduce normal train- 
ing into Ontaiio, 223-224. 
tribute to, 228-229. 
quoted, 239-240, 241. 
labors to establish Upper Canada Academy, 

240-241. 
promotes the formation of township and school 
libraries, 419. 

Sanborn, Prof E. B., Secretary of Section D, 283. 
Sanitary regulations regarding school-houses in 

Germany, 349. 
Sargent, Dr. I). A., system of physical trainingde- 

vised b^ , 431. 
Savage, .1 ohn, Inspector of Schools of Jamaica, 60. 
School of neces.sitv, the, 518. 

School cbildren, hardships to which they are sub- 
jected, 396-397. 
need of exercise and recreation for, 405-406. 
over-pressure to which siibject, 568. 
School committees, duties of, in Massachusetts, 
104. 
how appointed in Japan, 109. 
School facilities, relation of, to number of rail- 
roads, 498. 
School fund, impetus given to education in Mas- 
sachusetts bv the, 106. 
of the States of the Pacific Coast, 130, 132. 
See also Giants and National aid. 
School lands enhanced in value by railroads, 499. 
School system, of Jamaica, 70-72. 
of Ontario, 83-86, 89. 
of Massachusetts, 103-108. 
of Japan, 109-110. 

of Fiance, recent reforms in the, 111-119. 
See also Public schools. 
School of Practical Science of University of To- 
ronto, 238-239. 
School systems, frequent character of, in southern 

communities. 177, 181. 
School-houses in Germany, sanitary regulations 
regarding, 349. 
hygienic provisions relating to, in Ontario, 

'404-405. 
primary, plan and arrangement of, in Prance, 
437-443. 
School-room air, methods of determining the im- 
purities in, 349-392. 
School-rooms, statistics of " climate " of, 37,5-379. 
cubic feet of air space in, required for each 
individual, 403, 406, 410. 
Scientific and literary habits of thought, 4.56^73. 
Scientific instruction, in elementary schools of 
Liverpool, 158-10.5. 
a cause of improvement in other studies, 161 
aystem of traveling apparatus for, 160-161. 



Scientific instruction, cabinets of specimens for, 
163. 
for pupil teachers in Liverpool, 163-164. 
See also Technical training. 
Scientific training necessary in common schools 

in modern times, 476-477. 
Scott, Col. Thomas A., benefactions of, for educa- 
tional purposes, 504. 
projector of Texas and Pacific Railroad, 507.. 
Secondary instruction, in Ontario, 185-195. 

See also High schools. 
Seney, Georgel., benefactions for ediicational pur- 
poses of, 505. 
Sewell, Miss May "Wright, reference to, 42. 
Sewing, instniction in,"in Jamaica, 71. 
Sexton, Dr. Samuel, on the classification of deaf 
pupils, 285-290. 
on providing for the better education of deaf 
children in the public schools, 291-298. 
Shattuck, Dr. George C, account of gymnasium of 

Round Hill School by, 427. 
Shea, John G-., quoted, 511.' 
Sheldon, Hon. "W. E., referred to, 11, 35, 531. 
remarks by, 39, 42. 
petition presented by, 41. 
Sheraton, Rev. J. P., mention of, 271. 
Simcoe, Lieut. General J. Graves, views of, in re- 
gard to a university for Upper Canada, 23.3- 
234. 
Slavery in Jamaica, results of the abolition of, 

59-67, 72. 
Smith, Miss A. Tolman, on our country schools, 

120-127. 
Smith, Dr. Angus R., experiments of, to deter- 
mine the effects of breathing vitiated air, 
36.5-366. 
Smith, Joseph H., on normal schools in Ontario, 

223-229. 
Smith, Lyndon A., in charge of the Department 
of Education at the Exposition, 7. 
Secretary International Congress of Educa- 
tors, 9.' 
referred to, 11. 
Smith College, facilities of, 42. 
Society, God the author of 450-451. 
Soldan, Prof. F. Louis, referred to, 11. 

address by, 34-35. 
Soul, the, immortal, 561-562. 
South, a graded school in the, 177-184. 

frequent character of school systems of the, 

177. 
instance of enthusiasm for public schools in 
the, 179. 
Spofford, Ains worth R., Honorary Secretary of 

Section E, 347. 
Spring, Prof. E. A., address and remarks by, 43- 

48. 
Stanford, Leland, benefactions for educational 

purposes of, 505-506. 
State Superintendent of Education, the first, 519. 
Stearns, Rev. "W. A., advocates phj'sical training 

at Amherst College, 429. 
Steiner, Dr. Lewis H., Secretary of Section E, 347. 
Strachan, Rev. John, leader of the opposition to 
Dr. Ryerson in Ontario, 77. 
system of edu<!ation advocated by, 78-80. 
mention of 185, 236. 
Study, Garfield on the purpose of, 256. 
Studies. See Course of study. 
Sunday-schools, important part performed by, 

i40. 
Superintendence. See Supervision and Inspec- 
tion. 
Supervision, importance of, 122. 
in Ohio. 123. . 

in the Pacific States not well paid for, 131-132. 
of high schools in Ontario, 189. 
See also inspection. 

Tabaret, Very Rev. J. H. (Ontario), mention of, 

248. 
Taxation for public schools in Massachusetts, 105. 
Teachers, functions of, 19. 

Jiigh mission of 19, 197, 443, 453, 454, 455. 

in Japan, 109-110. 

industrial education of, in France, 116. 

in France, aU required to have certificates, 116. 

in France, salaries and status of, 117. 

813 



576 



INDEX TO PART 11. 



Teachers on the Pacific coast, 130. 

pay of, ill England, 134. 

iQiportance of the character of, 142,144-145, 
182, 262-263, 454. 

high standai'd of murals demanded of, 145. 

of high schools in Ontario, 190-191. 

should receive ample pay, 195. 

should be more subjective, 197. 

in Ontario, professional instruction of, 223-229. 

the business of, to teach, 260. 

of deaf pupils, 297. 

what qualities they should possess, 443. 

care to be taken in the selection of, 453-454. 

examinations for, in Ontario, 544-550. 

profane, employment of, 555. 

See also Normal training. 
Teachers' institutes in Jamaica, 68. 
Teachers' meetings in Ohio, 123. 
Teaching faculty different from the knowing fac- 
ulty, 19, 182-183, 211. 
Technical training, 209-212. 

in Ontario, 213-219. 

See also Scientific instmction. 
Temperance among the employ6s of railroads, 501. 
Text books in Ontario, 192. 

use of, as affecting eye-sight, 397, 400-402. 
Theological education in Ontario, 264-281. 
Theological institutions of Ontario, statistics of, 

280 281 
Thorn, Prof. W. T., mention of, 49. 

remarks by, 52. 

on race in education, 537-543. 
Thompson, Hon. Hugh S., Vice-President Inter- 
national Congress of Educators, 9. 
Tilley, 1. 1., on the county model school system of 

■ Ontario, 169-173. 
Tillotsou, Hon. B. M., referred to, 11. 
Time, introduction of standard, due to railroads, 

503. 
Toronto Baptist College, 277-280. 
Toronto Normal School, kindergarten of, 39. 
Trades-unions, 557. 

Treaties with the Indians in Canada have been 
kept inviolate, 308-309. 

in the United States, 514. 
Trinity College (Ontario), theological department 

of, 266-270, 280, 281. 
Truant laws in Massachusetts, 104. 
Truth, the human intellect may attain to a knowl- 
edge of the, 460-461, 463. 

is immediately self-evident, 462-463. 
Tulane, Paul, benefactor of education in Louisi- 
ana, 16. 
Tulane University, officers of, referred to, 54. 
Twining School (Washington, D. C), examination 
of air of, 373. 

University system of Ontario, 233-250. 
University College (Ontario) admits women to 

lectures, 199. 
University College of Ottawa (R. C), 248-249. 
University of Toronto, 235-238. 
University of Trinity College (Ontario), 246-248. 
University of Victoria College (Ontario), 239, 242. 
University of Virginia, physical training at, 428. 

establishment of, 519. 
Upper Canada College, 238. 

Vanderbilts, the, benefactions for educational 

purposes of, 504. 
Vassar College, facilities of, 42. 

814 



Ventilation, results of defective, 350. 

natural, 359. 

formulas for determining necessary amount 
of, 380-384. 

defective, effect upon the eyesight of, 400. 

of schools in Ontario, 410. 

See also Air and Caibonic acid. 
Vermont, school joumalism in, 528-529. 
Vermont School Journal, 528. 
Vice, familiarity with.as a factor in education, 131, 

fondness for study a counteractive to, 143-144. 
Victoria College (Ontario), 83. 
Victoria University (Ontario), theological depart- 
ment of, 272-273, 280, 281. 

"Wages have been increased through labor-saving 

machinery, 475. 
Wait, W. B., referred to, 301. 
Walker, Gen. Francis A., Cliairman of Section B, 

175. 
Warren, Dr. John C, on physical training, 428. 
Water closets for schools, 438. 
Webb, Rev.W.M.,on condition of dwelling-hou-ses 

in Jamaica, 73-75. 
Wellesley College, facilities of, 42. 
Wells, J. E., on leligious and moral training in the 

schools of Ontaiio, 139-146. 
Wesleyan Ladies' College (Ontario), 199, 202. 

course of study at, 200-201. 
Western University (Ontario), 249. 
Wheelock, Eev. Eleazar, establishes a school for 

the Indians, 512. 
White, Hon. Andrew D., Vice-Pre.sident Inter- 
national Congress of Educators, 9. 
White, Hon. E. E., referred to, 11, 53. 

remarks by, 49-50. 
Will, the, governs the intellect, 563-564. 

freedom of, 564. 
Williamson, Rev. James, oldest college professor 

in Ontario, 244. 
Willimantic Linen Co., evening school of, 490. 
Willis, Albert W., mention of," 52. 
Wilson, Daniel (Ontario), referred to, 236, 237. 
Wilson, E. B., on technical education, 2U9-212. 
Wines, Eev. F. S., Chairman of Section D, 283, 
Women, position of, In the work of education, 27. 
petition for opening Johns Hopkins University 

to. 41-42. 
education of, in Jamaica, 68. 
why preferable as teachers for children, 134. 
education of, in Ontario, 199-203. 
institutions for the higher education of, in 

Ontario, 202-203. 
higher education of, in Ontario, 237, 243, 2+7. 
Woodbridgo, William C editor of tbei American 

Annals of Education, 523-524. 
Woods, Samuel, on the education of thelndiansiu 

Canada, 307-323. 
Woodstock College (Ontario), 249-2.50. 
Woodw.ard, C. A^., Vice-Chairman of Section B, 

175. 
Woolverton, Rev. N. (Ontario), mention of, 250. 
Workingmen, improved condition in modern times 

of, 474-475. 
Wycliffe College (Ontario), 270-272, 280, 281. 

Young, Hon. Charles S., Vice-President Inter- 
national Congress of Educators, 9. 
on the puhlic schools of the Pacific Coast, 
128—13*^ 

Young, ProfTo. P. (Ontario), 544. 



SPECIAL REPORT 



? .BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 



EDUCATMAL EXHIBITS AND CONVENTIONS 



WORLD'S INDUSTRIAL Al^D COTTON" 
CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, 



NEW OELEANS, lS84-'85. 



I>A.RT III. 

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BEPAHTMEyT OF SUPEIUNTEiYDENCFi 

OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, AND 
ADDKESSES DELIVERED ON EDUCATION DATS. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOYEENMENT FEINTING OFFICE. 

1886. 

815 



CONTENTS OF PART III. 



Page. 
Letter of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior 5 

DEPAETMENT OF SUPERINTE:N^DENCE. 

List of persons in attendance 7 

FIRST SESSION. 

Address of Hon. Warren Easton, State Superintendent of Public Instruction 

of Louisiana 9 

Response of Hon. E. E. White, LL. D 10 

Paper: School Economy. Hon. A. J. RiCKOFF 11 

Discussion of Paper. Sup't W. C. Rote, Prof. James L. Hughes 15 

Paper : The Inner Workings of the University of Virginia. Prof. James M. 

Garnett 17 

SECOND SESSION. 

Paper : A True Course of Study for Elementary Schools. Hon. E. E. White, 

LL. D 33 

luvitation to visit city schools. John G. Parham, Esq.... 49 

Paper : Rise and Progress of Public Education in Texas. Sup't W. C. Rots:.. .50 

Paper: Co-ordination in Instruction and in Education. Brother Noah 65 

THIRD SESSION. 

Paper : Moral Education in the Common Schools. W. T. Harris, LL. D 69 

Paper : The Relation of the University to the Common School. Col. William 

Preston Johnston, President of Tulane University 80 

Discussion. Hou. D. L. Kiehle, Dr. W. T. Harris ^ . 85 

Paper: Thelmportanceof Teaching Kindness to Animals. G. T. Angell, Esq.. 87 

EDUCATION DAYS. 

Letter of the Representative of the Bureau of Education to the Commissioner 

of Education :.. 95 

EDUCATION DAY— MAY 12, 1885. 

Address of Hon. J. W. HoYT, ex-Governor of Wyoming 97 

Address of Maj . E. A. Burke, Director-General of the Exposition 99 

Address of Hon. J.. G. HODGINS, LL. D., Deputy Minister of Education for On- 
tario, Canada 101 

Address of Mous. B. BUISSON, Educational Commissioner from France 105 

Address of Mr. ICHizo Hattori, Educational Commissioner from Japan 108 

817 



4 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Page. 

Address of J. E. Dobyns, M. A., Principal of the Mississippi Institution for the 

Deaf and Dumb HO 

Address of Brother Maukelian, Christian Brothers' College, Memphis, Tenn 112 

Address of Hon. Le Koy D. Brown, State Commissioner of Common Schools for 

Ohio - 115 

Address of Lyndon A. Smith, Esq., Eepresentative of the United States Bu- 
reau of Education - H'^ 

Address of William O. Eogers, Esq., Secretary of Tulane University 120 

COLOEED EDUCATION DAY— MAY 14, 1885. 

Address of Eev. T. W. Markham,D. D., New Orleans 124 

Address of Eev. B. M. Palmer, D. D., New Orleans 128 

Address of Eev. A. E. P. Albert, D. D.,New Orleans 132 

Address of Col. Wm. Preston Johnston, President of Tulane University 137 



Index. 



147 



818 



LETTER. 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau op Education, 
Washington, B. €., November 25, 1885. 

Sir : The accompanying papers,^ which are hereby transmitted for 
publication, give the best view, doubtless, that it is possible to preserve, 
of education at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposi- 
tion. It was early manifest that the exhibition would present a rare 
opportunity for the promotion of the advancement of education. The 
desire on the part of the Management to improve this opportunity to 
the utmost was expressed in the most explicit and emphatic terms by 
the Director-General, Hon. E. A. Burke, when he declared that they 
sought not only that the exhibition should be thoroughly national and 
international and in all its aspects educational, but that education itself, 
its systems, institutions, principles, methods, and results should be 
shown as far as possible by its literature and appliances, by models, by 
grai^hics, by actual class work, and by papers and discussions from the 
ablest educators. The following papers will make known how far the 
purposes of the Management have been realized, and their publication 
will preserve and extend the usefulness of whatever was accomplished 
in this behalf. The fullness of the papers and of the report of Lyndon 
A. Smith, Esq., my representative and chief assistant in immediate 
charge of the Department of Education at the exhibition, renders it 
unnecessary that I should here enter into details which would otherwise 
require more specific reference. 

I desire to tender most hearty thanks to all those who have in any 
way aided in the work here reported, but it would require a catalogue 
larger than Homer's to specify each one by name. 

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

JOHN EATOIS^, 

Commissioner. 

The Hon. Secretary oe the Interior. 

1 The catalogue of exhibits may be found in Part I of this Report. The proceed- 
ings and papers of the International Congress of Educators in Part II. 

819 



NATIONAL EDtJOATIONAL ASSOOIATIOK— DEPARTMENl? 
OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 

Ifew Orleans, La., February 24-26, 1885. 



, PERSONS IN ATTENDANCE. 

Brother Azarias, Eock Hill College, Ellicott City, Md. 
L. G. Barbour, A. M., D. D., Ricbmond, Ky. 
Hon. T. W. Bickuell, LL. D., Boston, Mass. 

Eev. G. N. W. Bothwell, M. A., Straight University, New Orleans, La. 
Mrs. L. F. Brockaway, New Orleans, La. 
L. R. Clemm, Superintendent of Schools, Hamilton, Ohio. 
Hon. Asbury Coward, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
Columbia, S. C. 
Hon. Newton C. Dougherty, Superintendent of Schools, Peoria, 111. 
Hon. Julius D. Dreher, M. A., Ph. D., Roanoke College, Va. 
Hon. Warren Easton, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
Baton Rouge, La. 

Hon. John Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Fanny Espey, New Orleans, La. 

Hon. R. R. Farr, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Rich- 
mond, Va. 

F. A. Feitshaus, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, 111. 

Hon. Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Superintendent of Schools, Leavenworth, 
Kans. 

J. A. Foil, Esq., Newton, N. C. 

Prof. Jas. M. Garnett, University of Virginia. 

Hon. R. H. Cass, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, 
Mich. 

W. H. Goodale, Esq., Baton Rouge, La. 

Hon. Aaron Gove, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. 

Hon. John Hancock, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio. 

W. T. Harris, LL. D., Concord, Mass. 

Hon. Geo. Hicks, Kingston, Jamaica, W. I. 

Prof. Walter Hillman, Clinton, Miss. 

Rev. R. C. Hitchcock, Straight University, New Orleans, La. 

Hon. John Hitz, Switzerland. 

Hon. Alexander Hogg, Superintendent of Schools, Fort Worth, Tex. 

Hon. James L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada. 

P. B. Hulse, New Orleans, La. 

821 



8 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Josiah Hurty, A. M., Paris, III. 

Prof. E. H. Jesse, 'New Orleans, La. 

Rev. H. F. Johnson, Brookhaven, Miss. 

Hon. D. L. Kielile, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Saint 
Paul, Minn. 

Eev. S. E. Lathrop, Straight Iluiversity, Kew Orleans, La. 

Leslie Lewis, Superintendent of Schools, Hyde Park, 111. 

Anna E. Mallon, New Orleans, La. 

Prof. L. W. Mason, Boston, Mass. 

Eev. A. D. Mayo, Boston, Mass. 

John H. McLean, Esq., Georgetown, Tex. 

Adda Meadows, New Orleans, La. 

Hon. M. A. ISTewell, LL. D., State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion, Baltimore, Md. 

Hon. Gustavus G. Orr, LL. D., State School Ocfmmissioner, Atlanta, 
Ga. 

E. L. Packard, Esq., Washington, D. C. 

Hon. Solomon Palmer, State Superintendent of Education, Mont- 
gomery, Ala. 

W. B. Powell, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

T. C. Eichardsou, M. D., Tulane University, New Orleans. La. 

Hon. W. C. Eote, Superintendent of Schools, San Antonio, Tex. 

B. B. Seelye, Esq., Vicksburg, Miss. 

Miss May Wright Sewell, Indianapolis, Ind. 

Hon. W. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass. ' 

Hon. J. A. Smith, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jack- 
son, Miss. 

Hon. F. Louis Soldan, Saint Louis, Mo. 

Prof. Edward A. Spring, Perth Amboy, N. J. 

A. E, Taylor, M. A., Principal of Normal School, Emporia, Kans. 

Henry Whitall, Esq., Camden, N. J. 

Hon. E. E. White, LL. D., Cincinnati, O. 

I. N. Wyckoff, Esq., Washington, D. O. 

FIEST SESSION. 

The first session of the Department was held in Tulane Hall, Tues- 
day, February 24th, beginning at 9,30 A. m. 

The President of the Association, Hon. Le Eoy D. Brown, being ab- 
sent, Hon. John Hancock was called to the chair. Mr. Wm. E. Shel- 
don was elected Secretary, and Prof. D. C. Tillotson, of Kansas, 
Assistant Secretary. 

The session was opened with prayer by the Eev. L. G. Barbour, of 
Kentucky. 

Hon. Warren Easton, State Superintendent of Public Instruction 
of Louisiana, then delivered the following address. 

822 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 9 
ADDRESS OF WELCOME. 

Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Convention — This is au occasion of 
great interest and importance to the South, to Louisiana, and especially 
to the city of ^STew Orleans, as it has brought into her midst a gathering 
of men who are devoting their lives to the cause of education. 

As State Superintendent of Public Education, it is my privilege and 
pleasant duty to extend a welcome to you, who have come from many 
sections of this G-reat Eepublic to attend this meeting. In extending 
this welcome, I do so with the warmest of feelings, assuring you that 
your coming has awakened no fears, no doubts, but has brought with 
it only the pleasures a'nd glories of a sunshiny day. Many of you come 
as strangers, both to our people and our surroundings, but your stay 
with us I am sure will be an occasion of much pleasure and profit to us all. 

A gathering of men ranking, and, I often think, overshadowing the 
ministers of the Gospel in their self-sacrificing efforts for the advance- 
ment of their profession can find but one place in the hearts of our people. 

The welcome I extend is most hearty and cordial, and may the time 
spent with us ever be in your memories as green and fresh as the tiny 
blades of grass you see around you. 

Our city is one of interest, and invites study; gathered within her 
limits are found people from all quarters of the globe, and within an 
area of a half a mile may be heard the tongues of every nation, which, 
I think, will be of particular interest to the learned linguists who have 
met with us. To the scientist, who loves the study of nature, I offer 
the " Father of Waters," still flowing a^ he did when the great De Soto 
first smiled upon his turbid bosom. Here the scientist can study how 
we battle with this river and keep him from sweeping away our homes. 
A short trip to the mouth of this majestic body of water will show him 
how the brain of man can bridle the forces of nature and guide them 
for the good of mankind. 

The bota,nist I turn to our woods, fields, and gardens; and here he 
may revel in the foliage of a tropical clime, while his brethren at home 
are shivering under the icy darts of stern winter's blasts. 

To the thousand-fold wonders of our great World's Cotton Exposi- 
tion I ask your attention, and I have no doubt that your pilgrimage 
through those collections of man's ingenuity and God's boundless re- 
sources will fully repay you for your long journey into this far southland. 

The business to be transacted at this meeting covers a wide field, pre- 
senting many of the prominent questions of the day, and will result in 
much good to the cause of education. 

The absorbing question in this section is, Where are we to get the 
means to educate our children ? The Southern States are doing what 
they can. Louisiana appropriated $;iOO,000 this year and as much for 
next year for the common schools, but her local taxation is not suffi- 
cient to educate the 300.000 educable children equally divided between 

823 



10 EDUCATlOJfAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSiTlO:tf* 

whites and blacks. More than 27 per cent, of the whites and 73 per 
cent, of the blacks of this State cannot read or write. Here is this 
'fearful cloud of illiteracy hanging over us and we are powerless. But 
we stretch forth our almost shackled hands and call upon our great 
Government to render us the aid necessary to save us from ruin. 

Friends, I ask you, as I welcome you, to carefully consider this ques- 
tion of li^ational Aid to Education, and again with greater emphasis 
call upon the National Government to render this much-needed assist- 
ance as soon as possible. 

Finally, dear friends, you have the hospitable welcome of the Southern 
homes awaiting you, and in this land of magnolia and palm there will 
be nothing left undone to make you feel that you? coming among us was 
in vain. 

The President then called upon Hon. E. E. White, LL. D., of Ohio. 

Dr. White began by alluding to the fact that at the meeting of the 
National Superintendents' Association in Washington, D. C, in 1866, 
he was made a life member, and that he presided at the meeting held 
in Nashville, Tenn., in 1868. 

These facts, as he assumed, gave him the honor of now making re- 
sponse to the very earnest welcome just voiced by the Honorable State 
Superintendent of Schools of Louisiana— a welcome that needed no for- 
mal expression, as its reality is otherwise evid ent to all. 

He stated that he spoke for a body of men who had in their. ofQcial 
keeping the deepest and widest interests of the country. The time has 
at last come when all intellige nt men recognize the vital relation of ed- 
ucation, not only to the higher interests of society, but also to material 
civilization — a relation that is made manifest by every international 
exposition of human skill and industry, and most impressively by the 
marvelous exposition now in progress in this city. 

Education teaches both of the great laws of wealth : it awakens and 
intensifies human desires, and then, through these, impels man to effort 
to secure the means of their gratification. As a result of this twofold 
influence and impulse, human industry exists, and the land is filled with 
the hum of varied and multiplying forms of labor. Wealth is the child 
of education. In the face of these obvious facts it is strange to hear the 
charge which Bacon made against the schools of England in his genera, 
tion, that they were " filling the realm with idle, indigent, and wanton 
people," repeated against the public schools of the United States. 

The truth is, that just where education has done its work most uni- 
versally and most completely, there will be found the least idleness, the 
intensest industry, and the greatest wealth. As a few pounds of im- 
prisoned steam in the great engines in Machinery Hall in yonder Expo- 
sition is the unseen force back of all that marvelous motion and deftness 
of machinery, so the school is the force back of the still more marvelous 
industry that is filling the world with comforts and satisfactions for man. 
824 



fEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 11 

There is danger that we may be dazzled by these impressive displays 
of human skill and forget that the mind is back of hand and eye ; that 
all human inventions and all products of human skill borrow their sig- 
nificance and their value from man himself; that man is higher and 
greater than the material civilization he has created, than even the 
governments and institutions which he has organized. 

The supreme end of education is the well-being of man, and hence 
the highest function of the school is not to make an artisan or an art- 
ist, a merchant or a soldier, but to educate men. Manhood is the rich- 
est and best product of education. The school is under an almost 
divine contract with every child that enters its door to do its best to 
help him to the highest and truest manhood of which he is capable. 

The speaker said in conclusion that he was speaking for a cause that 
knows no section, no race, no condition, but is as universal in its reach 
as the human family. Education is the common interest and the uni- 
versal need of all peoples — of the entire race. 

The Secretary then made an appeal to all persons present to become 
members of the Association. 

The Chairman : We will now proceed to the first regular subject on 
the programme. I have the pleasure of introducing Hon. Andrew J. 
RiCKOFF, who will read a paper on "School Economy." 

Mr. RiCKOFF then proceeded as follows : 

SCHOOL ECONOMY. 

Gentlemen — My subject will at once be recognized as of interest to 
tax-j)ayers and educators. The former will reflect that, according to 
Mr. Eaton's Reports, nearly a hundred millions of dollars are annually 
spent in the United States for the support of the public schools, and that 
the expenditure is leaping up by from three to five millions annually. 
On the other hand, the educator reflects that there are ten millions of 
children who are fit subjects for education, as witnessed by the fact that 
that many were actually enrolled in the schools last year. The tax- 
payer justly inquires whether he gets a fair return for the money spent. 
On the other hand, the educator cannot fail to consider how far short it 
comes of meeting the wants of the ten millions of children. Thus we are 
brought to face the question, Is the money spent to the best advantage"? 

Were our school resources equal to the real wants of the schools, it 
would even then be of interest to know whether the expenditures were 
properly balanced for different purposes. 

But the school moneys are not illimitable. A certain amount of real 
estate and personal property, at a rate of taxation pretty well deter- 
mined by the circumstances of each State and locality, yields annually 
only a certain income. In most cases this sum falls within the real or 
supposed wants of the schools. I have, in fact, never known it to equal 
the demand. How then to lay it out to the best advantage, how avoid 
waste of every kind, becomes a proper question for our discussion. 

825 



12 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

Certainly there is no class of men wlio are so deeply concerned as we 
are to maintain a just equilibrium between receipt and expenditure. 
To none can waste or injudicious outlays be just cause of so deep regret 
as to ourselves, not alone because we are so often held responsible for 
unwise appropriations, but for the reason that money lost is loss of 
opportunity, loss of time in the mighty enterprise of educating a gen- 
eration that will not stay its growth to manhood and womanhood, when 
it will be no longer within our reach. 

Expenditures for school purposes may be classified under three geu- 
eral heads : (1) For buildings and furniture ', (2) for apparatus and other 
supplies ; (3) for tuition or instruction. 

Fifty years ago you would have been safe in picking out the most 
dilapidated structures in cities and villages as the school-houses ; shortly 
after, buildings began to start up here and there that were talked of as 
" magnificent," though they were dreary, prison-like structures, inferior 
to the county jails in external appearance and hardly equal to them in 
internal finish. This, however, was but the beginning of a great revival. 
It was not a long while till these structures gave way to a class of build- 
ings so superior that now you may be quite confident in pointing out the 
finest specimens of architecture which grace our cities, towns, and vil- 
lages, as the people's colleges, as the common schools are sometimes 
called. 

To some extent this change may be owing to an ambition on the 
part of one town or city to have as good or better school-houses than 
its neighbors; but, generally, it is due to the growing appreciation of 
the value and importance of education to the community. A good 
school building is its very natural expression of its desire to have a good 
school. But too many school boards have expended so much money on 
their school-houses that they have little left with which to conduct their 
schools. They have built the workshop, but the proper machinery is 
lacking, and their funds are insufficient to employ good workmen. They 
have built a school-house of which all are proud, and in consequence are 
forced to content themselves with a school of which they should all be 
ashamed. In the first outburst of their enthusiasm they forgot that it is 
not the steeple of the church that promotes and maintains the religious 
character of the community, but the learning, eloquence, and devotion 
of the man who occupies the pulj^it ; that it is not to the court-house that 
they must look for justice, but to the wisdom and purity of the judge who 
sits upon the bench. 

If the building of palatial school-houses, or, I will say, of only moder- 
ately good ones, leaves them so impoverished that they are unable to 
provide the supplies which are indispensable to the comfort of teachers 
and pupils, to furnish the apparatus and reference books which are 
necessary to good instruction; above all, if its energy and means have 
been thereby so far exhausted that they can bid only for the cheai^est, 
and therefore generally the x^oorest, teachers; aud if, in addition to this, 
826 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPAETMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 13 

tliey bave to shorten the school year because their funds are insufficient 
to keep their schools open as many months as may be desired, they have 
indeed made a fatal mistake. It would have b#en better if they had 
coutented themselves with the shabby structures of fifty years ago, if 
by that means they might have been able to call to the instruction of 
their children superior men and women. What would it profit them if 
they had Windsor Palace for a school-house, if ignorance or incapacity 
sat in the teacher's chair ? 

But I do not care to argue any further the case of good teachers vs. 
a magnificent display of bricks, mortar, and mansard roofs, and will 
content myself with the simple declaration that in school affairs every 
aid and appliance should be esteemed as nought if they be in the way 
of employing skillful teachers, of sound learning, cultivated tastes, and 
good manners and pure hearts. 

In justification of what may appear to some too violent language on 
my part, I will state a case within my knowledge, and which is not with- 
out its parallel, as I am told, in many hundreds of villages and towns, 
some, indeed, in every State of the Union. 1 know a thrifty town of 
some ten thousand inhabitants which twenty-five years ago had schools 
of excellent reputation. They attracted visitors from every quarter of 
the State in which this town was located. But the school board and its 
officers finally became ashamed of the very shabby buildings to which 
they were compelled to conduct their visitors, and they determined to 
have a fine high school building. It was built, and, when completed, 
was the finest in the State, and though built from twenty to twenty-five 
years ago, it has even now few rivals in the State. But their ambition 
was not tempered with wisdom. The town was so crippled that it could 
no. longer pay their teachers a fair salary, and in consequence one after 
another of their best ones resigned to take more lucrative places, till none 
remained which anybody else cared to have. Their schools of course 
soon lost their good reputation, and went almost to ruin. 

But I cannot avoid the reflection whioh doubtless occurs to many of 
you, that it may be very well after all for boards of education to go on 
spending lavishly for school-houses, if they do not comprehend the 
superior claims of good teaching; for though they were to retrench ex- 
penditures on the side of the material, they might rise no higher on the 
side of that which pertains to the development of the great possibilities 
which lie in the children of their generation. Possibly we are yet fated 
to suffer decades and decades of this brick and mortar age in educa- 
tional administration before we come to that of intellectual and moral 
supremacy, just as the ages before us have advanced by slow steps 
through tawdry ornament to artistic decoration. In the mean time, how- 
ever, let us disclaim any responsibility for extravagance in that which 
is only an obstacle to the real improvement of our schools. That must 
rest with boards of education, who generally keep the business of build - 

827 



14 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

mg school-houses in their own hands. Let us be content with the re- 
sponsibilities of i)ractical school management. 

The question of large and small school-houses, of cost of sittings, and 
of cost of care and management, as related to efficiency of instruction, is 
one that should be taken up and thoroughly disposed of. As simj)le 
as the problem seems to some, it has never yet been sufficiently consid- 
ered to. enable us to arrive at safe conclusions. It might be supposed 
that a simple comparison of the cost of three or four school-houses of 
different sizes, built at the same time and under like conditions as to 
cost of sites, material, and labor, would settle the question; but when 
thus settled, considerations of the original cost of proper heating appa- 
ratus, pay of janitors, pay of teachers, and efficiency of supervision, 
come in to unsettle it again. It would surely be of service if some one 
would collect and arrange such facts relating to school architecture as 
would enable us to advise in such matters with some degree of confi- 
dence. 

# # * « * * * 

I must here mention another source, or cause rather, of waste in pub- 
lic school expenditures, which applies generally to the country rather 
than the city school, viz, the employment of incomijetent, and the fre- 
quent changes of teachers. We all know too well how far a very large 
percentage of teachers falls short of the knowledge and professional skill 
which teachers should have. I do not mean that they fall short of that 
excellence which would be welcome in some of the cities where the in- 
terests of the schools are most carefully guarded, but short of such qual- 
ifications as would be barely tolerated in them. An estimate of the ratio 
of these to the whole number employed would hardly be welcome to any 
audience, if the speaker were to make it. I leave it, therefore, for each 
individual to make it for himself. We may, however, safely draw at- 
tention to the fact that in most States the average experience of teachers 
falls short of iive school years, which in many cases, I believe, consist 
of less than five months each ; and we may safely ask. What success in 
teaching could be expected of young men and women, sometimes mere 
boys and girls, who having little rudimentary education, no special ijrep- 
aration at all in normal schools, possibly not even a week's flirtation at 
a teachers' institute, and resorting to teaching only for a few months 
during the often frivolous period of transition from youth to manhood — 
what estimate ought to be placed on the value of their services in this 
most difficult of all callings, in the pursuit of which they are generally 
left without direction or competent supervision ? The usual practice of 
men in other affairs would seem to indicate the answer. The father 
trains his boy to the work of the plow, the workman in the shop serves 
his apprenticeship, and without this ijreparation he is said to do more 
harm than good. Is the untrained teacher likely to escape the same 
judgment? The answer suggests a cause of waste beyond calculation 
or estimate. 
828 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 15 

I come next to speak of what is of interest alike to city and rural 
schools — to graded and ungraded alike — the indiscriminate, or nearly 
indiscriminate, pay which is awarded to apprentices and master work- 
men. In no other profession or business is so little regard paid to the 
difference between skilled and unskilled labor as in the schools. You 
will often find side by side the young apprentice and the skillful teacher 
of years and years of experience receiving the same salary because they 
teach the same grade. And again you will often see two teachers 
starting out together, one adapted by nature to the care and instruc- 
tion of children, endowed with such tact that her scholars seem to an- 
ticipate her wishes, the other arousing such antagonism that she can 
control only by force ; one inspiring her scholars with a love of school 
and of books, the other with aversion to everything aosociated with 
them. These two will sometimes teach in the same school or the same 
city and under the same board of management year after year, at the same 
salary, because they continue in equal grades, or it may be at salaries 
advancing with equal step, because they began to teach at the same 
time. The consequence of such mistakes as these is either to dishearten 
the successful teachers, or drive them to other fields of labor where 
their ability is duly appreciated and rewarded. 

The Chairman : Ladies and gentlemen will come to order and re- 
main so until relieved by the Chair. I have been requested to make 
the following announcement with reference to the International Con- 
gress of Educators: The first session will be held this evening at 7.30 
o'clock in this hall. A preliminary session of the International Con 
gress will be held in this hall at 2 p.m. for the purpose of considering 
the kindergarten question, and the programme will be very interesting. 

Discussion on Mr. Eickoff's paper was then opened. 

Sup't. W. C. EotE, of San Antonio, Texas, said: 

In regard to the heating of school-houses^ I think we must be gov- 
erned by the condition of the country and climate. While these large 
furnaces are very excellent in the JSTorth, they answer poor purposes in 
the South, especially in the country I represent; for frequently we 
have it so warm in winter that we have no fires at all, and then if a 
norther comes up it sometimes reduces the temperature twenty degrees 
in as many minutes, and we want to have a fire at once, and by having 
a small stove it is obtained, whereas it would require several hours to get 
furnaces in working order. It is therefore better to have stoves in this 
climate ; whereas North you have three or four months of cold weather 
and you want to keep a fire from the time it begins until its expiration, 
furnishing a constant heat. I know something of the weather there as 
well as here. 

I also would say in regard to the matter of inexperienced teachers 
that it is probably one of the most difficult things to determine that a 
board of education has to deal with. We can get all the inexperienced 

i Reierring to the part of Mr. Rickoff's paper omitted. 

839 



16 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

teachers we want ; and I have a word to say in regard to what super- 
intendents frequently do: I know it is a fact, and a shame as well, 
that to get rid of an inexperienced teacher who has failed, they fre- 
quently write out a fine testimonial and send him off. They do that in 
order to get rid of him. I think this is wrong, and that superintend- 
ents of schools ought to be governed by higher principles and motives. 
They should tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. 
If they cannot write anything that is good they should not write any- 
thing at all, because some one else may be imposed upon. 

I have often found that persons raised in northern schools have a 
good physique but poor teaching faculty. It is not always one who 
has a good physique who is a good teacher. There is such a thing as a 
teacher born to work, born for instruction. It is in a person, and you 
cannot put it in him, if he has not got it. 

Experience is worth a great deal, but you must have something to 
. build on. I think, therefore, that all who are inexperienced should not 
be rejected. They should be put on trial, and when they have proved 
themselves efficient in the work and have become strong and able, I 
think, after a year or so, they should be put in as teachers. It is a hard 
thing to discriminate between teachers teaching in the same grade of 
schools and having the same experience. It is hard to discriminate in 
favor of one party or another. The only thing to do is this : where you 
find persons with good ability you must retain them in the service. I 
heartily concur with the speaker, that a great many teachers are paid 
too much, and a great many more too little. 

Mr. EiCKOFF: I expected that the proposition I made to pay young 
teachers less and old teachers more, or I would rather generalize in this 
way, to pay apprentices and poor teachers less and master workmen more, 
would raise considerable opposition here. For instance, in Cincinnati 
or Cleveland (and I know something of both) a proposition to reduce 
to $200 the salaries of young teachers, those who get $400, in order 
that you might raise the salaries of those of large experience, the mas- 
ters of the profession, so that, instead of receiving $1,000 or $1,500, 
they might be paid $3,000 or $5,000, would meet with strong opposition. 
The fact is, that in this business of instruction there is not the advance- 
ment that there is in any other work, there is not that possibility for the 
young teacher that there is for the young mechanic, for the young me- 
chanic may become the master workman, and thus he sees a way for 
advancement ; but what is there for the teacher but a life of great 
industry and exertion, with nothing in the end to show that he has been 
doing a work most valuable, a work requiring the finest and deepest 
knowledge of the mind itself and exercising the most delicate art? 
What is there for one who is conscious of such work to consider ? What 
is there for such a one to gain but a good reputation ? It may be that 
that is worth a good deal. I would have this placed before the young 
teacher: I would not have her come in as an apprentice, paid merely 
830 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPAETMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 17 

for subsistence ; but when she comes into the schools now she is paid 
nearly as much for receiving instruction as the master is paid for giving 
it. I think that there must be a revolution in this direction. I would 
pay apprentices as apprentices, and I would pay master workmen as 
master workmen. 

Mr. EoTE : Who is to decide who is the master workman ? 

Mr. EiCKOFF : I should say, an expert. 

The Chairman : The time for discussion is closed. The most im- 
portant point that has been presented, and well presented, is the pay- 
ment of work according to its ability. 

Mr. Jas. L. Hughes, of Ontario, Canada, inquired if there was a 
committee on resolutions. He thought that, if they had opinions, they 
should crystallize them in the form of resolutions and send them out. 

The Chairman stated that there was no such committee, and called 
for resolutions, if there were any. 

No response being made, he stated that he would take the responsi- 
bility of offering such resolutions himself during the session. 

The Chairman: I now have the pleasure of introducing Prof. Jas. 
M. Garnett, who will read a paper prepared by him. 

Professor Garnett proceeded as follows : 

THE INNER WORKING OF THE UNIYERSITT OF VIRGINIA, AND THE 
PREPARATION NECESSARY FOR THE UNIVERSITY. 

When I received an invitation from the chairman of the Executive 
Committee of the National Educational Association to read a paper at 
the present meeting, it was accompanied by the suggestion that I should 
give ''a brief historical account of the University of Virginia and a de- 
scription of its present organization." It happened, however, that just 
sucTi a pamphlet, entitled "A Sketch of the University of Virginia," 
had been recently prepared by the venerable senior Professor of Law 
in the University (Prof. John B. Minor), chairman of the committee of 
the Faculty appointed to prepare such a sketch, as a part of the Uni- 
versity exhibit in the World's Exposition; and it had been directed by 
the Faculty that copies should be placed for gratuitous distribution in 
both the Virginia State exhibit and in the National educational exhibit. 
It is, therefore, unnecessary for me to do more, in response to the above 
suggestion, than to call attention to this pamphlet, which contains a 
brief history of the origin of the University, an account of its early or- 
ganization, and the subsequent additions to its subjects and mean^ of. 
instruction in both the academic and professional departments, andajjar- 
ticularly full account of its local arrangements, endowments, and income. 

I thought, however, that it would not be uninteresting to this body 
if I were to supplement this pamphlet with a more detailed account of 
the " Inner Workings of the University of Virginia," and a statement 
of the "Preparation Necessary for the University," which would make 

831 



18 EDUCATIONAL CONTENTIONS AT KEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

its elective system better known, and enable this audience to jndge of 
it more intelligently ; for, notvrithstanding the many publications that 
have been made by the University, there still seems to be in some quar- 
ters a lack of knowledge concerning it, and even a misunderstanding of 
its working. If I were addressing an exclusively Southern educational 
association, this would-be but "carrying coals to !5v ew castle^ ; but iu 
this "International Congress of Educators," it is not to be taken for 
granted that the system of the University of Yirginia is so well known 
as to need no further exposition, as, indeed, the m\'itation extended to 
me showed, and 1 offer this paper simply as a contribution to the gen- 
eral educational work now going on in this country. 

The University of Virginia was first oj>ened for the reception of 
students on March 7, 1825, so that it may now be said to have com- 
pleted its period of middle life, and to have attained the comparatively 
venerable age of sixty years. The system with which it started, then 
altogether unique in this country, continues to be the system at the pres- 
ent day, notwithstanding the many changes and additions which have 
since taken place. This system was an arrangement of the subjects of 
instruction taught at that time into €ig?it separate and distinct schools, 
as they are technically termed, namely, Ancient Languages, Modem 
Languages, Mathematics, Xatural PhilosoiJhy, Natural History (same, 
however, limited to Chemistry), Moral Philosophy (including Mental 
Philosophy), Anatomy and Medicine combined, and Law. These eight 
schools have expanded into nineteen^ in some of which, besides the pro- 
fessor, there are assistant instructors, and of these twelve are academic 
schools, six being literary and six scientific (though tico of the latter 
are attended only by specialists), and seven are professional schools, 
fhree being in the Medical Department, tico in the Law, one in the En- 
gineering, and on.€ in the Agricultural.^ Each of these schools is inde- 
pendent of every other as far as its course and methods of instruction 
are concerned. The professor himself is the sole judge of the special 

^ These schools are now designated as follows : 

ACADEMIC SCHOOLS. 

Lilerary Department. — Schools of Latin, Greek, Modem Languages, English Lan- 
guage and Literature, Historical Science, and Moral Philosophy (six). 

Sa^ntific Department. — Schools of Mathematics, Natural Philosophr, General and 
Industrial Chemistrr, AnalTtical and Agricultural Chemistry, Natural History and 
Geology, and Practical Astronomy (sis). 

PBOFK6SIONAI. SCHOOLS. 

Medical Department. — Schools of Physiology and Surgery, Anatomy and Materia 
Medica, Medicine, Obstetrics and Medical Jurisprudence, and Chemistry and Phar- 
macy — same as Academic (four). 

Law Department. — School of Common and Statute Law, and of Constitutional and 
International Lavr, Mercantile Law, Evidence and Equity (two). 

En-gineering Department. — School of ilathematics applied to Engineering (one), 

AgricuUttral Department. — School of Agriculture, Zoology, and Botaay (one). 
S.i2 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPEEINTENDENCE. 19 

subjects which he shall include in his course, and of the manner in which 
he shall teach those subjects. Within the limits, then, of each partic- 
ular chair, there is the greatest freedom allowed in the selection of sub- 
jects and arrangement of the course. One of the cardinal principles of 
German university organization, Freiheit des Lehrens (freedom of 
teachiug), was thus initiated in this country sixty years ago. 

The Faculty, as a whole, consisting of the professors at the head of 
each school, is the immediate governing body of the University, and 
controls the number of hours, and even the particular hours, which are 
devoted to instruction in each school ; and, subject to the approval of 
the Board of Visitors, representing the State authority, directs what' 
honors shall be awarded in a part, or the whole, of the course taught in 
each school, and what schools, in whole or in part, shall be required 
for the academic and professional degrees of the University. The Fac- 
ulty is presided over by a chairman, appointed annually by the Board 
of Visitors, although, in practice, the same professor is reappointed as 
often as he is willing to undertake the onerous duties, which no one de- 
sires to undertake, notwithstanding the additional compensation. Upon 
the chairman devolve all the administrative and executive duties usually 
discharged by the president of a literary institution, but his power is 
uiore limited, for every question that arises outside of the ordinary rou- 
tine must be referred to the Faculty, and be decided by that body. The 
Faculty acts usually through committees, but no decision of a commit- 
tee is final unless ajjproved by the Faculty. This feature of the uuiver- 
sity system is thought by some to be open to objections, and the more 
common organization, with a i^resident at the head of the institution, 
is considered, in some respects, better; but the plan has been found to 
work well in practice, it is thought to place more responsibility upon 
the individual professor, and it is at least an open question whether a 
different organization would be better for this particular institution. 
Moreover, it was a pet idea of Mr. Jefferson's, derived, perhaps, from 
the annual election of a Rector Magnificus in the German universities, 
and we are told in a paper from the pen of Professor Minor, written 
thirty years ago, that "Mr. Jefferson attached not a little importance 
to this republican feature of rotation, insomuch that at the very last 
meeting of the Board [of Visitors] before his death [in 1826], Mr. Wirt, 
then Attorney- General of the United States, having been appointed 
Professor of Law and President of the University, Mr. Jefferson, while 
expressing his hearty concurrence in Mr. Wirt's appointment to the 
Chair of Law, entered upon the minutes, with his own hand, so strong a 
protest against the creation of the office of president that, upon Mr. 
Wirt's declining, the proposition was never renewed." ^ But though the 
rotation existed in the early days of the University, no professor hav- 
ing then held the office more than two years in succession, this ceased 
forty years ago, and, as already stated, it is customary for the Board of 

' Jeffernon and Coibdl CQrreii_i)oridence, Appendix Q, p. 519. 

833 



20 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Visitors to re-elect the same professor as often as he is willing to retain 
the office. Another feature of the organization of the Faculty deserves 
notice, and that is, that there is no distinction whatever between the 
professors in the academic and in the professional departments. They 
all meet on an equal footing as one body, and questions relating to each 
department are decided by the whole body. The division of the Philo- 
sophical Faculty, which has recently agitated the German universities, 
has not yet been suggested here, even so far as relates to a separation 
of academic and i^rofessional schools, but each professor avails himself 
of whatever light may be thrown upon the subject under discussion by 
any one of his colleagues. This tends to prevent narrowness, to avoid 
considering the claims of one school, or department, separate from the 
rest, and to give force to a decision of the Faculty as that of the whole 
body, and not of a fractional part of it. 

The Board of Visitors has been referred to as the highest authority of 
the University. This Board consists of nine members, appointed every 
four years by the Governor of the State and confirmed by the Senate, — 
three from the Piedmont Eegion, in which the University is situated, and 
two from each of the other three grand divisions of the State, the Val- 
ley, South-west Virginia, and the Tidewater Eegion. In the hands of this 
Board are lodged all powers usually exercised by boards of trustees, and 
especially the control of the finances of the University, although in respect 
to these the Faculty, at the close of each session; through one of its com- 
mittees, prepares for its annual report a statement of estimated receipts 
and expenditures for the ensuing session, with such suggestions as it 
may think proper in respect to expenditures for special purposes, which 
statement serves as a guide to the Board of Visitors in authorizing the 
disbursements. This Board is required by law to make to the Legislature 
an annual report of the condition of the University. The University 
receives from the State an annual appropriation of forty thousand (40,000) 
dollars, in return for which it is required to admit, free of charge for tui- 
tion in the academic schools, all Virginia students sixteen years of age 
who pass an elementary examination for admission into the respective 
schools which they desire to attend, or who present certificates of satis- 
factory attainments from some college or preparatory school. The limit 
of age has heretofore been eighteen years, but this was changed by the 
Legislature in 1884 of its own motion. 

Having thus briefly sketched the organization of the University as 
regards its subjects of instruction and its governing bodies, let us con- 
sider it from the point of view of those for whose benefit the University 
is established, and see how it affects them. A student who enters the 
University is supposed to have arrived at such an age as to know what 
he wishes to study, or to have had directions from his parents to pursue 
certain subjects of study. This is, of course, true with respect to pro- 
fessional students, whose average age on entrance is over ticenty-one 
years, and it is presumed to be tiue with respect to academic students, 
834 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPAETMENT OP SUPERINTENDENCE. 21 



The average age of these students on entrance is about nineteen years, 
so that the presumption is reasonable.^ The entering student finds 
at least ten academic schools open for his selection, three of which 
he is required to enter, unless he is of age or has his parents' 
authority to enter a less number. Sometimes as many as four are 
entered, in whole or in part, but it is seldom advisable for a student, 
and especially a first-year student, to enter more than three. Oases 
frequently occur where a student has taken up more studies than 
he can attend to, and therefore applies to the Faculty for permission to 
drop some one school. If the student is a candidate for a titled degree, 
he will find these schools grouped in accordance with the requirements 
for that degree, but the order in which he shall take up the specified 
schools is left entirely to his own selection. The schedule of hours is 
to some extent a limitation upon his selection, as, of course, students 
cannot enter the same year schools of which the lecture-hours conflict. 
If the student is not a candidate for a titled degree, he may select any 
three schools he pleases ; there is absolutely no restriction upon his 
choice but that necessarily imi:)osed by the schedule of lecture-hours. 
Thus another principle of German university organization was introduced 
into this country at the inception of the University of Virginia, sixty 
years ago, that is, Freiheit des Lernens (freedom of learning). As is well 
known, this is termed the elective system in distinction from the cur- 
riculum system, and it has been gradually introduced into many of our 
higher institutions of learning. But the mistake has been made, as it 

^ Table of ages of First-Year Students in the' University of Virginia for Session 1884-'85. 



Ages. 


Academic. 


Professional. 


Mixed. 


Virginia. 


Foreign. 


Virginia. 


Poreign. 


Virginia. 


Foreign. 


16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
27 
29 
30 
*36 
*38 
40 


1 

10 

c 
11 

7 


4 

7 
9 

7 
2 

1 
1 












2 
3 

4 
8 
9 
6 

4 
1 
1 
1 




1 
3 




3 
3 

4 
1 
2 


8 
4 
6 
9 
6 
1 
1 


1 

1 
1 


2 
2 

1 


1 




















1 














1 




1 
1 
























1 
















Total 


42 
19i 


33 

18i 


35 

21i 


40 
21i 


13 

20J 


7 
19^ 


Average age.. 



Average age of Virginia students in Academic Department, excluding those marked 
with an asterisk as resident clergymen, 19. Total numher oi first-year students of all 
kinds, 170 ; average age of first-year students of all kinds, 20J. Number of students of 
1884-'85, according to duration of attendance: 1st year, 170; 2d, 64; 3d; 44 ; 4th, 14; 
nth, 8; 6th, 1 ; 7th, 1 ; 8th, 1. Total, 303. 

835 



22 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

seems to me, of introducing it into many of our lower institutions of 
learning also. We are told by Professor Charles F. Smith, of Vander- 
bilt University, in an article on "Southern Colleges and Schools" in 
the Atlantic Monthly for October, 1884 (p. 548), that " at least thirty-Jive 
Southern colleges and universities have adopted this system, following 
the example of the University of Virginia." I am inclined, however, 
to agree with the President of Tulane University, who is quoted in the 
above article as saying (p. 551) : "It is just as demoralizing for a college 
to invade the domain of true university work as for a preparatory school 
to attempt to be a college"; and again: "While I approve of the 'elec- 
tive system' for real universities, I regard its application to colleges and 
schools as a misfortune." 

The elective system as it prevails in the University of Virginia, which 
has never known any other system, has been often misunderstood. 
It has been sometime imagined that the University of Virginia confers 
a titled academic degree for any combination of studies that the 
student himself may select, provided that he fulfills the requirements 
of the written examinations. This is, of course, an entire mistake. 
There is attached to each school the degree of graduate in that school, 
conferred on completion of the entire course taught in that school, 
which is tested by means of rigid written examinations, on which the 
student is required to attain at least three-fourths of the total value of 
the questions. A student who has received this diploma 'of graduation 
in Latin, say, is entitled to call himself a " graduate of the University 
of Virginia in Latin ;^^ and so for all other schools. In some schools, 
where the subjects are capable of division, the degree of proficient is 
similarly conferred oh completion of certain specified partial courses in 
these schools, and in a few schools the attainment of two such profi- 
ciencies on distinct subjects constitutes graduation in the school. These 
degrees, however, are not titled degrees. The requirements for titled 
degrees are strictly specified.^ In some of these degrees there is no op- 
tion possible, but certain fixed requirements are made, which the stu- 
dent must fulfill if he wishes the particular degree ; in others option is 
permitted within very narrow limits ; and in only one — the recently- 
established degree of bachelor of philosophy — does the option vary to 
the extent of one-half of the academic schools of the University, gradu- 
ation in five schools, any three of the six literary and any two of the four 
scientific schools, being requisite for the attainment of this degree, 
which is, to my mind, more consonant with the genius of the elective 
system and of a university than any other one of the bachelor's de- 
grees. It will thus be seen that the requirements of the University of 
Virginia are stricter with respect to subjects for the titled degrees than 
those of many institutions which still retain the curriculum system ; 
which fact, combined with the high standard requisite for graduation 

in each school, will account for the small number of titled degrees con- 

. — — J. 

^ For these see Annual Catalogue. 
836 



t»R0CEl5DINag OF l^HE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 23 

ferred by the University. In respect to titled degrees, there is another 
point which deserves mention. The B. A. degree is not preliminary to 
the M. A. degree, as in most institutions 5 it is merely a degree con- 
ferred for lower attainments. A student may attain the M. A. degree 
without ever having received the B. A. degree, or, in certain cases, 
without ever having studied some of the subjects specified for the B. A. 
degree, as in this last a limited substitution is allowed. Again, a stu- 
dent may receive the B. A. degree and never attain the M. A. degree, 
for it is not conferred in course^ but only after graduation in the specified 
schools. The two degrees have, then, no relation to each other, and, 
as a matter of fact, the M. A. degree was established in 1831, seventeen 
years before the institution of the B. A. degree, the only degree origi- 
nally instituted being that of graduate in a school, which may be called 
the basis of all degrees. Just here I may be permitted to correct a 
slight error into which Professor C. F. Smith has fallen, in the article 
above referred to, with reference to the requirements for the M. A. de- 
gree in the University of Virginia. There is no such " student public 
opinion" which " hold students to a certain order of studies" (loc. cit. p. 
549) as that with which the University is credited. I presume none 
would be more surprised than the students themselves to hear that 
such "public opinion" was reported to exist. The illustration given, 
namely, that " a student who has taken French and Spanish as the two 
modern languages for his [M. A.] degree found, after he had gotten his 
certificates of proficiency [read, diplomas of graduation], that student 
l)ublic opinion regarded no other modern language as an equivalent for 
German for the M. A. degree, and he therefore took German in addi- 
tion," — must have been based on misinformation as to the requirements 
for the M. A. degree. From 1832, when graduation in the school of 
Modern Languages was first required for the M. A. degree, to 1859 
the student was at liberty to take any two of the four modern lan- 
guages taught for his M. A. degree. In 1859 the requirement of 
French and German as tJie two modern languages necessary for this 
degree was made obligatory, and has so continued ever since. It is 
the Faculty, under approval of the Board of Visitors, that regu- 
lates the requirements for all degrees at the University of Virginia, 
as at other institutions, and no "student public opinion" affects 
these or concerns itself in any way with the order of studies that 
any student chooses to pursue. As already stated, if the student 
is a candidate for a titled degree, he finds the requirements strictly 
specified ; if not, he is at liberty to study any subjects he pleases, and ' 
tlie only concern of the Faculty is to see that his time is fully occupied, 
which is souglit to be effected by the requirement that he must enter 
at least three schools, unless special circumstances exempt him from it, 
and that, having entered these schools of his own choice, he attends 
the lectures regularly and discharges the duties incumbent upon him. 
If the student is a candidate for any titled degree, he will fiod, also, 

837 



24 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

that no limit of time is specified for its attainment; tliis depends en- 
tirely upon his ability to faltill the requirements. Of nine M. A. grad- 
uates of 1884, the time of attendance at the University varied from three 
years to six, the usual time being three and four years. The one B. S. 
had attended for two years, and the one B. A. for six years. (I should 
add that the last was a professor's son, who had entered quite young, — 
only fifteen years of age, — and had therefore gone very slowly througli 
the course.) In like manner graduation in a sc/iOoZ is not dependent 
upon the time of attendance. While a student who is well prepared 
may graduate in a particular school the first year, another may take 
several years to accomplish graduation ; and cases have occurred whore 
a student has attended the senior class of the same school for three 
years, and still failed to graduate. As there is no annual promotion 
from class to class, as in a curriculum, the element of time does not 
enter, and a student may accomplish his course fast or slow, according 
to his inclination and ability. The same standard is set for all, and it 
must be reached regardless of time. There is also no entrance exam- 
ination, except for Virginia students who desire free tuition, — and this 
is of a very elementary character in each school, — so that no student is 
rejected for lack of preparation. Upon the student himself rests the 
responsibility of undertaking the courses prescribed. In the schools 
of Greek and Mathematics there are three classes, — junior, intermedi- 
ate, and senior, — and in those of Latin, Modern Languages (that is, in 
French and in German), and Natural Philosophy, there are two classes, 
juuior and senior, and the student enters whichever one, after consul- 
tation with the professor, he finds himself prepared for ; but only those 
who complete the course of the senior class can apply for graduation in 
the school. 

The class- work during the year, consisting of the preparation of cer- 
tain portions of the text-books, the writing of exercises in the languages, 
and the preparation of the notes taken from the oral lectures of tlie 
professor, is by no means all of the student's work. In all the language- 
classes certain authors are assigned to be read privately, from which 
reading of the senior classes one of the pieces for translation in the 
graduation examination is usually taken, the other being taken from 
the classical writers of the language at will. The pieces for translation 
in the graduation examination are never taken from what has been 
read in the class-room. It was formerly customary to leave to the stu- 
dent himself the selection of his private, or extra, reading, both pieces 
for translation in the examination being taken from the classical writ- 
ers of the language at will, but now the so-called " parallel-reading " is 
assigned by the professor at the beginning of the session, and the stu- 
dent reads it from time to time during the year. In the mathematical 
classes extra problems are assigned for -solution each week, or even 
each day, so that the student's original power for this kind of work is 
continually tested. In some other schools a course of parallel- reading 

838 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OP .SUPERINTENDENCE. 25 

in connection with the subjects studied — or corresponding private work 
in addition to that of the class-room — is assigned, the object being to 
encourage the habit of private study along with the preparation of a 
certain portion of the text-book or a certain quantity of lecture-notes 
from day to day. The proper preparation of this last also is tested by 
careful questioning at each lecturfe on the portion of the text-book as- 
signed and on the subjects of the preceding lecture. 

The student's presence at each lecture is ascertained by a regular roll- 
call, and if his absences reach as many as threeduring the monthin anyone 
school without valid excuse, his name is reported to the Faculty, and he 
is admonished to be more particular in attendance. Also tlie number 
of times that he has absented himself from lectures in each school, and 
a brief statement as to how he is doing, are entered upon the monthly 
report regularly rendered to his parents. A student who is persist- 
ently idle and neglectful of admonition, or whose conduct is deserving 
of severe censure, is usually informed at the close of the session tiiat 
his presence during the following session will be dispensed with ; or, 
in flagrant cases, his parents are requested to withdraw him forth- 
with. It may be truthfully said that cases of this kind seldom 
arise, and I do not suppose that any institution in the country en- 
joys greater immunity from jDad conduct on the part of its students 
than the University of Virginia. Every student is treated as a 
gentleman, he respects himself as. such, and conducts himself accord- 
ingly, and cause for censure very seldom arises. Supposing that the 
student has applied himself to his studies, and maintained a good class- 
standing during the year, which is determined by the regularity of his 
attendance at lectures and by the judgment of the professor as to the 
student's answers in the class questioning, — for there is no marking- 
system in vogue in the University, — he presents himself for the written 
examinations. These occur twice during the year, in February and in 
June, and in some schools flie two examinations count as of equal value, 
being on different portions of the course, while in others the whole 
stress is laid on the final examinations. The i)rofessor endeavors in 
these examinations by a series of questions, some of which often require 
lengthy answers, to test tliorouglily the student's knowledge. A list of 
examination questions is often very deceptive; so much depends \\\)on 
the character and extent of the answer required, and even upon the 
judgment of the examiner. While the professor in each school sets the 
questions and examines the papers, two other professors along with 
him constitute the committee of examination for tliat school, and any 
question that may arise relative to the examination or to the student's 
papers is decided by the committee and not by the professor alone. 
The examinations for graduation last usually from six to eight hours 
on each subject, though sometimes, in the case of students who write 
slowly, they may extend to ten hours or more. They are seldom lim- 
ited to a shorter period than six hours, so that a student is not re- 

839 



26 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

quired to write against time ; he is given a fall opportunity to state 
what he knows,- even if he may think slowly. As already stated, he 
must attain three-fourths of the total value of the questions, or he fails 
of graduation, and in the professional schools the standard is higher, 
heing four -fifths in the Medical Department, and five-sixths in the Law 
Department. Each student appends to his examination paper a pledge 
til at he has "neither given nor received any assistance during the ex- 
amination," which pledge is most rigidly observed as a point of honor 
by all the students. I have never known, personally, of but one viola- 
tion of this pledge, and in that case a committee of his fellow-students 
waited upon the offender and informed him that he must leave tbe 
University, which he did forthwith. I have heard that a few similar 
cases have occurred in the history of the University, which were simi- 
larly treated. Here it is "student public opinion" that regulates the 
matter and sets the tone of the University. A violation of the examina- 
tion pledge may not even reach the ears of the Faculty, but is dealt 
with by the students themselves. It is simply an impossibility for any 
Faculty to regulate this, and it must be left to the honor of the students. 
The University of Virginia is not peculiar, however, in this respect, for 
the same tone and practice exist in other institutions in Virginia and 
the southern States, and have extended to the preparatory schools also. 
They may, too, exist in institutions in the ISTortliern and Western 
StateSj but as to this I am not so well informed. 

Thus by means of class teaching and private study during the year, 
and rigid written examinations at the close, the University of Virginia 
endeavors to secure thoroughness of attainment on the part of its stu- 
dents. A diploma of graduation in any school is an evidence that the 
student has worked hard on the subjects taught in that school, and has 
come up to the standard required, whether he has spent one, two, or 
three years in obtaining his diploma. A titled degree is evidence that 
the student has accomplished such hard 'work in several specified 
schools, and as the M. A. degree requires graduation in more schools 
than any other, it has always been regarded as the highest honor of 
the University. 

There have been established, however, recently, Doctorates of Letters, 
Science, and Philosophy, which require that a student who has obtained 
the corresponding Bachelor's degree, or, in the case of the last, the 
degree of B. A. or of B. Ph., shall pursue post-graduate courses in ttco 
schools of his own selection out of those in which he has graduated. 
His proficiency in these courses is tested by theses and examinations, 
and while no limit of time is fixed, it is estimated that the completion 
of the post-graduate courses will require at least two years of study 
after attainment of the Bachelor's degree. The candidate's thesis must 
show independent research in the subject of his selection, and, on ap- 
proval, must be printed. The eifort is thus made by means of the Doc- 
torates to encourage and reward specialization. The system has been 
840 



PEOCEEDINGS OP THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 27 

in operation too short a time as yet to produce results, but there are 
now certain students pursuing post-graduate courses who will apply 
for the -Doctorates in due time.^ 

It deserves to be added here that no honorary degree is conferred by 
the University of Virginia. It may be taken for granted that any one 
of its graduates who writes a titled degree after his name has worked 
hard for it, and has attained on the written examinations the standard 
requisite for graduation in the several schools specified for that degree. 

In order not to prolong this paper to too great length, it remains to 
notice briefly, in conclusion, the character of the preparation necessary 
for academic students' to enter the University' of Virginia profitably. 
Professional students, of course, being over twenty-one years of age, 
will enter with whatever preparation they may have been able to ac- 
quire, and will profit accordingly. From the average age of entrance 
of the academic students, already stated as about nineteen years, it 
will be seen that they have attained greater maturity of mind than the 
first-year students of many institutions of learning, and their prei)ara- 
tion should correspond. 

In several schools of the University no previous knowledge of the sub- 
jects taught is required, and a student may enter these schools without 
further preparation than is implied by the possession of a good common 
English education, such as the highest grade of public schools can sup- 
ply, for the teaching begins w;th the elements of the subject, as in 
chemistry, for example, or moral philosophy; but some maturity of mind 
is requisite in order to profit by the courses taught. In judging of this 
preparation, then, it will be necessary to take those subjects which the 
I)reparatory schools profess to teach, namely, Latin, Greek, mathematics, 
French, and German, if, indeed, these last can be rightly added. I wish 
I could add English also, but as yet the courses in English are so mea- 
ger and so varied in the preparatory schools that one cannot, for the 
large majority of students, count upon more than instruction in the ordi- 
nary English grammar, and in the elementary principles of composition 
and rhetoric. There are some important exceptions to thjs statement, 
but I think that 1 speak rightly as regards the English course taught 
in the great majority of preparatory schools in the South, which is the 
chief constituency of the University of Virginia, and possibly in the 
isTorth and West, — but of these I speak under correction. In my judg- 
ment, the great want in most of our preparatory schools is a thorough 
course in English parallel with the courses in Latin, Greek, and math- 
ematics, and of equal importance. We are not so deficient in good 
preparatory schools, at least in Virginia, as one would infer from a 
letter of Professor W. M. Baskervill, of Vanderbilt University, printed 



1. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred for the first time iu 1885, and it 
-was iu that year also decided to recognize the B. A. degree from other reputable 
institutions as a preliminary to this Doctorate, the requirement, however, of gradua- 
tion in the two selected schools of the University being still maintained. 

841 



28 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

in The Nation of December 18, 1884 (So. 1016), in which, after enumer- 
ating five schools by name, — one in JSlorth Carolina, one in Tennessee, 
and three in Virginia, — he adds: "All the rest of the South cannot 
add five more such schools to this list." I would beg leave to say that 
I can easily add, from Virginia alone, ^'•jive more such schools," and 
over, whose course is equally as high in grade as that of those men- 
tioned, and, in fact, a colleague informed me that he could coxmt fifteen. 
But these schools have not yet established full and thorough courses 
in English equal in extent and importance to their courses in classics, 
mathematics, and modern languages, though I look hopefully for this 
to come in time, even if something else must " go by the board." 
While our schools are doing good work, and sending up some students 
every year prepared to enter the senior classes in the university, they are 
not now equal in numbers, nor, perhaps, in thegrade of their work, to the 
schools in what was " the golden age" for Virginia preparatory schools, 
and for the University, — the decade from 1850 to 1860. Then there 
were at least a half-dozen schools in the State, whose number of board- 
ing-pupils varied from sixty to a hundred, and several others with a less 
number, all preparatory to the University, and drawing their pupils 
from all parts of the South. The University during this period was in 
its most flourishing condition, having, for at least six years successively, 
over six hundred students in attendance, — nearly four hundred of 
whom were aca<iem»e. students, — coming from all of the Southern States 
from Maryland to Texas. Almost all of these preparatory schools 
either were conducted by graduates, usually M. A.'s of the university, 
or drew their principal teachers from it. Having been educated in one 
of these schools, and having taught in another, I may be permitted to 
speak from personal experience of the. preparation afforded, as an illus- 
tration of the school course. In the school attended we had been read- 
ing, for three years, the higher Latin and Greek authors, — others hav- 
ing been previously studied,— of which I recall, in Latin, Tacitus and 
Juvenal, Plautus and Terence, Cicero's Letters and Tusculan Disputa- 
tions; and, in. Greek, Euripides, Sophocles, Thucydides, and Theocri- 
tus, — and we had written weekly exercises in Latin and Greek composi- 
tion, retranslating into these languages a piece of English translated from 
some classical author; we had studied trigonometry and surveying, ana- 
lytical and descriptive geometry, and the class succeeding ours studied 
also the differential and integral calculus ; we had pursued a French course 
during the three years, reading lastly Kacine and Moliere, and writing 
weekly exercises. I do not now recall any English studies pursued, ex- 
cept spelling, which was rigidly insisted on for the whole school, and 
composition and declamation, — for the time of English was not yet. I 
cannot say that all, or even a majority, of the students entering the 
University enjoyed this amount of preparation, but it was not any too 
much for entering the senior classes in the respective schools, and any 
student who desired to graduate the first year in the schools named must 
842 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 29 

have had somewhat equivaleat preparation, even if he had not read quite 
as much Latin and Greek. I speak of "senior classes," and of " gradua- 
tion the first year," because a student may enter the lower classes in the 
schools of Latin, Greek, mathematics, and modern languages, with 
very much less preparation, or he may even enter tbe senior classes and 
profit by the instruction given, but he will not graduate the first year. 
Comparing the courses taught in these schools of the University noio 
with those taught twenty -five years ago, I should say that graduation in 
Latin and mathematics is somewhat more difficult now than it was then; 
in Greek and modern languages it is about the same. The preparatory 
schools have, therefore, now a somewhat harder task than they had 
then, and, with some exceptions, it does not seem to me that they fulfill 
it as well, but I may be mistaken. Education in Virginia, if not in the 
whole South,, does not seem to have recovered from the great cataclysm, 
notwithstanding twenty years have elapsed, and a new generation has 
come on the scene. The University of Virginia is certainly now much 
better equipped for its work than ever before. Its thirteen schools of 
18.60 have expanded to nineteen; it possesses a chemical laboratory and 
a museum of natural history and geology of extraordinary value; its 
gifts, endowments, and appropriations are greater than at any former 
period ; and it has just been provided with an endowed observatory 
and a refracting telescope equal to any in this country, and excelled by 
few in Europe. That its students are not as numerous as formerly is 
due, in my opinion, to two causes, — the one, perfectly just in itself and 
not to be regretted but in its effect, that other southern States are 
building up their own institutions, and are educating for themselves the 
students whom Virginia formerly educated for them ; in this they are 
wise, and are to be congratulated, and no lover of education would wish 
to see them take one step backward ; the other cause is, I fear, not so 
creditable to our people, as a whole, and here I include Virginia, as well 
as other southern States ; it is, that there is not as great a desire for 
higher education as there once was ; our people have been occupied 
with their material interests, and have starved their minds; young men 
are growing up all around us with a mere smattering of education, but as 
it is sufficient to enable them to enter upon an agricultural, manufactur- 
ing, mercantile, or commercial life, they are satisfied ; education costs 
money and postpones the time for making money, and we are content 
to do without it. But the "three E's" will not suffice; the education 
given in our public schools is very desirable as far as it goes, and these 
schools should, by all means, be extended ; but, if we are content to 
stop there, it will not answer ; we can never rear a cultured community 
on the rudiments of learning; we can never take the position we once 
occupied in the statesmanship of this great country, nor even bold our 
own, if our higher institutions of learning are neglected. 

The so-called "Few South" has developed in many ways, has ex- 
panded prodigiously, from a material poiut of view, and lias extended 

^43 



30 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

the blessings of elementary education to a mucli larger number than 
ever before. But I question seriously whether, in proportion to the 
population, there are as many young men now seeking a higher educa- 
tion as there were in 1860.^ Some who write about the condition of 
education in the South previous to 1860 do not know what was the real 
condition of affairs. They do not reflect that the higher institutions of 
learning in each State, and the private schools preparatory to them, 
were generally well attended, and that the character of the liberal edu- 
cation supplied by them was in no whit inferior, if it was not superior, 
to what it is now. While we have broadened, we have not deepened. 
Lack of private means, doubtless, has had much to do with this, but as 
material interests have progressed, this lack is being gradually suj)plied. 
The caution which, it seems to me, is now most needed by the people of 
the South is not to let regard for material interests override considera- 
tion of intellectual growth. Mind must rule, and mind must have the op- 
portunity of being developed to its highest capacity if we would keep pace 
with the intellectual progress of the world. Our higher institutions of 
learning must be cherished, not only supported from the iiublic funds, but 
aided by private benefactions, and especially sustained by receiving for 
education the sons of all who can afford to send their sons to be educated. 
With much increased facilities for instruction, the colleges and univer- 
sities .should not lack students, for whom these facilities are provided. 
Higher education should be at least as highly appreciated now as it was 
by our fathers, or the result will inevitably be seen in the career of our 
sons. We cannot afford to neglect the higher education, for, if we do, 
it will undoubtedly react upon the lower, and we shall stand before the 
world a half-educated people, regardless of our most important inter- 
ests. Moreover, we can never contribute our share to the literature of 
the world unless we lay the foundatiou broad and deep. Writing nov- 
els and works in the negro dialect is not contributing to the highest 
forms of literature. Does any of this ephemeral literature, or all of it 
together, deserve to be placed beside the papers which emanated from 
the statesmen of the past, or the speeches with which the halls of leg- 
islation once resounded? Let us not deceive ourselves. Let us realize 
that the higher education must be maintained, and that we must take 
advantage of it if we would be an educated people ; that there is a 
higher life than the mere material, and that making money is not the 
chief end of man. 

This sketch of the way in which the University of Virginia is en- 
deavoring to do its part towards securing that thoroughness in the higher 
education which is so essential to success, is offered as a contribution 

1 This view is expressed also in two thoughtful and well-written articles on " Educa- 
tion in the South," which appeared in the Nashville Christian Advocate of January 
24 and 31, 1885, but the anonymous writer is rather iiessimistic in regard to edupfttjon, 
not only in the South, hut in the whole country, 

844 " 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 31 

to the general educational work in this country, and especially as a 
j)lain description of one modest phase of that work. 

APPENDIX. 

DEGREES. 

No honorary degree is conferred by the University of Virginia. The degrees are 
conferred only upon examination, as follows : 

1. A Certificate of Proficiency is conferred on one who has passed examination 
on any of the following special subjects : Anglo-Saxon, English language, rhetoric 
and English literature, general history, political economy and science of society, 
logic, philosophy, junior and intermediate mathematics, junior physics, agricultural 
chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, physiology, human anatomy, medical juris- 
prudence, pharmacy, and international and constitutional law. 

2. A Diploma of Graduation is conferred on one who has passed examination on 
any of the following general courses: Latin, Greek, French, German, Spanish, Italian, 
modern languages (any two of the last four), English, historical science, moral phi- 
losophy, pure mathematics, mixed mathematics, applied mathematics, natural phi- 
losophy, practical physics, practical astronomy, general chemistry, industrial chem- 
istry, analytical chemistry, mineralogy and geology, natural history and geology, and 
agriculture, zoology, and botany. 

Academical degrees with titles. 

1. The title Bachelor of Letters of the University of Virginia (B. Let. Univ. Va.) is 
conferred on one who has graduated in Latin, Greek, and moral philosophy, and in 
modern languages, or English, or historical science. 

2. The title Bachelor of Science of the University of Virginia (B. S. Univ. Va.) is con- 
ferred on one who has graduated in pure mathematics, natural philosophy, general 
chemistry, and natural history and geology. 

3. The title Bachelor of Philosophy of the University of Virginia {B. Ph. Univ. Va.) 
is conferred on one who has graduated in any three of the following : Latin, Greek, 
French and German, English, historical science, and moral philo80i)hy; and in any 
two of the following : pure mathematics, natural philosophy, general chemistry, and 
natural history and geology. 

4. The title Bachelor of Arts of the University of Virginia {B. A. Univ. Va.) is con- 
ferred on one who has attained : First, a Distinction (f ) in the work of senior Latin, and 
of junior and intermediate Greek, and a Proficiency in junior and intermediate mathe- 
matics, in junior physics, and in either class of moral philosophy; second, any two of 
the following : a Distinction in a pi-escribed course of general chemistry, a Proficiency 
in geology, in either class of English, in either class of historical science, and a Di- 
ploma in either French or German; third, Graduation in any two of the ten schools 
indicated. 

N. B. — The examination in senior Latin for this degree is limited in the translation of Latin into 
English to the Latin read in the lecture-room, and in the translation of English into Latin to a desig- 
nated one-fourth of the exercise assigned for graduation. 

5. The title Doctor of Letters of the University of Virginia (-D. Let. Univ. Va.) is 
conferred on one who has attained the degree Bachelor of Letters, and accomplished 
a graduate course in any two or more of the literary schools. 

6. The title Doctor of Science of the University of Virginia ( D. S. Univ. Va.) is con- 
ferred on one who has attained the degree Bachelor of Science, and accomplished 
a graduate course in any two or more of the scientific schools. 

7. The title Doctor of Philosophy ©f the University of Virginia (D. Ph. Univ. Va.) is 
conferfcd on o^e who has attained the degree Bachelor of Philosophy, or Bachelor of 

845 



32 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

Arts, aud .accomplished a graduate course in any two or more of tlie literary schools^ 
or iu any two or more of tlie scientific schools. 

N. B. — Tlie candidate for a doctorate is also required to prepare and have printed a fortnight before 
Public Day an approved thesis, showing independent research in the subjects of one or other, as he 
may elect, of the schools in which he pursues a graduate course. Candidates for the Doctorate of Phi. 
losophy may come up for examination at any time which the committee of the examination may fix 
upon. 

Graduation in a school is prerequisite to admission to the advanced f!;raduate course of that school. 
Graduation in practical astronomy may replace the graduate course in mathematics and natural phi- 
losophy. The elections of a candidate for a doctorate are subject to the approval of the Faculty. 

8. The title Master of Arts of the University of Virginia (M. A. Univ. Va.) is con- 
ferred on one who has graduated in Latin, Greek^ French; and German, moral phi- 
losophy, pure mathematics, natural philosophy, and general chemistry. 

Professional degrees tvith titles. 

1. The title Bachelor of Law (B. L.) is conferred on one who has passed examina- 
tion on all the subjects of instruction in the schools of the Law Department. 
. 2. The title Doctor of Medicine {M. D.) is conferred on one who has passed exam- 
ination on all the subjects of instruction in the schools of the Medical Department. 

N. B. — A- candidate for the degree Doctor of Medicine, who in a previou.s session has become a PrO' 
flcient in physiology, anatomy, or medical jurisprudence, or a Graduate in general chemistry, is not 
required to stand examination in these subjects anew. The same rule applies to a candidate for the 
degree of Bachelor of Law, who is a Proficient tn international and constitutional law. 

.3. The title Civil Engineer (C ^.) is conferred on one who has attained a Proficiency 
in junior and intermediate mathematics, accomplished a i)rescribed course on the in- 
finitesimal calculus, and graduated in natural philosophy, general or industrial chem- 
istry, mineralogy, and geology, and applied mathematics in the course of civil engi- 
neering. 

4. The title Mining Engineer {M. E.) is conferred on one who has attained a Profi- 
ciency in junior and intermediate mathematics and in junior physics, accomplished a 
prescribed course on the infinitesimal calculus, and graduated in general and indus- 
trial chemistry, analytical chemistry, mineralogy and geology, and apx»lied mathe- 
matics iu the course of mining engineering. 

.'j. The title of Bachelor of Scientific Agriculture (J5. S.A.) is conferred on one who 
has attained a Distinction in junior applied mathematics and in analytical chemistry, 
and a Proficiency in junior physics and in agricultural chemistry, and graduated in 
general and industrial chemistry, natural history and geology, and agriculture, zo- 
ology and botany. 

There was no discussion upon Prof. G-arnett's paper, and, after the 
announcement of the programme for the next session, at 12.40 o'clock 
P. M. the Association adjourned. 



SECOE^D SESSION. 

The second session of the Dejjartment was called to order at ten 
o'clock A. M., Wednesday, Feb. 25th, Hon. John Hancock presiding, 
and prayer was offered by Eev. L. G. Barbour. 

The Chairman: I am requested by Dr. Traver, of Leland University, 
to extend to the educators who may be in the city a cordial invitation 
to visit that institution. 

The Secretary: I am requested by the Treasurer of the National 
Association to state that the comuuttee in charge of the publict^tion of 
846 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OE SUPERINTENDE-NCE. 33 

the proceedings of the meeting at Madison will have the volume ready 
for delivery to members about the first of March. The volume will be 
unusually large, and will be valuable. The Association is obliged to 
defray the cost of publication, which will be about $500. The Treasurer 
desires that no volumes shall be sent out that will not positively reach 
persons desiring them. It is therefore requested that all persons de- 
siring copies will forward their present address to IS". A. Calkins, 124 
East 80th St., New York City, and also send fifteen cents in defrayment 
of postage. 
Dr. E. E. White, of Cincinnati, O., then read the following paper: 

A TRUE COURSE OF ELEMENTARY . INSTRUCTION; ITS PRINCIPLES 

AND METHODS. 

Education as an art is based primarily on the nature of the being 
. educated. This fact is illustrated, not only in the education of different 
classes of human beings, as infants and adults, the blind, the deaf, and 
the feeble-minded, but also in the training of different brute animals, as 
the horse, the dog, and the monkey. 

It follows from this fact that the devising of proper methods of edu- 
cation for any class of human beings involves a knowledge of their edu- 
cable nature, and hence the devising of methods and courses of school 
education involves a knowledge of the nature of children and youth, and 
especially of their psychical nature. 

How is this guiding knowledge best obtained ? It is believed to be 
best reached by a careful analysis of psychical processes and powers as 
revealed in consciousness, and then determining the relations of these 
processes to each other and the relative activity of the corresponding 
powers in the successive periods of school life, by a wide and careful 
comparison of children of different ages and conditions. The true basis 
of child psychology is general psychology. 

We can only give a brief summary of the results reached in an earnest 
attempt to pursue the line of inquiry thus suggested. 

Analysis of Psychical Processes and Powers. 

The human soul is capable of three distinct activities, — Jcnowing, 
feeling, and tcilling. The power of the soul to know is called the Intel- 
lect; the power to feel, the Sensibility; the power to will, the Will. 

These three capabilities, or powers, of the soul are called Faculties. 
A faculty is not a separate organ or part of the soul, but a power of 
the soul as a unit. The human soul is a unit in essence, with a trinity 
of distinct powers or capabilities. 

It is also important to observe that the intellect, sensibility, and will 
are distinct, but not independent, powers or faculties. They act and 
react upon each other, and their interactions are marvelously blended 
in many complex psychical acts and states. They condition each other. 

847 



34 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

For pedagogical reasons, we would prefer to begin our analysis with 
the Sensibility, but the limits of this address compel us to omit the 
phenomena of the Sensibility and the Will, and pass at once to an 
analysis of the processes and powers of the 

INTELLECT. 

To know an object is to be certain that it is, and hence knowing may 
be defined as the perceiving of the certain existence of an object of 
knowledge. 

I. The Intellect is endowed with the power to know directly and 
immediately present objects of Jcnowledge. This power is called the Pre- 
sentative Faculty. 

The present objects of knowledge, thus known by the Presentative 
Faculty, include (1) subjective or psychical objects — the acts and states 
of the soul and the soul itself 5 (2) objective or material objects ; and 
(3) the necessary relations between objects of knowledge, as the rela-* 
tions of space, time, cause and effect, means and end, design, etc. 

The power of the soul to know directly its own acts and states and 
itself as the knower is called Consciousness. On the certainty of this 
subjective perception depends the validity of all knowledge. 

The power of the soul to know directly external material objects is 
called Perception; and since the soul perceives physical phenomena 
through, or by means of, the six senses, this power may properly be 
called sense-perceptive. 

The power of the soul to perceive or know directly the necessary re- 
lations of objects, i. e., to know necessary truths, is called Intuition. 
The necessary relations of objects are known directly and immediately, 
and the act is presentative. 

Every act of the presentative faculty results in a psychical product. 
The products of consciousness and intuition are called ideas, and the 
products of sense-perception, percepts and concepts — a percept being the 
result of a single act of perception through a single sense, and a concept . 
being a synthesized whole, composed of several percepts and ideas. All 
sense-concepts are individual, that is, they represent individual objects. 

What would be man's intellectual condition were he endowed only 
with this presentative power — the power to know present objects of 
knowledge? It is evident that the products of consciousness, sense- 
perception, and intuition would constitute the sum total of human knowl- 
edge, and each of these would vanish ivith tlie act that produces it. There 
would be no past in consciousness and no anticipated future. The con- 
scious psychical life of every human being would be its present — a 
moving point. The so-called universe of man's knowledge would be 
bounded by the limited reach of the physical senses, and, without the aid 
of the higher powers of the mind, as hereafter shown, this reach would 
indeed be very limited. The effects produced in the sensorium by ma- 
terial objects, through the senses, are at best but very imperfect indicia 
848 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 35 

of what the mind actually sees. In all sense-perception, the mind, by 
the power of thought, perceives much more than the eye or other sense 
discloses. 

II. But the Intellect is further endowed with the power to represent 
to itself and reknow objects previously known — to reproduce, in a sense, 
its past experience. This power of the Intellect is called the Represent- 
ative Faculty. 

The power of the mind to represent an object previously known with- 
out recognizing it as an object of previous cognition is Simple Represen- 
tation. This is the basis of what is called Phantasy. 

The power of the soul to represent and reknow an object previously 
known is Memory. Memory includes two distinct acts, to wit : (1) the 
representing of an object previously known, and (2) the reknowing of it. 
It includes, in other words. Representation and Recognition. 

The power of the mind to represent and modify, or recombine, objects 
previously known is called the Imagination. It is this power to modify 
objects of previous cognition that distinguishes the imagination from 
memory, which represents and reknows without modification, and from 
simple representation or pure phantasy, which represents without either 
recognition or modification. The imagination is not only the representer, 
but the modifier, constructor, and creator of psychical images. Phan- 
tasy may passively or wildly recombine represented objects, as in dreams 
and delirium. The imagination acts under the guidance and control of 
the intellect and the will. 

It seems important to note, in passing, that the imagination has three 
phases of activity — modifying, constructive, and creative. The modify- 
ing phase includes, (1) the imagining of one known object to be another 
known object, as a broom to be a horse, or a doll to be a live baby ; 
and (2) the conceiving of a known object, material or spiritual, enlarged 
or diminished in size or intensity, or otherwise changed in some quality 
or attribute, as the conceiving of a mouse to be as large as a horse, or 
a horse to be as small as a mouse, snow to be red, ice to be warm, etc. 

The constructive phase is the combining of known psychical materi- 
als presented by another mind into suggested wholes, as the imagining 
of a house, a tree, or an animal, from a few lines drawn on paper or other 
pictorial representation, or from a description in words, oral or written. 

The creative phase is the construction of new wholes from materials 
furnished by representation, the whole thus constructed being an orig- 
inal creation, as the imagining of an unseen landscape, a dramatic scene 
that represents no real occurrence, etc. It is this phase of imagination 
that furnishes the artist, the inventor, and the discoverer with their ideals, 
and that characterizes the poet, the dramatist, and the novelist. 

In all forms of its activity the imagination uses the materials fur- 
nished by experience. It creates no new element. The painter cannot 
imagine a new color, nor can the dramatist imagine a new emotion, 
affection, or desire. 

849 



36 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

What knowledge would be attainable by man, and what would be his 
intellectual condition, were the intellect endowed only with the present- 
ative and representative powers'? Since every object known directly 
by the presentative faculty is individual (the intuitions possibly ex- 
cepted), every representative object would be individual, including the 
creations of the imagination, and hence all knowledge would relate to 
individual ohjects, and each man's knowledge would be limited to his 
individual experience. His language, if any, would be limited to the 
few vocal and visual signs which instinct marvelously interprets. The 
sentence, if not the word, would be imjDOssible. 

III. But the soul is endowed with the further power to form and 
apply general concepts and ideas. This psychical process is thinking, 
and its product thought. The power to think is called the Batiotial 
Faculty, or Thought Faculty., or more simply, Thought. 

The simplest act of thinking is the forming of the general concepts 
or notions which represent classes of objects. It includes comparison, 
analysis, abstraction, synthesis, and generalization ; but since these 
processes all assist in forming the general concept, the entire process 
may properly be called Gonceptive Generalization, or, more simply, Gon- 
ception. The forming of the general concept is the primary act of think- 
ing. Each general concept or idea may be represented by a sign or 
word. This is the primary source of words. The applying of a general 
concept to the individual objects which it represents and arranging them 
in a group under it is Glassification. 

The next thought process is the comparing of objects of knowledge 
and formally affirming their likeness or unlikeness. The concepts grass 
and herb may, for example, be compared, and their discerned likeness 
affirmed by the sentence. Grass is an herb. This thought process is 
called formal judging, to distinguish it from the comparison, or simple 
judging, involved in conception or the forming of the general concept. 
The power of formal judging is called Formal Judgment, or, more briefly, 
Judgment. 

It is thus seen that judgment is the psychical source of what are 
called facts — the affirmed results of observation and thought. A fact 
may be defined as a true judgment formally affirmed. A judgment for- 
mally expressed in words is a proposition or sentence, and thus by for- 
mal judgment we pass from words as such to sentences, or language 
proper. 

But the tendency of thought is to pass beyond the particular or gen- 
eral facts of judgment, limited to known objects, to universal truths, 
and hence the third and final thought process is the forming and apply- 
i»'9 of general facts or universal truths. This form of thinking is called 
reasoning, and the power thus to think is called the Reason. 

In reasoning the mind passes from particular facts as reasons to a 
general truth, or from a general truth to the included particular facts. 
It is thus seen that there are two forms or processes of reasoning, to 

850 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 37 

wit: (1) the iuduciug of a general truth from particular facts, called 
Induction, and (2) the deducing of particular facts from a general truth, 
called Deduction. In inductive reasoning the mind passes from particu- 
lars to a general; in deductive reasoning it passes from generals to par- 
ticulars.^ 

The foregoing analysis of psychical processes and powers brings us 
to an important inquiry respecting the — 

Order of Activity and Development of the Intellectual Powers. 

The presentative faculty awakens into activity before the representa- 
tive, and both of these faculties before the thought faculty. This 
order is a psychical necessity. It is impossible for the mind to recall and 
represent an object not previously known, and it is equally impossible 
for the mind to form and apply general concepts of any kind if it be 
not in possession of individual concepts and ideas to compare and gen- 
eralize. In activity both consciousness and sense-perception must pre- 
cede memory, and consciousness, sense-perception, and memory must 
precede conception, the simplest form of thought activity. 

In like manner and for a like reason, the activity of the several 
powers of the same faculty and the higher phases of activity of the 
same power are conditioned upon the lower. 

Sense-perception is conditioned upon sensation — the primary psychical 
act, and consciousness is conditioned upon both sensation and percep- 
tion. The cognition of objects of knowledge must condition the in- 
tuitive i^erception of their necessary relations, and, in turn, the intui- 
tions condition the completed acts of sense-perception. 

It is not meant that there is necessarily a conscious interval between 
these related presentative acts. Consciousness accompanies and blends 
with the acts and states which it perceives, and the intuitions are 
blended with the acts of perception and consciousness. The idea of ex- 
tension arises in connection with and conditions the perception of ma- 
terial bodies as extended. 

The activity of the three representative powers follows the same 
order. Memory is conditioned upon simple representation, since an 
object previously known must be represented to be reknown, and the 
imagination is conditioned upon both simple rej)resentation and mem- 
ory, since these furnish the imagination with the materials which it 
modifies and recombines into new wholes. The higher phases of the 

1 There is an important distinction between a general fact of judgment and an in- 
duction. A general judgment includes only known objects; an induction includes 
all objects of a class, known or unknown. I have seen, for example, several elephants 
and have observed that each has a proboscis, or trunk. I now generalize these par- 
ticular observations into the fact, All these elephants have trunks, which is a formal 
judgment. If now I enlarge this general judgment by an inference, based on some 
discovered reason, to the general fact. All elephants have trunks, I make an induction — 
a general assertion that includes all elephants, known aad unknown. Every sure 
induction is an important addition to our real knowledge. 

851 



38 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

imiginatioa likewise succeed the lower. It is not easy to determine 
which of its two modifying phases appears first, since they both appear 
very early, as everj^ nursery clearly shows. The constructive phase 
appears later, and this is succeeded l)y the creative phase. It is not 
meant that these successive phases whoUj'^ disappear before the higher 
phase appears. They characterize the activity of the imagination in the 
order indicated. 

The same order is observed in the activity of the several thought 
powers. Conceptive generalization precedes formal judging, and both 
conception and formal judging precede reasoning. It is thus seen that 
reasoning is conditioned upon judging, and judging upon conception. 

The order observed in the activity of the several intellectual powers 
also prevails in their development. The presentative faculty reaches 
what may be called its maximum natural power before the representa- 
tive, and both before thought. The last of the representative powers to 
reach an acti^'ity and energy equal to that of the x)resentative power is 
the creative imagination, and the last of the thought powers to reach 
a like development is reasoning, the power of deductive reasoning ap- 
pearing and developing later than that of inductive. 

There are considerable intervals between the periods in which the 
higher faculties reach a development equal to that of the lower, but it 
is an error to infer that there are corresponding intervals between their 
awakenings into activity. The first conscious acts of perception and 
memory accompany each other; the forming of general concepts and 
ideas is near the synthesis of sense-concepts; formal judgment follows 
conception closely, and inductive reasoning appears only a little later. 
The two powers which awaken into activity latest are the creative im- 
agination and deductive reasoning. 

But how early do the several intellectual powers become active, and what 
is their relative activity and energy in the successive periods of the child's 
life? 

The answers to these important questions can only be determined by 
the observation and study of children, and fortunately this is not a new 
field of inquiry. No other beings have been so carefully and lovingly 
studied. The recorded results of these observations cover many centu- 
ries, and they present child life under many and diverse conditions. 
This study of children has been greatly stimulated in later years by the 
writings of Comenius, Locke, Eousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and other 
educational reformers, and it is now receiving the earnest attention of 
progressive educators both in this country and in Europe. 

The studj of individual children is rendered difficult by their marvelous 
power to divine the answer in the mind of the questioner, and the equally 
marvelous facility with which they use words with or without the ideas 
which they represent. There is also great difficulty in applying the 
general conclusion reached to individual cases — a fact due to the marked 
differences among children of the same age and often of the same family. 

852 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 39 

One child may possess a power of imagination at six years of age which 
a brother or sister may not reach before sixteen, and like striking con- 
trasts are observed in the development of the several thought-powers, 
and especially of the reason. But notwithstanding the difficulties in- 
volved, the results already reached by this child-study indicate, with 
some clearness, the psychical activity of children at different ages; and 
this is especially true when these results are interpreted in the light of 
general psychology. 

, The accompanying diagram represents the results of my study of this 
problem. It is designed to show the activity and onergy (more especially 
the activity) of the several intellectual powers of the average child from 
birth to twenty years of age. It seems unnecessary to add that, like all 
graphic devices, it represents the facts only approximately. 
[A large graphic chart was here presented and explained.] 
What light do these psychical facts throw on methods and courses of 
instruction ? It is believed that they clearly disclose the following prin- 
ciples — the most important that underlie the art of teaching. 

Principle I. 

Instruction, doth in matter and method, must be adapted to the capability 

of the taught. 

This is a primary axiom of teaching, requiring neither proof nor elu- 
cidation. The most elementary conception of education involves the 
truth that the what and the how of instruction must be adapted to the 
pupil's capability, psychical and physical. This principle is funda- 
mental, since all other principles are based upon it. 

The application of this principle to school instruction raises two im- 
portant questions, to wit: (1) Do the pupils in our schools present a 
varying capability as they pass up through the successive grades ? (2) 
If so, in what respects does their capability vary, and to what is the 
variation due ? The fact that the capability of jjupils varies as they 
pass from the primary to the higher grades is too obvious to require 
formal proof, and so we pass at once to the consideration of the sec- 
ond question — the most important and fruitful question which modern 
pedagogy is called upon to answer. 

The varying intellectual capacity of pupils in the successive grades 
of school must be due to one or more of three facts, to wit: 1. A va- 
riation in the activity and energy of the intellect as a whole. 2. The 
absence or non-activity of certain faculties in the younger pupils, and the 
successive awakening of these dormant faculties to activity as pupils 
grow older. 3. A variation in the relative activity and energy of the 
several faculties at different ages. 

The first of these supposed facts is the basis of the theory that pri- 
mary pupils may be taught the same kinds of knowledge as the pupils 
in the higher grades, and by essentially the same methods, the only 

853 



40 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

radical difference between primary and advanced Instruction being in 
the amount of matter taught, the former covering daily less ground than 
the latter. Forty years ago, and evefi later, elementary text-books 
were constructed on this theory. The earlier elementary arithmetics 
began with formal definitions, and rules preceded the problems. The 
primary geographies began with the same definitions as the more ad- 
vanced treatise, even including mathematical definitions, and otherwise 
covered substantially the same ground, the only essential difference be- 
ing the fact that the first book was thinner than the second. 

The second of these supposed facts, in its more extreme interpretation, 
assumes that the intellectual powers active in primary pupils are the 
presentative, especially the power of observation; that later in school 
life the representative powers, memory and imagination, become active, 
and still later the thought powers, generalization and reason. 

It is the basis of the theory that a course of school instruction may 
be cut horizontally into three distinct sections, or periods, — primary, 
secondary, and advanced, the primary including sense, or perceptive, 
knowledge, the secondary reproductive knowledge, and the higher or 
advanced period generalized and rational knowledge. These three 
periods of school instruction have been respectively designated as per- 
ceptive, conceptive, and rational; also as objective, reproductive, and 
elaborative. 

The third supposed fact assCimes that all the intellectual faculties are 
active when the child enters school at six years of age, and that his 
intellectual condition as he advances in the course is characterized by 
changes in the relative activity of the several intellectual powers. This 
view supports the theory that both the matter ajpd the method of school 
instruction should correspondingly change from year to year — the suc- 
cessive phases of instruction being characterized by the relative atten- 
tion given the different kinds of knowledge, and especially by the manner 
or method in which such knowledge is taught. 

Which of the above suppositions is true ? 

The foregoing diagram, presenting the activity and growth of the 
powers of the intellect, shows that the nine intellectual powers are all 
active, though not equally so, at six years of age, the child's intellectual 
condition being then characterized by the activity of sense-perception 
or observation, constructive imagination, and conceptive generalization 
(the word-faculty), sense-perception being the leading faculty ; that later 
the imagination, judgment (the fact-faculty), and inductive reasoning 
become more active, and characterize intellectual activity; and that 
the higher phase of development is characterized by the activity of the 
creative imagination and the reason, inductive and deductive. There 
is a marked change in the relative activity of the three thought powers, 
conception, judgment, and reason — the first being the leading thought 
faculty at six years of age and the last at sixteen. It is true that there 
is an increase in the activity and energy of the mind as a whole, but the 

854 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPAETMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 41 

characteristic feature of its activity and development — and the guiding 
one in teaching, is tlie variation in the relative activity of the several in- 
tellectual poivers. 

It is also to be noted that in these changes in the relative activity of 
the different faculties there are no sudden transitions. While the pre- 
sentative powers are at first the most active, the higher powers increase 
in activity from year to year until they become the leading powers of 
the intellect. We have found no psychical basis for the theory that 
children do not reason before they are near ten years of age. When a 
child asks for the why, or reason, of things that interest him, the rea- 
soning faculty is active. A bright child makes manj'^ inductions, and 
intelligently acts on some of them, before he is six years old. Ask a 
bright boy in his sixth year why dogs cannot fly, why people wear 
thicker clothes in winter than in summer, why a stone will fall if you 
drop it, and he will give reasons, though not scientific ones. 

It is doubtless true that most of the generalizations of young children 
are judgments, not inductions, and as such are limited to known objects; 
but it is a mistake to supi^ose that primary pupils do not reason. Locke 
held that children reason as early as they understand language, " and," 
he adds, " if I misobserve not, they love to be treated as rational creat- 
ures sooner than is imagined." 

But it is to be observed that, in their earlier thinking, children acquire 
concepts and facts which involve the more obvious qualities and relations 
of things, and they reach one by one inductions which are based on in- 
dications admitting of easy interpretation. As they grow older, they are 
increasingly able to discover less obtrusive attributes and relations, 
and form more sharply defined concepts, and at length, they acquire by 
training the power to form what are called scientific concepts, and, gen- 
eralizing and applying the resulting facts, reach scientific inductions, 
principles, laws, etc. — in a word, science. It should, however, be noted 
that this scientific phase of thought depends on no newly awakened fac- 
ulty, even deductive reason being active long before it is reached. The 
inductions of common life, even of child experience, differ from the in- 
ductions of science in "subject matter," as Dr. Porter expresses it, and 
not in the essential thought processes involved. Scientific thought re- 
quires closer and longer continued observation, more accurate concep- 
tion and judging, and a deeper insight of the reason than common 
thought. This fact will be made evident by comparing the thought pro- 
cesses involved in the common concepts, facts, inductions, and classifi- 
cations which make up a child's knowledge of common plants, with the 
thought processes involved in the scientific concepts, facts, inductions, 
and classifications which constitute the science of botany. 

I can only allude to the fact that the development of the intellect in- 
volves the corresponding development of the sensibility and the will, 
and, in children, the growth of the body. The activity of the mind in 
knowing depends on the acuteness of the senses, the intensity of the 

855 



42 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

emotions and desires, and the energy and constancy of the will ; and 
these are conditioned upon the sustaining power of the body, which, 
other conditions being favorable, increases as children grow older. The 
young child can not attend to one object as long as an adult, and the 
same is true of the relative duration of all psychical states. There is a 
general law of interdependence and interaction that runs through all 
psychical activities. 

We are now prepared to state and consider-^ 

Principle II. 

There is a natural order in which the facilities should be exercised and the 
corresponding liinds of knowledge taught. 

The natural order of exercising the faculties is necessarily the same 
as the order of their activity, to wit : first the preseutative, second the 
representative, and third the thought faculty; and the natural order of 
exercising the thought powers is, first conception, second judgment 
(formal), and third the reason, first inductive and later deductive. The 
movement of the mind in the earlier processes of knowing is from per- 
ception through representation to conception, and from conception 
through judgment to reason ; that is^ from sense-activity to reasoning 
through the activity of the intermediate poivers. 

This principle has been specialized in the form of maxims of ele- 
mentary teaching, including the following : 

1. Observation before reasoning. 

2. The concrete before the abstract — sense-Jcnowledge before tliought-Tcnowl- 
edge. 

3. Facts before definitions or principles, 

4. Processes before rules. 

5. From the particular to the general. 

6. From the simple to the complex. 

7. From the known to the related unknown. 

It should be specially noted that these maxims relate to that phase 
of the process of knowing in which the mind is acquiring primary con- 
cepts and ideas, elementary facts, and simple inductions, as a prepara- 
tion for the acquisition of higher or scientific knowledge. They are 
maxims of elementary teaching, and not universal principles. The maxim, 
" Processes before rules," is, for example, an important precept for teach- 
ing elementary arithmetic, but no wise instructor would uniformly or 
generally follow it in teaching the higher mathematics, and it has its 
exceptions in the higher applications of arithmetic. The same limita- 
tion obviously applies to the maxims, '' The concrete before the abstract," 
and " From the particular to the general." In the higher phases of in- 
struction the true order is often from the abstract to the concrete and 
from the general to the particular, this being always true in deductive 
processes. It is, however, to be observed that this inverse order is only 

856 



PKOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 43 

possible when the mind is in possession of those primary concepts, ideas, 
and facts, which are essential to the apprehension of the abstract and 
the general. The above maxims are true directions for the teaching 
of all inductive branches, but they have more special application to 
elementary schools. They are the criteria which differentiate an ele- 
mentary method from an advanced method or a general method. 

The observing of this natural ord^er in school instruction does not im- 
ply that thereshould be long intervals between observation and reasoning, 
or between any lower activity and the related higher. The successive 
steps may be taken in the same year, and even in the same lesson. The 
principle does, however, imply that the several intellectual powers are best 
developed and trained by observing their natural and harmonious activity. 
The child must observe as a child, must think as a child, must reason as 
a child in his psychical condition. Any attempt to force the young mind 
to do what it has not the preparation or energy to do, is to weaken it. 
There is, however, danger of falling into an opposite error and limiting 
the mind to one kind of activity, when it is prepared and has a natural 
impulse for a higher activity. Children may unwisely be kept swinging 
on the gate of sense when they are prepared to make fruitful excursions 
into the garden of thought. 

Principle III. 

There is a variation in the relative attention to be given the several faculties 
and the corresponding Icinds of Jenowledge, in the successive years of school 
instruction. 

This is a corollary of the two preceding principles, but its practical 
importance justifies its separate statement. In the first years of school 
instruction, the presentative powers, being naturally most active, should 
receive most attention ; later, attention should be more equally divided 
between the presentative, the representative, and the lower thought 
powers ; and still later, chief attention should be given the higher powers. 
This change in the attention given to the several faculties is also true 
of the attention that should be devoted to the corresponding kinds of 
knowledge. In the primary school, chief (but not exclusive) attention 
should be given to observation and sense-knowledge ; but as pupils pass 
up in the grades or classes, more and more attention should be given 
to thought knowledge, and especially to rational knowledge. 

This leads to — 

Principle IV. 

The primary concepts and ideas in every branch of knowledge must be taught 
objectively in all grades of school. 

The psychical i>rocesses involved in sense-perception show that the 
forming of an individual concept requires the presence of the object ; 
and since general concepts are derived from individual concepts, it fol- 

857 



44 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

lows that no concept, individual or general, can be taught without pre- 
senting the appropriate object or objects to the mind. The same is true in 
teaching ideas, particular or general. A concept or idea is the product 
of the mind's action, and the act of perceiving an individual object re- 
quires the presence of the object. 

It follows from the above principle that no primary concept or idea can 
be taught through its word. A word can recall and represent a Jcnown 
concept or idea associated with it, but a word can not summons a new 
idea into what has been called the " presence chamber of the soul." The 
futile attempt to teach primary concepts and ideas through words is 
responsible for more unsatisfactory results than anj^ other error of ele- 
mentary instruction. Oarlyle characterizes his teachers as " hide bound 
pedants," who crammed him "with innumerable dead vocables and 
called it fostering the growth of the mind." Carlyle's pedants once 
represented a very large class of so-called teachers, and it is feared that 
this race of word-cramming pedaats is not yet extinct. 

The so-called maxim, "Ideas before words," may not be a necessary 
principle even of primary instruction, but it is excellent advice. The 
essential thing is to teach both the idea and its sign, and especially to 
connect them indissolubly together, and to malce this connection sure, it 
is wise to teach the idea before the word, whenever this can be done. 
The facility with which children learn words, especially as sounds, is 
constantly giving them new words which to them have no meaning. 
It is important that these empty words be filled with their ideas, and 
especially that all new words learned and used in school be associated 
with clear ideas. To this end, all primary concepts and ideas must be 
taught objectively. 

It is true that a general word may at first only represent an indi- 
vidual concept. A child sees a strange animal, a monkey for example, 
and learns its name. The word is associated with the individual mon- 
key and recalls it in memory. When, however, the child has seen sev- 
eral monkeys, the individual concept is unconsciously generalized, and 
the word monkey then represents the class. It is believed that young 
children learn most of their words in this way — learning the word be- 
fore they form the general concept. 

This principle of objective teaching applies to all grades of school — 
to the high school and the college, as well as to the primary school. 
The modern method of teaching the physical sciences is increasingly 
recognizing the fact that all primary concepts are acquired by the study 
of the objects to which they relate. This is the meaning of the labora- 
tory and the museum. They afford* facilities for the study of things as 
a preparation for the study of books. When the concepts and ideas 
back of words are thus objectively learned, books become important 
means of acquiring knowledge. 

858 



PROCEEDINGS Ot^ TliE Dl5PAftf MENT 01^ SUPERINTENDENCE. 45 

Principle V. 

In the teaching of any school art, clear and correct ideals should inspire 

and guide practice. 

The first step in learning any art is the forming of ideals of the re- 
sults to be attained, and, as a rule, the clearer and more correct the 
ideals formed, the better will be the results reached by practice. This 
is not only true in the practice of such simple arts as the pitching of a 
ball or quoit, the drawing of a line, etc., but also in the higher arts of 
oratory, music, painting, sculpture, etc. 

It follows that the first step in teaching any art is to lead the pupil 
to form correct ideals of what he is to do; and, to this end, he should 
be presented with models and examples. This is not only true in teach- 
ing the formative arts, as drawing, painting, etc., but also in teaching 
oratory, music, and literature. Jenny Lind gave to her generation a 
new ideal of human song, and that ideal has awakened in many hu- 
man voices an almost divine melody. Wendell Phillips and John B. 
Gough have, respectively, given to many American speakers their in- 
spiring ideals of oratory. 

The next step in teaching any art is to give the pupil a Icnowledge of 
the processes by which his ideals can best be embodied. The earlier 
this knowledge is acquired, the more fruitful will be his practice. But 
the processes of every art are based on principles which are included 
in a complete knowledge of it. These guiding principles are of little, if 
any, value to the j^oung learner, and hence should not be taught too 
early; but in the later and higher practice of an art they are of great 
value, and may finally take the place of the li\"ing teacher. 

It is thus seen that the so-called Comeuian maxim, " We learn to do 
by doing," is at best only a half-truth. Simple doing, without the guid- 
ance of knowledge, never made an artist or an artisan. The poorest 
teaching, for example, is often done by teachers who have grown gray in 
the school-room. What is needed to transmute practice into teaching 
skill and x)0wer is the inspiration of true ideals and the gaidance of cor- 
rect principles. Blind experience is always and everywhere a plodder. 

The arts taught in elementary schools, as reading, writing, drawing, 
language, music, etc., are never properly mastered b^' mere practice. Au- 
tomatic exercises may increase mechanical facility in the repetition of 
known processes, but such practice never corrects errors or suggests 
better methods. 

On the other hand, no mistake in elementary teaching is more futile 
than the attempt to teach a school arfc by simply imparting a theoreti- 
cal knowledge of its principles and processes. The mastery of an art 
involves the acquisition of skill, and a knowledge of its processes and 
j)riuciples is chiefly valuable as a means t) this end. Instruction with- 
out practice cannot impart skill, and hence cannot make an artist. 

The old-time attempt to teach ^he art of using good English by means 

859 



46 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

of technical jyrammar is an illustration of this error. This attempt was 
based on the false notion that skill in speech and writing is a necessary 
result of a knowledge of the rules of language— an error still too com- 
mon in American schools. The stupid custom of teaching formal anal- 
ysis and parsing before practical composition richly deserves the ridi- 
cule now heaped upon it, but is there not evidence of a tendency to the 
opposite extreme ■? It now looks as if there wonld soon be an oppor- 
tunity to laugh at the equally futile attempt to teach the art of correct 
speech by haphazard, cut-feed language lessons, some of which are about 
as mechanical as the filling of a basket with chips, and result in about 
the same kind of skill. 

The function of language is to express thought, and no exercise in the 
use of language can impart much skill, that does not begin with thought 
and end with its correct expression. What is needed is a language 
training that begins with the use of language under correct ideals and 
ends with its scientific study. In such a course there is a place for 
technical grammar and rhetoric. 

For one, I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Lindley Mur- 
ray for some of the little skill which I have acquired in the use of the 
English language, and especially am I indebted to what has been char- 
acterized as the " grammatical dissection " of good English. The thor- 
ough grammatical analysis of Pollock's " Course of Time," Pope's " Es- 
say on Man," and Milton's " Paradise Lost," and later the rhetorical 
analysis of Goldsmith's " Deserted Village " and Shakespeare's "Mac- 
beth " and " Julius Csesar," gave me guiding ideals of correct, forcible, 
and elegant English. It is, however, important to note that these were 
not the studies of early childhood, and that manhood has afforded me 
some of the practice which was so unwisely denied in school and college. 

Principle VI. 

Oral teaching and text-booTc study are complementary means of school in- 
struction, the former being chiefly preparatory to the latter. 

Oral teaching has three somewhat distinct phases. It includes-— 

1. The presenting of objects, material or psychical, to the pupil's mind, 
including the exciting of his curiosity, the directing of his observation, 
the fixing of his attention, and the affording of such other assistance 
as may enable him to know these objects. This may be called objective 
oral teaching. 

2. The leading of the pupil to recall and rekuow absent objects, pre- 
viously presented to the mind and known, and by thinking to discern 
their likenesses and differences, their relations as parts of classes or 
wholes, as means and ends, as causes and effects, etc. This involves the 
use of words which represent concepts and ideas known to the pupil, 
and, being reknown, become present elements of thought. The teacher's 
special function is to lead the pupil to reknow these elements, and by 

860 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 47 

thought to attain the desired knowledge. To this end, the teacher does 
not directly tell the pnpil what he wishes him to learn, but by skillful 
direction leads him to discover or discern it for himself. This may be 
called indirect oral teaching. 

3. The direct communication of facts to the pupil by means of oral 
language. To this end, the teacher expresses relations (new to the 
pupil) between known but absent objects of knowledge by means of 
words which represent ideas of things, qualities, actions, and relations, 
familiar to the pupil. The words of the teacher recall known concepts 
and ideas, and the pupil apprehends or thinks the relation or thought 
expressed, which completes its communication to his mind. This pre- 
senting of new relations of known objects to the pupil by means of lan- 
guage may be called direct oral teaching. 

Direct oral teaching has been seriously and widely abused ; but it is 
a mistake to suppose that it has no place in school instruction. Speech 
is one of man's highest and best endowments, but its practical value 
depends on its being understood. It is an important function of school 
education to train the pupil to apprehend thought expressed in language 
— to pick thought out of its verbal husk. All true teaching contributes 
directly or indirectly to this result. Every oral direction for observing, 
every question asked, and every expression by pupil or teacher of the 
results of observation or thought, increase the pupil's power to inter- 
pret and use language. Even an object lesson is not a "dumb show." 
The pupil is not only led by questions and suggestions to observe and 
think, but related facts may be directly told to excite his curiosity, 
deepen his interest, and widen his knowledge. All three forms of oral 
teaching (objective, indirect, and direct) are often blended in the same 
lesson. It is, however, an important principle of oral teaching that the 
pupil should not be directly told what he can be easily led to observe or dis- 
cern/or himself. The function of oral teaching is not only to train the 
pupil in the acquiring of original knowledge, but also in the acquiring 
of knowledge expressed in language, and it thus prepares the pupil to 
obtain knowledge from books. Books are the depositories of the re- 
corded knowledge of the race, and it is only by reading books that man 
can come into the possession of this rich inheritance. Tlie ability to 
read is the key that unlocks these treasuries of knowledge, and hence 
the training of the puiDil in the intelligent reading of the printed page 
is an important function of school instruction. 

When a pupil apprehends facts expressed orally, he may be scarcely 
conscious of the word-medium through which they are presented to his 
mind; but in acquiring facts ex])ressed in written language, his activity 
is directed immediately and conseiously to the language, and his energy 
is put forth to discern and grasp the thought embodied in it — to go from 
the verbal expression to what is exj^ressed. This is evidently a more 
difficult task than the grasping of thought expressed in oral language, 

861 



4§ EDttCAf lONAL CONVfiNTlONS At I^EW OKLfeANS E^POSlTlOIs+. 

and this suggests at least that oral teaching should precede and prepare 
the way for text-book study in elementary schools. 

The union of oral teaching and text-book study is illustrated in the 
teaching of reading. Heading jjroper isthe apprehension of the relations 
between known but absent objects, when these relations are presented 
to the mind by written or printed language. In primary classes, pupils 
are prepared to apprehend these relations, thus expressed, chiefly by 
oral teaching; in secondary classes, by oral teaching and text-book 
study united; and in more advanced classes they are apprehended 
chiefly by study. 

As pupils pass up in the grades, they should be increasingly trained 
to acquire knowledge from books hy study, and, to this end, the oral lesson 
should be increasingly supplemented by the recitation with its searching 
tests. There ought to be no chasm between oral teaching and text-book 
study in school training, but they should be harmoniously and effect- 
ively united as complementary means of instruction — and this, I take 
it, is the most important problem of instruction that now demands the 
attention of American teachers. 

All that has been said leads to and sustains — 

Peixciple VII.' 

A true course of instruction for elementary schools cuts off a section ofpre- 
sentative, representative, and thought knowledge each year. 

Children at six years of age have not only acquired much presenta- 
tive knowledge, but are in possession of a considerable number of gen- 
eral concepts and facts, and by the natural activity of their minds are 
passing increasingly from sense knowledge to thought knowledge, and 
from the particular facts of observation to general judgments and, to a 
limited but increasing extent, to the general facts of reason. 

It follows that while primary instruction should give chief attention 
to presentative knowledge, the concepts and facts of observation and 
experience, it should also increasingly teach the more obvious general- 
izations of these facts and their expression in language. The first year's 
instruction in reading, for example, should exercise not onlj" the pre- 
sentative powers, but also memory, imagination (modifying and con- 
structive), conception, formal judgment, and sparingly inductive rea- 
soning. The reading lessons of the first year abound in words express- 
ing general concepts and ideas, and their little sentences express facts 
which relate to the feelings, actions, and duties of children and adults, 
the characteristic actions of domestic animals, birds, insects, etc., the 
more obvious qualities and relations of common objects, including their 
class relations, and other common phenomena. These facts are both 
particular and general, as a glance at any primer or first reader will 
show. 

1 This principle was illustrated by a large diagram based on the facts of psychology, 
862 



fiiociiEDtKGS 6-^ f fliJ t)EPARTMi5Nf 01^ sWerintEndiInce. 49 

It is to be specially noted that while a course of elementary instruc- 
tion should include general knowledge from the beginning, the general 
knowledge first taught should consist of common concepts, common 
facts, and common inductions — the concepts, facts, and inductions of 
child experience — the higher forms of thought knowledge, called sci- 
ence, appearing later in the course. There should, however, be no 
sudden transition from common to scientific knowledge. The more ele- 
mentary concepts and inductions of science may be taught certainly as 
early as the fifth school year, and should thereafter receive increasing 
attention until the so-called scientific phase of instruction is reached. 
It is not possible to draw a line through any branch of knowledge, as 
developed by the race or the individual, and say that here elementary 
knowledge ends and science begins. The elements of every branch of 
science include not only its primary concepts and ideas (its simplest 
elements), but also those elementary facts and inductions which are the 
basis of its higher generalizations; and it is neither possible nor wise 
to hold the mind back from these simple generalizations until the period 
specially characterized by scientific thought is reached. 

It has already been seen that mental development has its successive 
phases, each characterized by certain leading activities of the mind, 
and it is important that these successive phases be properly recognized 
in arranging courses of elementary instruction. If the first four years 
of a school course be called primary, the second four years secondary, 
and the next four years higher or high-school, the primary course may 
be characterized as sense conce])tive, the secondary course as transitional, 
and the high-school course as scientific — these terms respectively desig- 
nating the characteristic features of the course in the periods to which 
they are applied. 

In that educational classic, "The True Order of Studies," Dr. Thomas 
Hill compares a true course of study to a spiral stairway, surrounding 
the five great columns of human knowledge and cutting off a section 
of each at every round of its ascent. While this famous simile clearly 
recognizes the important fact that there is a natural sequence of knowl- 
edge to be observed in teaching, it fails to indicate that this sequence 
is lateral as well as vertical. A true course of study not only cuts off 
a section of all the great branches of knowledge each year, but each 
section includes presentative, representative, and thought knowledge 
and activity. In its progress through each annual cycle of its ascent 
school instruction passes from sense knowledge to thought knowledge — 
from sense to reason. 

The Chairman : Hon. John G. Parham, President of the School Board 
of New Orleans, desires to say a few words. 

Mr. Pakham said : 

Ladies and Gentlemen of the Department of Superintendence and Inter- 
national Congress of Educators — I do myself the pleasure to call upon 
you this morning for the purpose of extending to you an invitation to 
7950 COT., PT. 3 4 863 



50 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

visit our city schools at whatever time may suit your conveuieuce, and 
in any numbers you may choose. I have sent to the Secretary's table 
a printed list of the public schools of New Orleans and of our teachers. 
This gives the exact locations of the schools, and I extend toyou, in behalf 
of the Board of Directors, a cordial invitation to visit them, and I take 
pleasure in referring you to the honored secretary of the University, 
Prof. Eichards, who has been superintendent of our schools since 1856 
to the 31st December last, and to whose untiring exertions their present 
efficiency has been to a great extent due. I am proud to say that be- 
tween the old Bay State and our State of Louisiana, and especially 
between its capital and our commercial metropolis of the South, there 
exists the warmest feeling. I had the pleasure of spending several 
months in that State within a few years, and was most cordially re- 
ceived, and I extend to the representatives from that State, and from 
all the other States of our glorious Union, this cordial invitation this 
morning. 

The first superintendent we had for our schools was from Massachu- 
setts, — John A. Shaw, of Bridgewater. He remained with us many 
years, and finally went back to spend the last days of his life in his 
native State, and to his exertions we are indebted for what we think is 
a fine system in this city. Giving you this invitation and stating that 
our present superintendent will be happy to accompany any gentlemen 
that may wish to visit particular schools, I will leave you. 

Before further proceedings, the chairman announced N. C Dougherty, 
W. H. Bartholomew, G. J. Orr, and J. W. Dickinson, as a committee on 
the nomination of officers, and requested a report the following morning. 

Dr. White's paper was not discussed. 

The Association then took a recess for five minutes. 

After the recess, W. C. Rote, Superintendent of Schools, San Antonio, 
Texas, read the following paper: 

THE EISE AND PROaEESS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN TEXAS. 

I come today to bring you greetings from the Lone Star State, a 
State noted for the vast extent of its domain and for the grandeur of 
its historical associations. Texas, though one of the younger States of 
the Union, has a history beginning before the landing of La Salle in 
1685. The same year when the Duke of York, James 11, ascended the 
English throne, and when Governor Audros demanded the royal charter 
of Connecticut, afterwards hid iu an oak by Captain Wadsworth, La 
Salle with streaming pennon entered Matagorda Bay and took posses- 
sion of the soil of Texas iu the name of his sovereign, the Grand Mon- 
arch, Louis XIV of France. 

More than a century before this event the Spanish adventurer, sol- 
dier, and priest, had traversed its broad extent ; and while La Salle 
and his heroic band were erecting their stockade fort, or angling in 
streams skirted by the live-oak, pecan, yucca, ebony, cypress, and va- 
364 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPEEINTENDENCE. 51 

rious species of acacia ; or while they were chasing the deer and bison 
on its broad savannas, the rude children of the forest, gathered into the 
missions by the Franciscan Fathers, were worshiping in chapels, and 
paying orisons which rose and fell at the tinkling of the sanctus bell. 

This early period may be called the period of exploration and advent- 
ure. From 1685 to 1820 Spain and France were rival claimants to at 
least a part of this territory ; but the Spaniards held permanent pos- 
session, and established numerous missions which have given to this 
era the name of the "Mission Period." Most of those earlier mission 
buildings are now in ruins, but the few that remain give evidence 
of the skill and zeal displayed by their founders in behalf of those na- 
tive children of the sunny plains. During the first part of this period, 
down to 1725, Texas was united with Coahuila ; after that time Texas 
had a governor of its own, whose headquarters were at San Antonio. 

For nearly three centuries Mexico was under the iron rule of Spanish 
viceroys. Long had the people borne the spoliation of plundering ty- 
rants, enriching themselves in the offices purchased in the city of Mad- 
rid. While the native Mexicans were denied almost every kind of use- 
ful learning, the printing-press was illuminating the dark corners of 
the wirld. The discovery of America had aroused a spirit of adventure 
and enterprise which could not brook the shackles of despotism, nor 
give passive obedience to kingly authority. This bold and independent 
spirit first bore its fruit and ripened into the federal republic of the 
United States. The contiguity of our own country to Mexico helped to 
spread among its people ideas of liberty and self-government. After 
1810 revolt followed revolt, until success in 1821 crowned the leader- 
ship of Iturbide. Ten short months brought his reign to an end, but 
out of insurrection and blood finally developed in 1824 a constitutional 
government similar to that of the United States. 

In the constitution of 1824, no provision was made for the establish- 
ment of public schools, but the constitution of the state of Coahuila and 
Texas, adopted in 1827, provided for the establishment of common 
schools {primeras letras), in which should be taught ''reading, writing, 
arithmetic, and the catechism of the Christian religion;" but no laws 
for the benefit of Texas under this provision were ever enacted. 

The unsettled political affairs in Mexico caused by the rivalry of 
leaders, affected the peace and prosperity of Texas to a greater or less 
degree, especially the liberty-loving Anglo-American colonists. Dis- 
content, under Mexican rule, was everywhere springing up. Convicts 
were transported to Texas, armed troops quartered among them, and 
immigration from the United States was prohibited. Great excitement 
and indignation were aroused; but at this juncture of affairs, in 1832, 
Santa Anna pronounced against Bustamente and in favor of the abro- 
gated constitution of 1824. This movement of Santa Anna was favora- 
bly received in Texas, and they looked upon him as the representative of 

865 



52 EDUCATIOI^AL COHVENTlOMg AT Jfl3W ORLEANS EXPOSITION, 

popular liberty and republicanism. But that bright prospect was soon 
overshadowed. The ambitious and unscrupulous leader who, through 
revolution and blood, placed himself in the presidential chair, was not 
long in abrogating all constitutional government and proclaiming 
himself Dictator. Nearly all parts of the country, except Texas, ac- 
quiesced in the rev^olution. The Texans refused to submit to this 
centralized government and the usurpation of Santa Anna. To sub- 
due their proud and haughty spirit, and to hold them in subjection, 
troops were quartered in various objective points. The Texans formed 
'Committees of safety and finally a provisional government. At last, 
believing a general invasion and subjugation imminent, and for the 
purpose of presenting the justness of their cause before the civilized 
world, delegates of the people assembled in convention March 1, 1836, 
and issued a declaration of independence, which recited, among the 
enumerated grievances against the Mexican Government, that "it has 
failed to establish any public system of education, although possessed 
of almost boundless resources (the public domain), and although it is 
an axiom in political science that, unless a people are educated and 
enlightened, it is idle to expect the continuance of public liberty or the 
capacity of self-government." 

This first public utterance in behalf of general education indicates 
the soundness of the public policy held by the i)atriots of Texan inde- 
pendence; but it is a remarkable fact that the same men that enun- 
ciated their grievances in regard to public education, did not, in pre- 
paring and adopting the first and only constitution which the Eepublic 
of Texas ever had, insert in it any section referring to public schools 
or public education ; and yet both instruments emanated from them 
within fifteen days ! 

This magna cliarta had yet to be sealed in blood. It was freely and 
heroically shed at the fall of the Alamo, the Thermopylae of Texas, and 
at the direful massacre of Goliad ; but the great and eventful day of 
Texas was drawing nigh. On the victorious field of San Jacinto, rever- 
berating with the cry of " Remember the Alamo ! " the invaders wei-e 
vanquished, Santa Anna, the President-General and Dictator, was taken 
prisoner, the independence of Texas acknowledged, and a treaty of peace 
concluded. 

The reason why the omission was made in the constitution in regard 
to education may be accounted for by the sanguinary scenes of the revo- 
lution then going on around them, diverting the public mind from all 
ofher objects save those pertaining to present security and the imme- 
diate i)reservation of the young government. ISTotwithstanding this 
■omission in the fundamental law, the Third Congress, by act of January 
:20, 1839, established a system of general education, and for that pur- 
pose appropriated three leagues (a league = 4,428 acres) of land to each 
•county, and fifty leagues of land for two colleges or universities to be 
thereafter created. 

866 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 53 

The Fourth Congress, by act of Feb. 5, 1840, created commissioners 
in each county to carry out the provisions previously made, and to or- 
ganize common schools in their respective counties. There being no his- 
torical record of the establishment of any schools under this act, it is 
presumable that, while the several counties obtained the grants of land, 
the schools continued as before under private auspices. 

But now the time had come when another change was to take place 
in the jjolitical status of Texas. From a republic she i)assed, a lone 
star of bright effulgence, into the galaxy of States. The first constitu- 
tion of the State of Texas, adopted in 1845, provided, in Art. X, for the 
maintenance of free schools throughout the State, by directing that not 
less than one-tenth of the annual revenue of the State derivable from 
taxation shall be set' apart as a perpetual fund for that purpose ; and 
that all public lands heretofore granted, or that might thereafter be 
granted, for free schools, should not be alienated nor diverted from the 
uses to which they were consecrated. 

The Third Legislature, by act of Jan. 10, 1850, appropriated four 
leagues of the public domain for free schools for each county organized 
after Feb, 16th, 1846; and it also appropriated, by act of Feb. 11th of 
tlie same year, one-tenth of the annual revenue of the State for the sup- 
l)ort of free schools during the years 1850 and 1851. It also, by act of 
Dec. 2, 1850, ordered the issuance of five per cent. State bonds to the 
amount of $36,000, to be deposited in the Treasury to the credit of the 
common school fund. 

Tlie Fifth Legislature, by act of Jan. 31, 1854, set apart as a public 
school fund the sum of $2,000,000 of five per cent. U. S. bonds then in the 
Treasurj^, the interest arising therefrom to be annually distributed 
among the several counties according to scholastic population between 
the ages of six and sixteen, for the maintenance of jjublic schools there- 
in. The same act also provided for the organization of a public school 
system throughout the State. The same Legislature, by act of Feb. 
11, 1854, also appropriated for educational purposes one-tenth of the 
annual revenue of the State arising from direct taxation. 

At this time there were reported 65,463 pupils of scholastic age, but 
it is probable that the census was imperfectly taken. 

The first free school established in the State was in the city of San 
Antonio in 1854. 

The Comptroller of the Treasury was then ex-officio Superintendent of 
Public Instruction. 

The Sixth Legislature, by act, February, 1856, again appropriated 
one-tenth of the annual State revenue for the years of 1856 and 1857, 
and it provided also foT the re-investment of the $2,000,000 for ten 
years in first mortgage railroad bonds bearing interest at six per cent, 
per annum. The same Legislature, by act of Aug. 30, 1856, authoj- 
ized the sale of alternate sections of the fifty leagues of land appro- 
priated in 1839 fpr colleges or universities, the proceeds to ygnstitute 4 

§67 



54 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

fund for sucli institutions, the minimum price to be $3 per acre and a 
credit of twenty years given to the purchaser. On the same day, by 
act, the Governor was directed to cause the survey, out of unappro- 
priated lands, of the unlocated balance of the fifty leagues donated to 
the universities. On the same day also, by act, it was declared that 
no statute of limitation should ever be pleaded against the universities 
by settlers or occupantsof any part of the land donated for public edu- 
cation. 

And again, the same Legislature, by act of Aug. 29, 1856, directed 
all specie belonging to the school fund to be converted into United 
States bonds, and the interest arising from the special school fund of 
$2,000,000, together with the one-tenth of the State revenue derived 
from taxation, t^ be- distributed annually among, the several counties 
for public education, according to scholastic population ; the school age 
had been fixed by this legislature at 6 to 18 years, instead of 6 to IC, ns 
before. 

The Seventh Legislature, by act of Feb. 5, 1858, provided for a 
more efficient government of public free schools, and also for the distri- 
bution of the school fund anfong the several counties. It also, by act 
of Feb. 11, 1858, established the University of Texas, and set apart 
for its maintenance and endowment the fifty leagues of land previously 
appropriated by the Congress of the Eepublic of Texas in 1839 for the 
two colleges or universities. It provided that it should be located, 
built, and conducted, under the supervision of a board of administrators, 
and it further appropriated one-tenth of all the land surveyed and re- 
served for the use of the State under an act donating lands to railroad 
corporations, for making such surveys. 

The Eighth Legislature, by act of Jan. 31, 1860, authorized to be 
used for future defense $100,000 of the United States bonds belonging 
to the University fund, the same to be returned to the said fund out of 
the general revenue, without interest. 

Provision had been made for the organization of the University of 
Texas by the Seventh Legislature; but as the Eighth Legislature had 
borrowed a hundred thousand dollars of its available fund for defense 
against the Indians, who were committing serious depredations upon 
the unprotected settlers along the Rio Grande, no university was estab- 
lished for want of available funds. The donation of the public domain 
for various educational objects was at that time a magnificent fund in 
futurity. 

Up to this time, from 1855 to 1861, the school population had increased 
from 65,463, as previously stated, to 105,200, and the average amount 
annually distributed during that period was a little in excess of one 
dollar per capita. The money was usually apjjlied to pay for the tuition 
of indigent children. The generosity of the people of the State, in those 
times, provided for the education of the poor, and, in the various pro- 
visions thu§ m^<le, thej were building wiser tha4 tjie.y knewj fpr oftt 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 65 

of such generous and charitable sentiments have grown such facilities 
of education as to embrace all classes with beneficence. 

But another event was impending which again changed the political 
status of the State, the War of the Eebellion and the secession of Texas 
from the Federal Union. Like a star she entered the Union, but like a 
meteor she darted beyond its confines. 

The constitution of 1861 was the same as that of 1845, with the ex- 
ception of such changes as was made necessary by the secession of the 
State from the United to the Confederate States. The article ofn pub- 
lic education remained the same. Under the new constitution the 
Eighth Legislature, by act of April 6, 1861, provided that the whole of 
the one-tenth of the annual revenue from taxation should be distrib- 
uted for public education. 

The absorbing interest felt by all men in the terrible conflict over- 
shadowed all other considerations, and left a legislative hiatus of five 
years in educational afi"airs. 

The constitution of 1806, Art. X, directed that all the funds, lands, 
and other property that had been set apart for the supjiort of public 
schools, should constitute a school fund, which, together with the in- 
come derived therefrom, should be devoted to the wMte scholastic in- 
habitants of the State; and it further i^rovided that the Legislature 
might levy a special tax for educational purposes, of which tax all 
amounts collected from colored persons should be applied to the educa- 
tion of colored children. It also appropriated as a perpetual school 
fund all the alternate sections of land reserved out of grants made to 
railroads and other corporations. It also prohibited the loan or invest- 
ment of any part of the school fund for other purposes than public 
education, except that the money on hand and that derived from sale 
of lands should be invested in State or United States bonds, or such 
other bonds as the State might guarantee. It also provided that 
under the direction of the Legislature, and with the consent of the coun- 
ties concerned, the school lands donated to the respective counties 
might be sold and the proceeds of sale added to the school fund of the 
State, the interest of such proceeds to be reserved to the counties re- 
spectively. It also provided that the money and lands belonging to 
the universities should constitute a sacred fund for their maintenance 
and endowment, and until they were located and commenced, such fund 
should be invested in bonds as provided for the perpetual school fund; 
and it directed the Legislature to make provision for the opening of 
a university. It also provided for the appointment by the Governor of 
a superintendent of x)ublic instruction, who, together with the Governor 
and Comptroller, should constitute a board of education. 

The constitution of 1860, like the constitutions of 1845 and 1861, with 
all the legislative acts under them, solemnly reiterates the sacredness of 
the school fund, as previously set apart. The only striking anomaly in 
this cQristiti;tion is the discrimination made against colored children, 

8^9 



66 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

But when we consider the growth of the civilization of Texas, the loss 
of its personal property caused by the incidents of the war and the 
Thirteenth Amendment, reducing many of its foremost citizens to a state 
of helplessness, we may understand why the benefit of general educa- 
tion was denied to a class never before educated, and who, from time 
almost immemorial, had been held by, the people as a species of property. 
The Eleventh Legislature, by act of Oct. 20, 1866, granted an ex- 
tension of time till Jan. 1, 1869, to purchasers of university lands to 
pay interest due. By act of ISTov. 1, 1866, the police court of the sev- 
eral counties, upon a vote by the people in favor thereof, was author- 
ized to sell the school lands belonging to the several counties respect- 
ively, and to send the proceeds to the State treasury to be kept as a per- 
petual school fund, the interest thereof to be applied to the education 
of the white children of such counties respectively. By act of IsTov. 6, 
1866, further provision wSs made for the sale of alternate sections of 
the university lands ; and also by act of same date was directed the 
transfer of $25,616.10 from school fund to State revenue, the same hav- 
ing been wrongfully credited to the school fund. Also, by act of ISTov. 
12, 1866, the public schools were reorganized by constituting the police 
court of each county a board of school commissioners for the same, 
which board should divide its county into school districts to be ad- 
ministered by trustees; the fund belonging to each county to be dis- 
tributed by the police court to the trustees of the several districts for 
purposes of general education, and the amount of fund so distributed 
to be determined by the ai^portionment made by the State treasurer, 
based upon the record of free white children between six and eighteen 
years ot age on file in his office. The police court of each county was 
also required to appoint a board of examiners to determine the qualifi- 
cation of public school teachers. Also, by act of Nov. 12, 1866, the pre- 
vious legislation of Feb. 11, 1858, establishing a University of Texas, 
was so amended as to set apart only one-half of the university endow- 
ment for the university then established, and to reserve the other 
half for a similar university to be thereafter established in a different 
section of the State. Other 'amendments were enacted relating to the 
curriculum and general conduct of the institution. The same act 
further provided for conflictin locations of alternate sections of lands sold 
under previous legislation ; and it also authorized police courts to levy 
a tax, not exceeding one-half of the State tax, upon the property of 
white persons for the education of the indigent white children of their 
respective counties. It also by act of same date directed the issuance 
of five per cent. State bonds in the sum of $134,472.26, to be placed to 
the credit of the university fund, as a reimbursement of United States 
bonds and interest transferred in February, 1860, from the university 
fund to the general State fund; and also the issuance of similar bonds 
to equal in amount the sunj reali;zied from U. S, l^onds belqn^in^ tq 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPAETMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 57 

the common school fund which had been used as general revenue, to be 
returned to the credit of said fund. 

The joint resolution of ]:^ov. 13, 1866, provided for the establishment 
of a second university, and appointed a board of administrators to 
select the site thereof; and by another joint resolution requested the 
Governor to appoint the board of administrators for the first univer- 
sity, authorized by the Seventh Legislature, Feb. 11, 1858. 

The constitution of 1866, framed under the amnesty proclamation of 
President Johnson, was made inoperative by acts of Congress during 
that memorable period when the great antagonism i)revailed between 
the President and Congress. The government of the State of Texas 
was declared a provisional one, subject to the authority of the United 
States, to be abolished, modified, or suspended at any time. The gov- 
ernment was suspended, and a military Governor appointed, July 30, 
1867. Up to 1869 there was another legislative hiatus, when, in order 
to conform to the Fourteenth Amendment and provide for the princi- 
l)les enunciated by the Fifteenth Amendment, yet on its adoption by the 
States, it was necessary to form a new constitution for Texas before she 
could be thoroughly reconstructed. 

The constitution of 1869 provided for compulsory attendance at school 
of all children between the ages of six and eighteen, four months each 
year ; it provided for a superintendent of public instruction, and for a 
uniform system of public schools. It set apart as a sacred fund for pub- 
lic schools all lands, funds, and other property previously acquired for 
that purpose, and also the proceeds of {ill sales of public lands to be 
thereafter acquired by the State, and also one-fourth of the annual rev- 
enue derived from all taxation, and also the whole of the poll-tax. It 
also provided for the sale of lands belonging to the school fund of the 
several counties, to be used for scholastic purposes therein, and it pro- 
vided for air scholastic children without distinction, by annual appropri- 
ations of interest derived from the school fund and of the part of the 
general tax collected. It also set apart for school purposes all sums 
derived from fines and forfeitures. 

The Twelfth Legislature, by act of Aug 12, 1870, authorized the 
Comptroller to invest $60,258 of the school fund in five-twenty U. S. 
bonds and deposit same in State treasury. By act of Aug. 13, 
1870, the Legislature provided for the election of a superintendent of 
public instruction, with large powers, and directed that count^'^ courts 
should be ex-officio boards of school directors for their respective coun- 
ties ; and it also directed that all children between six and sixteen years 
of age should attend school at least four months in the year. By act 
of April 17, 1871, the Legislature directed the Comptroller to invest 
the school fund in U. S. bonds, and on the same day by another act 
provided for the establishment of the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege, in view of the 180,000 acres of land donated by Congress to the sev- 

871 



58 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

eral States; the Governor was authorized to appoint three commission- 
ers to select a suitable site of at least 1,280 acres of good land, and $75,000 
was appropriated out of the school fund for the erection of buildings. 
The control and care of said college was to be governed by act of Feb. 
11, 1858. 

The same Legislature, by act of April 24, 1871, granted to the super- 
intendent of public instruction almost absolute power. He was author- 
ized to appoint school supervisors for each judicial district, and they 
had the right to subdivide each county into school districts and appoint 
five school directors for each. The superintendent with the Governor 
and attorney- general formed the State Board of Education. This 
board, by law, was empowered to adopt all rules, provide for the exam- 
ination and employment of teachers, fix their compensation, define a 
course of study, and select text-books and apparatus to be used. 
Schools were to be maintained under the provisions of the constitution, 
besides such a tax as the directors might levy, not exceeding one per 
cent., for the erection of school buildings and for maintaining schools 
in their respective districts. Oomi)ulsory school attendance for four 
months annually, either at a public school or at a i^rivate school taught 
by a certificated teacher, was required of every child of scholastic age 
under a penal ty^ of $25 and costs, provided such child was in good health 
and lived within three miles of any public school. 

By joint resolution of Feb. 14, 1871, the Texas & New Orleans E. R. 
Co., having complied with their contract to pay a certain amount to 
the school fund, were released. Also by joint resolution of March 31, 
1871, the Comptroller was directed to transfer $35,950 from the school 
fund to the State revenue account, as it had been wrongfully cred- 
ited to the school fund. 

The Twelfth Legislature, second session, by act of Nov. 29, 1871, 
enacted that the Board of Education divide the State into educational 
districts, not exceeding twelve, and that the Superintendent retire all 
supervisors previously appointed, and with the approval of the Gov- 
ernor appoint one supervisor for each newly-created district, such su- 
pervisor to act as examiner of teachers, to divide counties into suitable 
school districts, and, by and with the approval of the Superintendent, 
to appoint five directors for each school district. 

The scholastic population in 1861, as previously stated, was 102,200 ; 
in 1871 it was 228,355. The first annual report under the law of 1871 
shows that 1,324 schools, enrolling 73,804 pupils, had been taught by 
1,578 teachers. 

The Thirteenth Legislature, by act of April 30, 1873, vetoed by the 
Governor, but passed by a constitutional majority May 23, 1873, dimin- 
ished the power of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, provided 
for the election of five school directors in each county, one from each 
magistrate's preojact, and the president of the board became ex-ojjicio 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 59 

county superintendent, who was to examine all applicants and certifi- 
cate teachers on the last Saturday of each mouth. For each sub-dis- 
trict three trustees were to be elected, schools were to be iu operation 
at least four months annuallj^, and the directors were empowered to 
levy a tax which, with the State fund, would keep the schools open that 
length of time. The act levied an ad valorem tax of twenty-five cents on 
the hundred dollars. Compulsory education was stiJl continued, though 
somewhat modified. Appropriations out of the available school fund, 
as usual, were authorized. It also permitted the trustees of any school 
district to contract with any high school to teach the children within 
the scholastic age, ijrovided such high school be placed under the super- 
vision of the county board of directors. By act of June 2, 1873, $400,000, 
or so much thereof as might be necessary, was appropriated out of the 
available school fund to pay the amounts that might be due the teachers 
of the public free schools throughout the State before March 1, 1873. 

By act of June 3, 1873, $1,600 was appropriated to i)ay for an addi- 
tional clerk to the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and also scho- 
lastic census takers were to be allowed their pay for the year 1872, if 
they had sent in their reports before March 1, 1873. 

The Fourteenth Legislature, by act of April 24, 1874, enacted that all 
the alternate sections of land theretofore surveyed, or which might 
thereafter be surveyed by any railroad comj)auy and not set apart by 
the State for common schools, should be sold as further provided. 

By act of May 2, 1874, the school law of April 30, 1873, was so amended 
as to require the Superintendent of Public Instruction to apportion, on 
the 1st day of August annually, the school fund to the several counties, 
and to interpret the school laws; and it directed the Comptroller to make 
an exhibit of the school fund on the fii'st day of January and July of 
each year. It provided, in case of necessity, for a lower grade of teachers. 

The election of trustees was changed from the first Tuesday in Sep- 
tember to the first Saturday in July. Trustees were directed to take 
the scholastic census within ten days after their election and forward 
the same to the county superintendent, who was required to forward it 
to the Superintendent of Public Instruction five days after its receipt. 
This act permitted, not only high schools, but also colleges and univer- 
sities to contract with the trustees for the education of scholastic chil- 
dren in any district. 

The Fourteenth Legislature, second session, by act of February 8, 
1875, appropriated $32,000 out of the State treasury for completion of 
buildings and iuclosures for the use of the Agricultural and Mechanical 
College of Texas ; and by act of March 9, 1875, enacted that the Gov- 
ernor, Lieutenant-Governor, Speaker of the House, and six directors 
chosen by the Legislature, one from each Congressional district, shall 
.constitute the board of directors of the Agricultural and Mechanical 
College of Texas. 

3^ act of March 15, 1875, it was proyi(^ed that an^' iqcorporated city 

87;i 



60 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

could assume control of the public schools within its limits, subject to 
the general laws of the State ; that appropriations could be made direct 
to any such city ; and that such city could levy a tax for school purposes, 
provided a two-thirds majority of the voting tax-payers voted in favor 
of such a levy. 

This act started the great onward movement of public education in 
Texas. At first a few cities availed themselves of the privilege granted 
by this act. These soon demonstrated the value and efficiency of a 
graded system of public schools, and one city after another wheeled 
into line. The value of public schools properly conducted began to in- 
fluence public opinion in favor of popular education. 

Also, by act of same date, the act of 1874 was so amended that only 
one school for white and one for colored pupils, except in cities, could 
be included in a district, and no teacher was to receive more than ten 
cents per diem for each pupil in actual attendance, and sheriffs were 
authorized to collect school taxes assessed by the justices of the peace 
in their respective counties. 

The constitution of 1869, dictated by military rule, was objectionable 
in many respects to the party then in power. A convention having 
been called, there was framed a new constitution, which was adopted 
by the people, and known as the "Constitution of 1876." This consti- 
tution in its article concerning public education was no improvement 
on its predecessor, as it did away with the office of superintendent of 
public instruction and with local taxation for the support of schools, to 
which a more enlightened view has again partially returned through 
amendments since added to the constitution. Yet the constitution im- 
partially provided like facilities of public education for white aud col- 
ored children ; added a million of acres of land to the university fund ; 
set apart $40,000 for the Agricultural aiud Mechanical College ; donated 
all alternate sections of land granted to railroads or other corporations; 
and provided for the establishment of a branch university for colored 
youths. 

The Fifteenth Legislature, by act of June 30, 1876, authorized the 
Board of Education to convert United States bonds belonging to the 
permanent school fund into State bonds, in order to obtain a higher 
rate of interest. By act of August 14, 1876, the Governor was author- 
ized to appoint a commissioner to select a site and to erect build- 
ings, for which $20,000 was then appropriated, for an agricultural and 
mechanical college for the use of the colored youths of the State. 
By act of August 19, 1876, the Governor was made President of the 
Board of Education, for which a clerk was provided ; and there was ap- 
propriated one-fourth of the occupation and ad valorem taxes assessed, 
all poll taxes, and the interest derivable from the permanent school 
fund, to the several counties and cities as per scholastic population. 
The scholastic age was fixed at from eight to fourteen years, witliou|; 
§74 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 61 

•regard to race or color. The principal feature of this act was the or- 
ganization of school communities; and they have become the incnbus 
which has retarded our educational progress. A good feature, how- 
ever, of this act invested the council, or board of aldermen, with larger 
power to establish and maintain a system of public schools. 

The Sixteenth Legislature, by act of Feb.21, 1879, appropriated $600,000 
out of the available school fund as an emergency fund to pay teachers 
then teaching in the public schools. By act of April 3, 1879, the mayor 
of any city, upon the petition of fifty qualified voters, was authorized 
to order an election to decide whether such city should assume control 
of its public schools. If the vote was in favor, the management of the 
schools was to be placed in the hands of six trustees to be elected, of 
which board the mayor or county judge was to be an ex-officio member. 
By act of April 21, 1879, a normal school was established at Huntsville, 
and placed under the general control of the Board of Education. Two 
students from each senatorial district, appointed by the senator thereof 
upon competitive examination, and four from the State at large, were 
permitted to enter the normal school and to receive instruction one 
year or more, and the Legislature appropriated $14,000 in addition to 
the $6,000 donated by the Peabody Fund, to pay for the tuition, books 
sKi'l board of said students. 

.' 'le Seventeenth Legislature, by act of March 16, 1881, authorized 
citio uid towns to levy a tax of one-half of one per cent, for school pur- 
poses, jnovided that two-thirds of the voting tax-payers shall vote in 
favor therec '', such tax to continue for two years or more, unless discon- 
tinued by a vote of such tax-payers. By act of March 30, 1881, it was 
I)rovided that the Governor shall appoint, from the different sections of 
the State, five directors for the Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
who should hold office for six years. It also provided for the appoint- 
ment by the senator of each district three students from the same, who 
were to be maintained and instructed free of charge in said institution. 
The act of March 26, 1881, sets apart from the unappropriated domain 
three hundred leagues of land, to be held in trust for the unorganized 
counties, in order to grant each its four leagues of land. Another act, 
March 30, 1881, provided for the location of the university. It pro- 
vided that the medical department may be located, by a vote of the 
people, at a diiferent point from the university proper. It provided 
that its government should be vested in a board of eight regents ap- 
pointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. The board was 
directed to establish a university of the first class, and $150,000 was ap- 
propriated to erect a building which was to form a part of its general 
plan. The people by vote located the main university at Austin and 
the medical department at Galveston. By act of April 0, 1881, towns 
and villages having two hundred inhabitants and over were authorized, 
if a majority of the votes cast was in favor of such incorporation, to 

875 



62 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIOKS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ' 

elect a board of five trustees to organize and levy taxes under the re-« 
strictions laid upon cities, and receive their pro rata of the available 
school fund. This act was a great advance in educational affairs. An- 
other act of same date reiterates the setting apart of alternate sections 
of land for school purposes, and it provides for their sale and makes 
discrimination in price when watered. The called session of the Sev- 
enteenth Legislature, by joint resolution of May 5, 1882, provided for 
an election to be held to locate a branch of the university for colored 
youths. By act of May 3, 1882, there was appropriated $13,837 for the 
support and maintenance of the Prairie View Colored Normal Institute. 

The Eighteenth Legislature, by act of February 3, 1883, provided that 
all lands surveyed by anj^ railroad or other corporation, whether valid, 
void, or not, should be lands belonging to the public schools, and by act 
of April 7, 1883, it was enacted, that though the act of 1881 only 
granted three hundred leagues of land, yet as three hundred and twenty- 
five leagues of land had been surveyed, the whole should be donated for 
the use of the unorganized counties; and by act of April 10, 1883, one 
million acres of land were set apart for the university fund, and one 
million for the public school fund. The act of April 12, 1883, provides 
for the sale and leasing, under certain restrictions, of lands belonging to 
the public schools and university. By act of April 14, 1883, prospectors 
or miners could acquire certain interest in school lands. The Legislature 
also appropriated from the available school fund $18,000 tq maintain the 
Sam Houston IsTormal School, $6,000 for the summer normal schools, and 
$10,300 for the Prairie View Normal School for colored teachers. 

The amendment to the constitution adopted by the people August 14, 
1883, forbids relief to purchasers of school lands ; prescribes the invest- 
ment of the proceeds ; sets apart one-fourth of the sum derived from 
State occupation taxes, a poll-tax of one dollar, and a special ad-valorem 
tax for schools not to exceed twenty cents on one hundred dollars, in 
order to maintain, with the aid of the interest derivable from the per- 
manent school fund, free schools for a period of six months annually; 
and provides that the Legislature may authorize the districting of all or 
any of the counties of the State for school purposes, and the levying by 
districts of a tax not exceeding twenty cents on one hundred dollars of 
taxable property ; provided, however, that this limitation of assessment 
does not apply to cities and towns. 

At a special session of the Eighteenth Legislature, February 6, 1884, 
provision was made for the election of a State superintendent, who 
should also be secretary of the Board of Education, which is comj)osed 
of the Governor, the Comptroller, and the Secretary of State. The State 
Board is required to make the apportionment among the several counties, 
cities, and towns, and the commissioners' court is to divide the appor- 
tionment to each countj'^ among the several districts or communities of 
each. It also provides that any district may vote for the levy of a spe- 

876 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 63 

cial tax, not exceeding twenty cents on one hundred dollars, under the 
restrictions applied to cities, and that the tax, collected by the county 
collector, shall be paid out by the treasurer upon proper warrants drawn 
by said district. The county judge is ex officio county superintendent. 
Every teacher must pass a satisfactory examination in prescribed sub- 
jects before a board of examiners appointed by the county judge, and 
will receive a certificate which shall be good for one year in the county 
in which it is granted. Diplomas from any State normal school shall be 
good in any part of the State during good behavior 5 a certificate 
granted after an attendance of one year at any State normal school shall 
be good for three years, and a certificate from a summer normal insti- 
tute shall be good for two years ; both diplomas and certificates shall 
be good in any part of the State. By this Legislature some counties 
were exempted from the district system. The same session of the Legia. 
lature directed that the State should levy and collect twelve and a half 
cents on one hundred dollars annually for the support of public free 
schools, as prescribed by the constitution. 

Thus I have detained you with the legal aspect pertaining to the 
changes, growth, and development of educational affairs in Texas. 
Through all the changes of the government the people have preserved 
with jealous care the several funds set apart for educational purposes. 
The brief synopsis of the several constitutions, and of the various legis- 
lative enactments under each, is not adequate to form a due conception 
of our permanent school fund. Hence it will be necessary to present 
you with a summarized statement in order to comprehend the full force 
and meaning of grants of alternate sections and donations of millions 
of acres of land. The permaneut university fund consists already of 
invested bonds amounting to $523,156, and of 2,025,000 acres of land re- 
maining unsold, an area nearly equal in amount to the combined area 
of both the States of Delaware and Rhode Island. The permanent 
public school fund at present invested in bonds amounts to $5,397,206, 
and the public lands donated to the same fund remaining unsold 
amount to 32,000,000 acres, which in area is greater in extent than the 
great Empire State of New York. You remember that in my synopsis 
mention wap, made of the grants of four leagues of land to each county. 
This is still separate and apart from the land granted to the university 
and public schools, and constitutes by itself an area greater than the 
States of Delaware and Rhode Island. 

Besides the various private schools and other higher institutions of 
learning, we have the University of Texas, situated in the city of Austin, 
with its nine professors and four assistants imparting instruction free 
to students resident in Texas ; the Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
a branch of the university, situated at Bryan, employs eight professors 
and one assistant, who are training the young men of the State in the 
sciences of agriculture and mechanics. For instruction in the science 

877 



64 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSlTlCJ^f. 

and art of teaching, the State has provided two normal schools, one for 
.the training of white teachers, at Huntsville, called the Sam Houston 
jSTormal Institute ; another for the training of colored teachers, the 
Prairie View Normal Institute. No tuition is charged, and the State 
furnishes books and board free to all appointed students. Over two 
hundred are now enjoying the benefits of this generous provision. 

Besides the training afforded by its normal schools, the State has pro- 
vided a summer normal institute of four weeks, in each senatorial dis- 
trict lor white teachers, and one in each congressional district for colored 
teachers. Last year the State, at a cost of over $6,000, employed forty- 
oiic principals to teach a like number of institutes. At these institutes 
there were enrolled 1,270 white teachers and 518 colored, in all 1,788. 
Of those who entered for examination, 227 white teachers and 27 colored 
obtained certificates of the first grade ; 99 white teachers and 77 colored, 
certificates of the second grade; 21 white teachers and 67 colored, cer- 
tificates'of the third grade. 

In an address, " On Normal Schools," delivered before the Superin- 
tendents' Association convened at Austin in 1883, during the Christmas 
holidays, your speaker recommended a syllabus of a course of study, to 
guide teachers in study preparatory to the instruction to be imparted 
at the summer normal institutes; and he also recommended that at the 
close of each institute there should be an examination, and all those 
who passed the different standards upon a uniform set of questions pre- 
pared by the State department of education should be granted certifi- 
cates. Subsequently the Legislature provided for such examination, and 
enacted that certificates so granted should be valid in any part of the 
State for two years, and the State superintendent authorized the prep- 
aration and publication of such a syllabus. The syllabus is published 
monthly in our valuable School Journal, and is one of its most attractive 
features. 

The scholastic population between the ages of eight and sixteen 
years, for the year 1884, as reported by the seventy-four towns and cit- 
ies, and by most of the counties of the State, reached a total of 406,574, 
for whose benefit there was appropriated by the Scate $2,032,870, de- 
rived from taxation and from the revenue of the permanent school fund, 
being $5 per capita. The seventy-four cities and towns with graded 
schools are awakening an interest in public schools never felt before. 
The State is moving onward to grand educational results, and with its 
extensive domain granted for public education monetized, it bids fair 
to become ere long the foremost State in the Union as regards its common 
schools and higher institutions of learning. 

The tide of youth moving toward the East, seeking knowledge, will 
at no distant day ebb toward the beautiful, semi-tropical plains of Texas, 
to be reared in her grand institutions of learning, and then to woo and 
wed her dark-eyed maidens and dwell in her genial clime. 
878 



l>ROCEEDiNGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPEEINTENDJENCE. 65' 

Brother l!?'OAHj of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, then contrib- 
uted the following paper : 

CO-ORDINATION IN INSTRUCTION AND IN EDUCATION. 

This subject, which I shall treat in the most cursory manner, owing 
to pressing engagements at the Exposition, is one which must deeply 
interest every educator worthy of the name. 

Yet this co-ordination in instruction is a subject which an experience 
of over a quarter of a century in the schoolroom and the lecture-hall 
convinces me is not fully grasped, and therefore not carried into prac- 
tical use. 

But before going further it is necessary to define what is meant by 
co-ordination in instruction and in education, and also to state why the 
distinction should be made between instruction and education. 

By co-ordination in instruction is meant that combination of ideas, 
the gathering of such a sum of information, the eliciting from children 
that collateral knowledge, which will go to make of any subject or lesson 
a matter of such interest that each pupil will feel that he has contribu- 
ted his mite to the general fund which the discussion of the Jesson has 
determined. 

It will be seen that this idea of co-ordination implies that the children 
should have a large share of the talking. Most American children will 
take this share, in any case, if encouraged or allowed ; why not turn this 
national characteristic to good account ? It is only the master or pro- 
fessor who knows how to make the very defects of his pupils a source of 
progress and improvement, who is fit to maintain the mission he has 
undertaken. 

We are told that our children are tanght too many 'ologies and 'ogra- 
phiesj that physicians deplore the cramming and the urging to which 
children are now subjected. This reminds us forcibly of a remark made 
to the writer at the London International Health Exhibition, during the 
educational conferences, by one of the oldest and most respected in- 
spectors of schools in Her Majesty's service ; said he, " Feed a boy or 
girl well, see that they sleep at least seven hours daily, and you cannot 
give them too much to do." Remark, the experienced inspector did not 
say that you could not give such a boy or girl too much to study or to 
memorize, but " too much to do," a distinction which must not be lost 
sight of. Doing and studying are indeed different things; the professor 
who forgets this, remembers but half his duty. 

By co-ordination, then, is not meant the teaching of a great many sub- 
jects, as such, but simply their introduction in such times and places, in 
such manner, and to such degree, as may be necessary for the proper 
interpretation of any subject. 

Certain topics now separately taught would, on the plan here sug- 
7950 COT., PT. 3 5 ' 879 



66 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

gested, be acquired to a sufScient degree without becoming the burden 
they now are to master and pupil. 

As suggested iu so many of the latest works on method in teaching, 
the professor should, by means of " class talks," give such information, 
either by directly communicating it himself, or by eliciting it from the 
pupils, who, if twelve years of age or over, should be encouraged to take 
notes, however imperfectly. 

It may be said, and has often been asserted, that boys or girls of this 
age cannot be expected to take notes, or that if they do take them, these 
are generally useless. To this we may reply that such notes on various 
subjects, or developed into short literary efforts, are sufficiently numer- 
ous in at least one of the educational exhibits to prove their i^easibility. 

Children may be induced to do almost anything if they have a live 
teacher, up to the times, ever awake to any issue which may interest 
his pupils. And this is truer of American children and their teachers 
than of any others in the world. The American child learns earlier, is 
more inquisitive where real subjects of importance are concerned, than 
his Continental or English cousins, and, it may safely be asserted with 
Brother Achille in his latest work on method, that it is only by giving 
intelligent* direction to this natural curiosity of children that its danger- 
ous tendencies may be controlled and corrected. 

And here would be the point at which it would be desirable to intro- 
duce a few remarks about that co-ordination of ideas and sentiments 
so essential to the formation of the heart, teaching it and causing it to 
love that positive morality, that fixity of Christian principle, without 
which instruction is, in the language of Voltaire, a double-edged tool 
which is sure to injure its possessor. Here might that magnificent 
utterance of the illustrious Guizot be dwelt upon: "I wish religion to 
be the permeating atmosphere of the school-room." Well will it be for 
peoples and n ations to heed in time warnings which are not wanting to 
show, in the language of a Pontiff whose first acts proved his love of 
true liberty, that " if the world is to be saved, instruction must be 
made more Christian"; and, with our distinguished United States Com- 
missioner of Education, Hon. John Eaton, we may add, " Educators 
may well seriously inquire whether the tendency of the systems they 
are conducting are as thoroughly promotive of the practice of virtue 
as they ought to be and can be, * * * yet no one, contemplating 
the means of promoting the individual good or the public welfare, can 
be satisfied with an education which so intensifies intellectual activity 
as to overlook the necessity for the training and direction of the moral 
nature.'^ 

In speaking of the manner of co ordinating matter, it has been said 
that the professor may be obliged to furnish the greater part of the 
information, in which case it may be claimed that we will need a higher 
order of intelligence among our elementary teachers, to which it is 
only necessary to answer that the passing of the ordinary normal school 

880 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 67 

examination is sufficient proof of intelligence in the young teacher. 
What we need is that study should not be dropped, as it is so fre- 
quently after the normal coarse. Teaching is a profession, a vocation, 
it is a special mission from above ; no lower estimate will beget the 
constant study, not only of books, but of human character, of the soul, 
its power, its relations to human nature, and the many other interest- 
ing questions which the subject involves. In brief, the true teacher 
must be a man of thought, and this thought must be directed to his 
daily betterment in his profession. It is for this reason that many 
founders of teaching bodies in the Catholic Church require their disci 
pies to devote at least two hours daily to the study, meditating upon, 
and discussion of topics bearing upon their mission as teachers, apart 
from their character as religious, and the venerable De la Salle, foun- 
der of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, has written a series of 
studies, or meditations, simply to convince his followers that without 
becoming men of thought, without making of their mission as teachers 
their sole occupation, they can not be worthy of their calling, nor real- 
ize suitable results. The same vein of thought pervades^his '• Treatise 
on the Government of Schools," and his "Twelve Virtues of a Good 
Master." 

These same habits of study and thought, outside of a teaching com- 
munity, may be realized by appointing and requiring the following of 
certain courses of educational reading ; and, as is the case in several 
Continental countries, some further tests should be required to show 
that the teacher keeps up the sacred fire of study. Probably this may 
best be done, not by examining the teacher anew, but by an intelligent 
inquiry into the intellectual progress of the children, requiring the 
teacher to show his or her " l^^otes of Lessons," just as they have been 
used in the class-room. 

Personally, we have little faith in diplomas granted for mere knowl- 
edge, nor does experience go to show that the measure of a teacher's 
information is the measure of his usefulness. This has been tested so 
often, and so often admitted, as to be, probably, beyond the line of dis- 
cussion. Why not adopt the more rational plan of judging the tree by 
its fruits, instead of by its leaves ? Why not award the diploma to that 
person who, in a given time and under ordinarily faii; conditions, pro- 
duces the best results '? At this moment, the best infant class teacher 
in the city of Liverpool, perhaps in England, since Inspectors come from 
all parts of the United Kingdom, and send their teachers likewise, to 
study her methods, is a lady who has never taken a diploma, will not 
ask for one, and, sensibly enough, is accepted on her own conditions by 
the Government. Examples are not wanting to prove that this is not 
an isolated case. It may be said of the teacher as of the poet, that he 
is "born, not made." 

The first topic to which this paper calls attention must be our arith- 
metics. Co-ordination in them is almost unknown. Let us take a prob- 

881 



68 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

letn in simple division, or, as some boys and girls call it, a sum. Their' 
classification is eminently just. Indeed, youngsters often use terms 
whose full force they do hot seize. Yes, our problems, especially in the 
elementary rules, are sums, great weights, huge nothings, having no 
earthly interest for our little ones. Thus, how insipid the problem, di- 
vide 2,150,000 by 5. What idea does this bring to the child's mind ? 
Is there anything about it in any shape, manner, or form, that is inter- 
esting ? On the contrary, suppose a little New Yorker is told that in 
Brooklyn and ISfew York there are 2,150,000 persons ; that in each family 
there are about five persons; how many families in the two cities ? The 
child has the same work to do, but he learns four things instead of one. 
He learns how to divide by 5; he knows the combined population of 
^ew York and Brooklyn ; he finds that five is the average number in a 
family, and the number of these families is the last point of information 
Going back, with this same problem, and talking the matter over leis- 
urely, the child is taught that five in a family will leave about three 
children in each, supposing both parents living. Here is another piece 
of information quite easily taught, and in a review lesson in multiplica- 
tion, I would make them find the number of children, and of the grown 
persons in both cities, all of which would prove interesting. 

It would afford pleasure to discuss our geographies and atlases, just 
as our arithmetics have been examined — those ponderous volumes, three- 
fourths of whose matter is as worthless as dead sea fruit. If in all this 
distinguished assembly there is one lady or gentleman who can say that 
during any one year, or in any school, there has been a single student 
who mastered the entire matter of the highest numbers of any of our * 
ponderous atlases, let me ask as a special favor to make that person's 
acquaintance. 

I have been looking for one such teacher for the last fifteen years, but 
have had a bootless search. How much more sensible the plan of pre- 
paring small "year books," in which only so much matter is introduced 
as may be easily and intelligently co-ordinated in a twelve-month ; these 
manuals would, moreover, be of such a limited price as to prevent either 
the State or the individual from " paying too dear for its whistle." With 
such ponderous volumes as we now use, co-ordination is impossible. 
The whole lesson becomes a mere recitation, the pupils so many ma- 
chines, and the teacher the great hear-all, who has no time to interest 
Ms pupils 

There is one subject, however, among the many to which reference 
might be made, that must call for notice here. That subject is read- 
ing. With many leading educators it may fairly be assumed that, in 
grammar and high schools, the students read too often. Two readings 
per week, intelligently given, are sufficient. If properly co-ordinated 
these would create a vast improvement in the status of our schools. 

Suppose we take Robertson's delightful description of "Three Days 
in the Life of Columbus." After the plan which co-ordination sug- 
882 



PROCEEDINOS OF THE DEPAETMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 69 

gests, it might be well, a few days before this reading, to announce a 
"class talk," in which Columbus and his times would be discussed. 
Easily procured manuals should be suggested, and instructions given 
to a certain number of pupils to consult the local library, with whose 
librarian an understanding should be previously established. 

ISlext, the teacher might draw a rough sketch of the island of San 
Salvador, or, using the more modernized name, Cat Island. This done, 
the subject might be dropped till the day for the reading lesson, when 
the entire subject might be divided as follows : 

Suj)i)ose a class of thirty, let the pupils be divided into groups of four, 
five, or six. The first group might undertake the geographical tracing 
required to show the course taken by Columbus. The second could 
memorize De Lisle's exquisite poems on this same lesson, each boy or 
girl only learning enough to complete the poem in the group. The 
third would be directed to read something about the Moors in Spain, 
with a request to furnish a very short resume of same. To the fourth 
might be assigned the sketching of the coats-of-arms of Ferdinand and 
Isabella, while the fifth would be busily engaged reading up the 
sketches of other American explorers. Finally, to the fifth, composed 
of the so-called duller lads, but often the most practical, could be as- 
signed the collecting of sea- weed or moss, or the cutting out and fash- 
ioning of a little ship similar to one of those shown in the illustrations. 
Of course, if there were any girls in the class the making of the sails 
would fiiU to their share. These objects would next be placed in the 
school museum, and it may safely be claimed that the afternoon selected 
for such a reading lesson, thus co-ordinated, would find all seats filled, 
few dull, and assuredly fewer uninterested listeners. 

The chairman called attention to the meeting of the International 
Congress of Educators in the afternoon, and at 12.35 p. M. the session 
adjourned. 

THIED SESSIOK 

The third session of the Department was called to order on Thurs- 
day, February 26th, at 9.30 A. M., Hon. John Hancock presiding. 

The Chairman announced as first in order the following paper by Dr. 
W. T. Harris : 

MORAL EDUCATION IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS. 

The separation of Church and State is an acknowledged i^rinciple in 
our national government, and its interpretation from generation to gen- 
eration eliminates with more and more of strictness whatever ceremo- 
nies and observances of a religious character still remain attached to 
secular customs and usages. 

Inasmuch as religion, in its definition of what is to be regarded as 
divine, at the same time furnishes the ultimate and supreme ground of 

. . 883 



70 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

all obligation, it stands in the closest of relations to morality, wMch we 
may define as that system of duties or obligations which govern the re- 
lation of man'to himself as individual, and as race or social whole. 

To the thinking observer, nothing can be more obvious than the fact 
that the institutions of society are created and sustained by the moral 
activity of man. The moral training of the young is essential to the 
preservation of civilization. The so-called fabric of society is woven 
out of moral distinctions and observances. The network of habits and 
usages which make social combination possible, which enable men to 
live together as a community, constitutes an ethical system. 

In that ethical system only is spiritual life possible. Without such 
a system even the lowest stage of society, that of the mere savage, could 
not exist. In proportion to the completeness of development of its 
ethical system, a community rises from barbarism. 

It is quite clear that so deep a change in the principle of human gov- 
ernment as the separation of Church and State involves the most im- 
portant consequences to the ethical life of a people. All thoughtful 
people, therefore, look with solicitude on the institutions of an educa- 
tional character that are founded among us, in order to discover what 
means, if any, can remain for moral education, after its ecclesiastical 
foundation has been removed. 

It happens quite naturally that the best people in the community 
struggle to retain the ecclesiastical forms and ceremonies in the secular. 
They find themselves unable to discriminate between the provinces of. 
morality and religion. With them education in morality means educa- 
tion in performing religious rites. 

This religious view certainly does not harmonize with the political 
convictions of our people. From year to year we see the religious rites 
and ceremonies set aside in the legislature, the town meeting, the pub- 
lic assembly, the school. If retained, they become empty forms with 
no api)reciable effect. 

In this sad state of affairs it becomes important to consider all other 
means of cultivating the ethical sense, and especially to discover how 
it is that institutions may be emancipated from the direct control of the 
Church. 

Without entering into this question in its details, at the present time, 
we may remark that the history of Christian civilization shows us a con- 
tinuous spectacle of the development of institutions into independence. 
It is a sort of training or nurture of institutions by the Church into a 
degree of maturity, in which they come to be able to live and thrive 
without the support of mere ecclesiastical authority. 

But an institution attains its majority only when it has become 
thoroughly grounded on some fundamental divine principle. The 
State, for instance, is organized on the principle of justice— the return 
of each man's deed to himself. On such principle the State may be 

8S4 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPAETMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 71 

•conducted without fear of collision with the Church or other institu- 
tions. 

The school, too, has certain divine principles which it has borrowed 
from the Church through long centuries of tutelage, and may perhaps 
be conducted by itself without Church authority and yet be a positive 
auxiliary to the Church and the cause of religion. Let us study these 
characteristics. 

The school proposes at first this object — to implant in the pupil a 
knowledge of man and nature ; in short, to initiate him into the realm 
of truth. 

Certainly Truth is divine, and religion itself is chiefly busied with 
discovering and interpreting the divine First Principle of the universe 
and His personal relations to men. In so far, therefore, as truth — real 
truth, in harmony with the personality of God, and not spurious 
truth — is taught in the school, it is a positive auxiliary to the Church 
and to religion. 

But the intellectual pursuit of truth in the school is conditioned upon 
a deeper principle. Order is the first law, even of Heaven. The gov- 
ernment of human beings in a community is a training for them in the 
forms of social life. The school must strictly enforce a code of laws. 
The so-called discipline of the school is its primordial condition, and is 
itself a training in habits essential to life in a social whole, and hence 
is itself moral training. Let us study the relation of school discipline 
to the development of moral character, and compare its code of duties 
with the ethical code as a whole. 

First, let us take an ideal survey of the whole field, and see what is 
desirable, before we examine the results of the school as actually fur- 
nished. 

One may distinguish moral duties or habits which ought to be taught 
to youth into three classes : (a) Mechanical virtues, in which the youth 
exercises a minimum of moral choice and obeys an external rule pre- 
scribed for him. In this, the lowest species of moral discipline, the 
youth learns self-denial and self-control, and not much else. (6) Social 
duties, those which govern the relation of man to man and which are 
the properly called "moral" duties. In this form of moral discipline 
the youth learns to obey principle rather than the immediate will of 
another or a mechanical prescription, (c) Eeligious duties, or those 
based on the relation to God as revealed in religion. In these the 
youth learns the ultimate grounds of obligation, and gains both a 
practical principle for the conduct of life, and a theoretic principle on 
which to base his view of the world. In his religious doctrine man 
formulates his theory of the origin and destiny of nature and the human 
race, and at the same time defines his eternal vocation, his fundamental 
duties. The mere statement of this obvious fact is sufficient toindicate 
the rank and importance of the religious part of the moral duties. 

Turning now to the school, let us take an inventory of its means and 

885 



72 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

appliances for moral education in the line of these several divisions. 
Let us reuiember, too, that morality consists in practice rather than in 
theory, and that the school can teach morality only when it trains the 
will into ethical habits, and not when it stops short with inculcatinjs: a 
correct theoretical view of right and wrong, useful as such view may be. 

(I) In the school we note, first, the moral effect of the requirement 
of implicit obedience, a requirement necessary within the school for it» 
successful administration. The discipline in obedience in its strict 
form, such as it is found in the school-room, has four other ajjplications 
which remain valid under all conditions of society : {a) Obedience to- 
ward parents ; (&) toward employers, overseers, and supervisors, as re» 
gards the details of work ; (c) toward the Government in its legally 
constituted authority, civil or military ; (<^) toward the divine will, how- 
soever revealed. 

In each of these four forms there is, and always remains, a sphere of 
greater or less interest, within which implicit obedieuce is one's duty. 
In the three first-named this duty is not absolute, but limited, the sphere 
continually growing narrower with the growth of the individual in wis- 
dom and self-directive power. In the fourth form of obedience (to the 
divine will) the individual comes more and more to a personal insight 
into the necessity of the divine law as revealed in Scripture, in naturCy 
and especially in human life, and he becomes, through this, emanci- 
pated relatively from the direct personal control of man, even of the 
wisest and best, and becomes rather a law unto himself. He outgrows 
mere mechanical obedience, and arrives at a truly moral will, in which 
the law is written on the heart. 

Obedience, as a habit, to what is prescribed by an authority is obvi- 
ously a training that fits one for religion, even if religion has no direct 
part in such training. Hence the school, even when perfectly secular ,^ 
in securing implicit obedience, is in so far an auxiliary of the Church. 

The pillars on which school education rests are behavior and scholar- 
ship. Deportment, or behavior, comes first as the sine qua non. The 
first requisite of the school is order ; each pui^il must be taught to con- 
form his behavior to the general standard, and repress all that inter- 
feres with the function of the school. In the outset, therefore, a whole 
family of virtues are taught the pupil, and taught him so thoroughly 
that they become fixed in his character. In the mechanical duties habit 
is everything and theory little or nothing. The pupil Is taught : 

{a) Punctuality; he must be at school in time; sleep, business, play,^ 
indisposition, all must give way to the duty of obedience to this exter- 
nal requirement — to observe the particular moment of time and con- 
form to it. 

Punctuality does not end with getting to school, but while in school 
it is of equal importance. Combination cannot be achieved without it. 
The pupil must have his lessons ready at the appointed time, must rise 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 73 

from his seat at the tap of the bell, move to line, return; in short, he 
must go through all the class evolutions with this observance of rhythm. 

(6) Eegularity is the next discipline. Regularity is punctuality re- 
duced to a system. Conformity to the requirements of time in a par- 
ticular instance is punctuality; made general, it becomes regularity. 

Combination in school rests on those two virtues. They are the most 
elementary of the moral code — its alphabet, in short. This age is ofteu' 
called the age of productive industry, the era of emancipation of man 
from the drudgery of slavery to his natural wants of food, clothing, and 
shelter. This emancipation is effected by machinery. Machinery has 
quadrupled the efficiency of human industry within the past half cen- 
tury. There is one general training needed to prepare the generation 
of men who are to act as directors of machinery and managers of the 
business that dej)ends upon it. This training is in the habits of punctu- 
ality and regularity. Only by obedience to these abstract external 
laws of time and place may we achieve social combination complete 
enough to free us from thralldom to our i^hysical wants and necessities. 

(c) Silence is the third of these semi mechanical duties. It is the 
basis for the culture of internality or reflection, the soil in which 
thought grows. The pupil is therefore taught habits of silence, to re- 
strain his natural animal impulse to prate and chatter. All ascent 
above his animal nature arises through this ability to hold back the . 
mind from utterance of the immediate impulse. The first impression 
must be corrected by the second. Combination • and generalization. 
are required to reach deep and wide truths, and those depend upon 
this habit of silence. 

Thus silence in the school-room has a twofold significance : It is nec- 
essary in order that there may be no distraction of the attention of 
others from their work ; secondly, it is a direct discipline in the art of 
combining the diffused and feeble efforts of the pupil himself. 

These mechanical duties constitute an elementary training in morals,, 
without which it is exceedingly difficult to build any superstructure of 
moral character whatever. Moral education therefore must begin in 
merely mechanical obedience, and develop gradually out of this stage 
towards that of individual responsibility. 

(II) The higher order of moral duties falls into two classes, those 
that relate to the individual himself, and those that relate to his fellows. 

(a) Duties to self. These are — 

(1) Physical, and concern cleanliness, neatness in personal clothing,, 
temperance and moderation in animal appetites and passions. The 
school can and does teach cleanliness and neatness, but it has less power 
over the pupil in regard to temperance. It can teach him self-control 
and self-sacrifice in those disciplines already named, i)unctuality, reg- 
ularity, and silence, and in so far it may free him from thralldom ta 

887 



74 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the body iu other respects. It can and does labor efficiently against 
obscenity and profanity. 

(2) Self-culture. This duty belongs especially to the school. All of 
its lessons contribute to the pupil's self-culture. By its discipline it 
gives him contr.ol over himself and ability to combine with his fellow 
men; by its instruction it gives him knowledge of the world of nature 
and man. This duty corresponds nearly to the one named prudence in 
ancient ethical systems. The Christian Fathers discuss four cardinal 
"virtues, — temperance, prudence, fortitude, and j ustice. Prudence places 
the individual above and beyond his present moment, as it were, let- 
ting him stand over himself, watching and directing himself. Man is 
a twofold being, having a particular, special self, and a general nature, 
his ideal self, the possibility of i)erfection. Self-culture stands for the 
theoretical or intellectual side of this cardinal virtue of prudence, while 
industry is its practical side. 

(3) Industry. This virtue means devotion to one's calling or business. 
Each one owes it to himself to have some business and to be industri- 
ous. The good school does not tolerate idleness. It has the most effi- 
cient means of securing industry from its pupils. Each one has a def- 
inite task scrupulously adjusted to his capacity, and he will be held re- 
sponsible for its performance. Is there any better training yet devised 
to educate youth into industry and its concomitants of sincerity, ear- 
nestness, simplicity, i)erseverance, patience, faithfulness, and reliability, 
than the school method of requiring work in definite amounts, at defi- 
nite times, and of an approved quality I The pupil has provided for him 
a business or vocation. By industry and self-sacrifice the pupil is ini- 
tiated into a third of the cardinal virtues, fortitude. 

(b) Duties to others. 

Duties to self rest on the consciousness of a higher nature in the in- 
dividual, and of the duty of bringing out and realizing this higher 
nature. Duties to others recognize this higher ideal nature as some- 
thing general, and hence as also the true inward self of our fellow men. 
This ideal of man we are conscious that we realize only very imperfectly, 
and yet it is the fact that we have the possibility of realizing a higher 
ideal in ourselves that gives us our value above animals and plants. 
In our fellow men we see revelations of this ideal nature that we have 
not yet realized ourselves. Each one possesses some special gift or 
quality that helps us know ourselves. The experience of each man is a 
contribution toward our self-knowledge, and vicariously aids us with- 
out our being obliged to pay for it in the pain and suffering that the 
original experience cost. Inasmuch as our ideal can be realized only 
through this aid from our fellow men, the virtues that enable us to com- 
bine with others and form institutions, precede in importance the me- 
chanical virtues. There are three classes of duties toward others : 

(1) Courtesy^ including all forms of XJoliteness, good breeding, urbanity, 

H88 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 75 

decorum, modesty, respect for pablic opinion, liberality, magnanimity, 
etc., described under various names by Aristotle and others after him. 
The essence of this virtue consists in the resolution to see in others only 
the ideal of humanity, and to ignore any and all defects that may be 
apparent. 

Courtesy in many of its forms is readily taught in school. Its teach- 
ing is often marred by the manner of the teacher, which may be sour 
and surly, or petulant and fault-finding. The importance of this virtue, 
both to its possessor and to all his fellows, demands a more careful at- 
tention on the part of school managers to secure its presence in the 
school-room. 

(2) Justice. This is recognized as the chief in the family of secular 
virtues. It has several forms or species, as, for example, (a) honesty, 
the fair dealing with others, respect for their rights of person and prop- 
erty and reputation ; [h) truth-telling, honesty itself being truth-acting. 
Such names as integrity, uprightness, righteousness, express further 
distinctions that belong to this staunch virtue. 

Justice, like courtesy in the fact that it looks upon the ideal of the 
individual, is unlike courtesy in the fact that it looks upon the deed of 
the individual in a very strict and business like way, and measures its 
defects by the high standard. According to the principle of justice, 
each one receives in proportion to his deeds, and not in proportion to 
his possibilities, wishes, or unrealized aspirations. All individuals are 
ideally,equal in the essence of their humanity; but justice will return 
upon each the equivalent of his deed only. If it is a crime, justice re- 
turns it upon the doer by a limitation of his personal freedom or jjrop- 
erty. 

The school is perhaps more effective in teaching the forms of justice 
than in .teaching those of courtesy. Truth-telling especially receives 
the full emphasis of aU the power of school discipline. Every lesson 
is an exercise in digging out and closely defining the truth, in extend- 
ing the realm of clearness and certainty further into the region of igno- 
•rance and guesswork. How careful the pupil is compelled to be with 
his statements and with his previous preparation ! 

Justice in discovering the exact performance of each pupil, and in 
giving him recognition for it, may give place to injustice in case of care- 
lessness on the part of the teacher. Such carelessness may suffer the 
weeds of lying and deceit to grow up, and it may allow the guilty pupil 
to gather the fruits of honesty and truth, and thus it may offer a pre- 
mium for fraud. The school may thus furnish an immoral education, 
notwithstanding its great opportunities to inculcate this noble virtue of 
honesty. 

The private individual must not be permitted to return the evil deed 
upon the doer, for that would be revenge ; hence a new crime. All 
possibility of self-interest must be sifted out before justice can be done 
to the criminal. Hence we have another virtue — 

889 



76 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

(3) Resided for laio^ which, as the only means of protecting the inno- 
cent and punishing the guilty, is the complement of justice. It looks 
upon the ideal as realized, not in an individual man, but in an institu- 
tion represented in the person of an executive officer who is supported 
with legislative and judicial powers. 

The school., wlion goveraed by an arbitrary and tyrannical teacher, 
is a fearfully demoralizing influence in a community. The law-abiding 
virtue is weakened, and a whole troop of lesser virtues take their flight 
and give admittance to passions and appetites. But, on the other hand^ 
the teacher may teach respect for law very thoroughly. In this matter 
a great change has been wrought in the methods of discipline in later 
years. Corporal punishment has been very largely disused. It is clear 
that with frequent and severe corporal punishment it is next to impos- 
sible to retain genuine respect for law. Only the very rare teacher can 
succeed in this. Punishment through the sense of honor has therefore 
superseded for the most part in our best schools the use of the rod. It 
is now easy to find the school admirably disciplined, and its pupils en- 
thusiastic and law-abiding, when governed entirely without the use of 
corporal punishment. 

The school possesses very great advantages over the family in this 
matter of teaching respect for law. The parent is too near the child^ 
too personal, to teach him this lesson. 

At this point we approach the province of 

(III) Religious duties. Higher than the properly moral duties, or at 
least higher than the secular or cardinal virtues, are certain ones which 
are called " celestial" virtues by the theologians. These are faith, hope, 
and charity, and their special modifications. 

The question may arise whether any instruction in these duties can be 
given which is not sectarian. An affirmative answer will have to show 
only that the essential scope of these virtues has a secular meaning, 
and that the secular meaning is more fundamental than in the cases of 
the so-called cardinal virtues. 

(1) Faith in a theologic sense means the true knowledge of the first> 
principle of the universe. Everybody presupposes some theory or view 
of the world, its origin and destiny, in all his practical and theoretical 
dealing with it. Christendom assumes a personal Creator, of divine- 
human nature, who admits man to grace in such a way that he is not 
destroyed by the results of his essential imperfection, but is redeemed 
in some special way. The Buddhist and Brahmin think that fortitude 
and imperfection are utterly incompatible with the divine being, and 
hence that the things of the world cannot be permitted to have real ex- 
istence. They exist only in our fancy. Here is no grace, no redemp- 
tion. Nature is not a real existence to such a theory, and hence there 
can be no natural science. 

In Christian countries the prevailing institutions and confessions of 
faith recognize this belief in a divine- human God of grace, and their 
890 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 77 

people more or less cultivate science. Some persons theoretically deny 
this belief, but cling to science, which is itself based on the deep-lying- 
assumption that the world is a manifestation of Reason. Such skeptics 
have not yet measured the consequences of their theories, and for our 
purposes may be said to belong to the Faith, inasmuch as the reality of 
a finite world presupposes a personal God whose essential attribute is 
grace. The aguostic, too, is strenuous in acknowledging the practical 
importance of the code of moral duties. 

The prevailing view of the world in Christian countries is very prop- 
erly called Faith, inasmuch as it is not a view pieced together fram the 
experience of the senses, nor a product of individual reflection unaided 
by the deep intuitions of the spiritual seers of the race. • 

Faith is a secular virtue as well as a theological virtue; and whoever 
teaches another view of the world, that is to say, he who teaches that 
man is not immortal and that nature does not reveal the divine Eea- 
son, teaches a doctrine subversive of faith in this i3eculiar sense, and 
iilso subversive of man's life in all that makes it worth living. 

(2) Hope, the second theological virtue, is the practical side of faith. 
Faith is not properly the belief in any theory of the world, but in the 
particular theory of the world that Christianity teaches. So Hope is 
iiot a mere anticipation of some future event, but the firm expectation 
that the destiny of the world is in accordance with the scheme of faith, 
no matter how much any present appearances may be against it. Thus 
the individual acts upon this conviction. It is the basis of the highest 
practical doing in this world. A teacher may show faith and hope in 
the views of the world which he evinces in his dealings with his school, 
in his teaching of history, in his comments on the reading lessons, in 
his treatment of the aspirations of his pupils. Although none of these 
things may be consciously traced to their source by the pupils, yet their 
instinct will discover the genuine faith and hope. Nothing is so diffi- 
cult to conceal as one's conviction in regard to the origin and destiny 
of the world and of man. 

(3) Finally, Charity is the highest of these virtues, in the sense that it 
is the concrete embodiment and application of that view of the world 
which Faith and Hope establish. 

The world is made and governed by divine grace, and that grace will 
triumph in the world. Hence, says the individual, " Let me be filled 
with this principle, and hold within myself this divine feeling of grace 
toward all fellow creatures." Charity is therefore not almsgiving, but 
a devotion to others. "Sell all thou hast, and follow me." Faith per- 
ceives the principle; hope believes in it where it is not yet visible ; 
charity sets it up in the soul and lives it. There might be conceived a 
faith or insight into this principle of divine grace, and a hope that 
should trust it where not seen, and still there be in the possessor of the 
faith and hope a lack of charity. In that case the individual would ac- 

891 



78 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

knowledge the principle everywhere, but would not admit it to himself. 
With charity all other virtues are implied, even justice. 

While courtesy acts toward men as if they were ideally perfect and 
had no defects, while justice holds each man responsible for the perfect 
accordance of his deed with his ideally perfect nature and makes no 
allowance for immaturity, charity sees both the ideal perfection and the 
real imperfection, and does not condemn, but offers to help, the other, 
and is willing and glad to sacrifice itself and assist the imperfect to 
struggle toward perfection. 

The highest virtue, charity, has, of all the virtues, the largest family 
of synonyms: humility, considerateness, heroism, gratitude, friendli- 
ness and various shades of love in the family (parental, filial, fraternal, 
and conjugal), sympathy, pity, benevolence, kindness, toleration, pa- 
triotism, generosity, public-spirit, philanthropy, beneficence, concord, 
harmony, peaceableness, tenderness, forgiveness, mercy, grace, long- 
suffering, etc., etc. 

The typical form of this virtue, as it may be cultivated in school, is 
known under the name of kindness. A spirit of true kindness, if it can 
be made to pervade a school, would be the highest fountain of virtue. 
That such a spirit can exist in a school as an emanation from a teacher, 
we know from many a saintly example that has walked in the faith of 
the Great Teacher. 

From the definition of this principle it is easy to deduce a verdict 
against all those systems of rivalry and emulation in school which stim- 
ulate ambition beyond the limits of g^erous competition to the point 
of selfishness. Selfishness is the roorbf mortal sin, as theologians teU 
us, and the lowest type of it is cold, unfeeling pride, while envy is the 
type next to it. 

Eeturning to our first question, we repeat, In a state which has no 
established Church, and in a system of public schools that is not per. 
mitted to be under the control of sects or denominations, what shall be 
the fate of dogmatic instruction in morals, especially instruction in that 
part of morals which rests upon the celestial virtues 1 Of course, the 
problem is still a simple one in parochial schools and denominational 
schools. But it is not proper for us to ignore the dangers incurred even 
in strictly parochial schools. The more strict the denominational con- 
trol, the less likely is there to pervade the school that spirit of toler- 
ance and charity toward others which is the acknowledged deepest 
taproot of the virtues. 

Were the community, however, generous in its confessions of faith, 
religious instruction could still properly remain in school. The move- 
ment of American society is not, however, in that direction, and it is 
quite likely that the Church mast see formal religious instruction, even 
to the ceremony of reading the Bible, leave the common schools alto- 
gether. But a formal reading of the Bible "without note or comment," 
or a formal prayer on opening school, is surely not religious or moral 

892 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 79 

instruction in any sucli efficient sense as to warrant any Christian man 
or woman in sitting down in content and claiming a religious hold on 
the popular education. Such a delusive content is indeed too prevalent. 
There never was a time when the need was greater for a widespread 
evangelical movement to begin, that shall make real once more the faith 
that is well-nigh become a mere formula. 

A Eobert Eaikes, now and here, to give new vitality to the Sunday- 
school movement, a concerted series of movefnents like that of Dr. Yin- 
cent, are needed. 

It is not the undoing of the separation of Church and State, even in 
the common schools, nor the struggle to maintain a frigid and bloodless 
'' non-sectarian " (so-called) religion in our schools, that is t.o succeed or 
to do any good. It is for the Churches to rouse from danger, and 
proselyte by new means and appliances, as well adapted to the present 
day as the Sunday-school movement was seventy years ago. 

It is for the teachers, not to claim the right to introduce formal re- 
ligious ceremonies, but to make all their teaching glow with a genuine 
faith, hope, and charity, so that pupils will catch from them their view 
of the world as the only one that satisfies the heart and the intellect 
and the will. 

Let us note the fact that in the mechanical virtues, so important ta 
making good citizens, the training in the schools is already admirable. 
Human freedom is realized, not by the unaided effort of the individual, 
but by his concerted or combined effort in organized institutions^like 
the state and civil society. Those mechanical virtues make possible the 
help of the individual in this combination, and fit him for the modern 
world now bent on the conquest of nature. 

The social virtues, justice, politeness, and obedience to law, may be 
equally well provided for, although in fact they are not successfully 
taught in every school. 

The celestial virtues can be taught by teachers inspired by those 
virtues, and by none others. The empty profession of such virtues with- 
out the devotion of the life to them, is likely in the school, even more 
than elsewhere, to produce the well-kuown practical result of altruism. 

Finally, let us call up the main conclusions, and reduce them to their 
briefest expression. 

1. Moral education is a training in habits, and not an inculcation of 
mere theoretical views. 

2. Mechanical disciplines are indispensable as an elementary basis of 
moral character. 

3. Lax discipline in a school saps the moral character of the pupil. 
It allows him to work merely as he pleases, and he never can re-enforce 
his feeble will by regularity, punctuality, and systematic industry. He 
grows up in habits of whispering and other species of intermeddling with 
his fellow pupils, neither doing what is reasonable himself nor allowing 
others to do it. Hyfever having subdued himself, he never will subdue 

893 



80 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

the world of chaos or any part of it as his life work, but will have to be 
subdued by external constraint on the part of his fellow men. 

4. Too strict discipline, on the other hand, undermines moral charac- 
ter by emphasizing too much the mechanical duties, and especially the 
phase of obedience to authority, and it leaves the pupil in a state of 
perennial minority. He does not assimilate the law of duty and make 
it his own. The law is not written on his heart, but is written on lips 
only. He fears it, but does not love it. The tyrant teacher produces 
hypocrisy and deceit in his pupils. All manner of fraud germinates in 
iittempts.to cover up shortcomings from the eye of the teacher. 

Even where there is simple implicit obedience in the place of fraud 
and the like, there is no independence and strength of character de- 
veloped. 

5. The best help one can give his fellows is that which enables them 
to help themselves. The best school is that which makes the pupils 
able to teach themselves. The best instruction in morality makes the 
pupil a law unto himself. 

Hence strictness, which is indispensable, must be tempered by such 
devices as cause the pupil to love to obey the law for the law's sake. 

The committee on nominations then made the following report, which 
was adopted unanimously : 

President — Hon. Warren Easton, State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction of Louisiana. 

, Yice-President — Hon. T. B. Stockwell, State Superintendent of 
Education of Ehode Island. 

Secretary — Hon. D.B. Johnson, Superintendent of Schools of Colum- 
bia, S. C. 

These officers were declared elected for the ensuing year. 

Col. W. P. Johnston, President of Tulane University, then read the 
following paper: 

ON THE RELATION OF THE UNIVERSITY TO THE COMMON SCHOOL. 

Gentlemen of the Department — The topic you have assigned me for 
discussion is one of great moment in our educational system. To pre- 
sent the question fully would require more time than your patience or 
the limitations of the occasion would reatlily allow ; but there are some 
obvious points which occur to me, that may do somewhat toward plac- 
ing the subject in its true light before this audience. 

You will be told, and truly told, that universities may exist where 
there are no common schools, and that the light comes from above j but 
to have preceded them even, and to have made them possible, is some 
relation at least. But whether the common schools are the intellectual 
offspring of the universities, as is the case in all other countries, or, as 
some may claim in newer communities, the universities are the product 
and flower of the common schools, they deal in both cases with the de- 

894 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 81 

velopment of the citizen, the one beginning and the other finishing his 
education ; the one lays the foundation, the other sets the capstone of 
the edifice. 

What is a university ? It is an institution representing the best learn- 
ing and highest teaching-power of the community in which it exists. 
The universities in the Middle Ages, with their trivium and their quad- 
rivium, taught the best of what was then known; and now, though they 
fall so far short of their fall scope and ideal, they are still the citadels 
of science, the strongholds of culture and high thought. They consti- 
tute that OapitolineHill from which the standards of the Eternal City are 
carried down by its panoplied legionaries for service or strife. If the 
common school is the starting point and the university the close of edu- 
cation, they certainly have a connection and relation. Let us consider 
what this is. 

Education is integral. In whatever terms defined, it is a preparation 
of a younger generation by an older for the work of life. Some of it 
is carried on in the streets ; this is unconscious education. Some in the 
shop or office ; this is . special. The last of all is the education of the 
home, which combines all these. What is then left for the school-room ? 
Intellectual training is a comparatively small part of the whole. It has 
monopolized the term " education" to the exclusion of other influences, 
because while the others are more or less implicit or indirect, school 
education is avowedly and aggressively informing, instructively educa- 
tional in its purpose and methods. It is the preparation for life, so far 
as it can be given by formal didactic methods. 

Where education shall begin, and how far it shall proceed, and by 
what agencies and studies it must be carried on, wHl depend on many 
circumstances in the condition of the community and of the individual. 
But with each individual mind that enters on this formative process, 
the progress is, while it lasts, continuous. We differentiate time by day 
and night, by the seasons, by years, and by cycles, but time itself flows 
on past our landmarks like a great river. So a human life in its indi- 
viduality, its continuity, its development, flows on past the landmarks 
we would set up for it. It is one. It has its dawn, its matin hour, its 
noon, its prime, its evening, its gloaming, its final shadows, and its cur- 
tained darkness in death ; but it is day till the night comes. It is one. 
So we differentiate the long day of educational preparation which is 
closed only by the nightfall of death. We mark it off into spaces. We 
assign this to the nursery, and that to the kindergarten, and still other 
spaces to more advanced education, and the last of all to the work of 
life. But, still, it is essentially one process, the development of the man. 

We must remember that all the agencies we employ in this process, 
common school, high school, college, and university, are but successive 
mansions in our Father's house, even as the vestibule, the antechamber, 
and the audience hall lead us to the foot of the great throne, from which 
is the effluence of all light and knowledge. 

895 



82 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

The relation of the university to the common schools is through the 
high school and the college It is but a higher link in the golden chain 
that depends from above. It represents the highest phase of formal 
school education. If any higher is yet to be discovered, it will still be- 
long to the university. The common school, in its different strata, rep- 
resents the lowest, and likewise the broadest, phase of popular educa- 
tion. Between them are the high school and the college. I take the 
liberty of quoting from a report which, though printed some eighteen 
months ago, has not been published. 

The educational system of any people, to be complete, must constitute a finished 
and homogeneous structure. It should be a pyramid with the common schools at its 
base, and the university at its apex. Such is the much admired German system, 
which is consistent with itself and complete in all its parts. Whether, then, our uni- 
versity owes its existence to legislative wisdom or private munificence, intended as 
it is to perform an important part in the public education of the State, it should recog- 
nize fully its relations to every other part of the educational system, and seek to bring 
each and all into that harmony which will insure improvement. It is both good pol- 
icy and wise administration to plant the university on the popular affections and in- 
terests, and to aid public instruction wherever it can be safely done. Of course, the 
fundamental principle of such a policy is to make the beneficence of our work as real, 
expansive, and manifest, as human fallibility will permit. 

In the first report I mad e as the President of the Louisiana State 
University, in December, 1880, I set forth the mutual interdependence 
of all the parts of our educational system and the urgent need of help 
in securing its blessings to our population. The following was my lan- 
guage : 

On the free-school system of education rests the hope of the development, if not of 
the preservation, of our material interests and of our liberties in the United States. 
This is especially true of the South, and in no State has it greater significance than 
in Louisiana. The control of the most sacred rights of property, of the subtlest ques- 
tions of morals and law, of the most delicate functions of polity, and of the funda- 
mentals of civilization itself, are now, perforce, intrusted to the masses, largely made 
up of Ignorant freedmen. It behooves the State, as the conservator of society, to use 
every power and energy to enlighten this dense and dangerous darkness. It should 
extend to its colored citizens the benefits of education, and lead them to a higher and 
purer plane of intelligence. But it should remember that it must depend chiefly 
upon the white race, with its immemorial right of leadership, for its ability to keep 
pace in the march of civilization with happier and more favored commonwealths. 
It should not withhold nor stint its hand in giving, to equip these of its sons for the 
struggle of life. To this end, common schools should invite the humblest of its 
citizens to learn those elements of knowledge which should be the general heritage 
of freemen. Higher schools should receive generous State aid, so that those willing to 
make sacrifices should not be without the opportunity of advancing along the rugged 
path of knowledge ; and, crowning the public school system as a cap-sheaf, the most 
fruitful gift of this benignant harvest of learning, should be the university. A part of 
that system and its culmination, the university should open its doors freely to all who 
aspire to the higher education. It ought not to usurp the functions of the primary 
school or of the high school, but should reserve its energies for those who have pa- 
tiently undergone their preliminary training. These it should foster with the most 
sedulous care, and the university should be the nursery of the teachers of our public 
schools. From its walls yearly should go forth men fully equipped by training, gen- 
896 



PROCEEDINiJS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 83 

firal information, and special instruction in the best methods of the normal school, which 
has its greatest efficiency as a branch in a university. These men should constitute 
that army of schoolmasters who are to vanqitish ignorance in Louisiana. 

A king of Sparta, when asked with reference to its walls, pointed to 
his soldiers and replied, " The city is well fortified which hath a wall of 
men instead of brick." So in the great edifice of popular education, 
every human soul in the community should be built into the solid struct- 
ure, in its place, at base or at summit. 

But if the university and the common schools represent successive 
phases of a man's development, they should not do the same work. 
One deals with the multitude, with a mighty host, the levy en masse, who 
go out to fight the battle of life. These have but a brief time for disci- 
plined drill. In it they can learn but a few things well ; but if these are 
learned very well, as they may be, they are a great help in the life of 
the learner; they are sufficient for his purposes as a private in the 
grand army. And as in a truly constituted army every private may 
carry a marshal's baton in his knapsack, so in a free country every citi- 
zen, with this start, has his chauce, if ability, courage, and good fort- 
une are with him. But though the high school and the college afford 
the training that fits men to be officers in this army, neither they nor 
the university can make generals of them, even though it had a power 
to commission as such. 

"A prince can mak a belted knight, 
A marquis, duke, and a' that ; 
But an honest man's aboon his might, 
Guid faith he mauna fa' that ! " 

The king who creates a peer cannot make him a gentleman. The 
school cannot make a scholar, because it does not furnish brains to its 
pupils. 

The university creates the elite corps of culture, the engineers of 
thought. I would not have the approaches to it along a narrow decliv- 
ity, but, with its wide gates thrown open to every quarter of the heavens, 
it should welcome every comer whose faculties and powers are trained 
for service on the field of life. The university fits him for still more 
difficult achievements. 

The common school, then, gives the elementary education. The sec- 
ondary schools should begin the work of differentiation in courses of 
study, which branch out, as you rise in the scale through high school 
and college to the university, where the work becomes special and pro- 
fessional. The common school gives the general education, the sec- 
ondary schools the higher education, and the university the highest of 

all. 

But the university has still another function, whatever may be its re- 
striction in a highly specialized system, like the Prussian. Here it has 
much work to do which may be called supplementary work, which i9 

897 



84 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

not done and cannot be done by primary or secondary schools, for lack 
of means or other suflicient cause. Permit me to quote myself again : 

If education has been correctly defined, and the university represents its highest 
phase, the question naturally arises, " Where does this phase commence ?" In a highly 
organized society, the whole work of education may be regularly distributed to the 
primary school, the high school, the college, and the university, with the aid of pro- 
fessional, technical, and other special schools. But in America, and especially in the 
South, we must do what we can, not what we would. The university is, without ex- 
ception, obliged to perform the duties of the college, and generally of the high school 
also. There can be no objection to this, if such an institution grasps the whole prob- 
lem in its entirety, and yet recognizes the essential difference between the spirit and 
methods of its lower and higher departments. A university may begin where its cir- 
cumstances and the condition of its people require, so only that it shall not close its 
work without offering to its students those chartered rights to liberal knowledge, that 
emancipation of thought, which is the true key-note of academic freedom and uni- 
versity life. That this is not the idea of the German university, I admit. That idea 
involves a complete severance of the gymnasium, or college, from the university. But 
forms and ideas must yield to actual conditions. And, much as it would shock a Ger- 
man university professor to tell him so, I am sure that for the teacher himself it is a 
higher discipline to be able and compelled to teach in both the university and the 
college, than in either alone. If a higher discipline, then a higher man is the out- 
come ; and, though the direct results may be less obvious, the indirect evolution of all 
concerned should be larger. 

ifow let me illustrate from our work here. If you will pardon me, I 
will quote from the report already cited as made to my Board, as to 
one of the functions of a university : 

A university should combine in its work three objects : the higher education of the 
young, the extension of the area of original research, investigation, and discovery, 
and the elevation of the public tone and culture. This last is done, in part, uncon- 
sciously and without any direct effort. 

[The speaker then showed how it was effected through the influence 
of the faculty and alumni, and through the influence of a free public 
library, offering and opening its benefits to all.] 

This is true also of art galleries and museums. The museum is the 
workshop of the scientist and the kindergarten of the people. It teaches 
natural science without a master. 

The most direct method of reaching the popular mind, however, is 
through x)0ijular lectures. Conducted by able men, they awaken the 
spirit of inquiry in many breasts, and diffuse important information. 
This is said to be a difficult community to reach by this method. But 
if free, and guaranteed by the university, and on subjects interesting to 
the community, it will after a while become the habit, and perhaps the 
fashion, to attend them. This university is doing what it can to raise 
the popular intelligence by free lectures on physiology and hygiene, 
and by free systematic instruction in drawing to teachers, and in night 
classes for the benefit of mechanics and others. 

There is just one other point I wish to allude to in a paper which pro- 
fesses to touch the surface of the subject merely. It is the reiterated 
demand of this or that educator for a university or a college to adopt 

898 * ■ ■ 



PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 85 

his standard of scholastic orthodoxy. You shall follow this method or 
that method, or issue only this degree or that degree, and for such and 
such courses of study ; otherwise you are schismatic, heretical, out of 
the ring. This is all nonsense. Who shall fix the standards ? Cer- 
tainly not those who are changing color as fast as the forest leaves when 
the frost comes. Education in America, in the world, is growing. It 
is feeling the full consciousness of its own expanding power. It has 
burst its shackles. It feels its strength. The great danger now is, that 
in the consciousness of new-found powers it may waste its energies in 
wrong directions, that it may forget the wisdom of the past. But while 
so much is tentative, while new problems are presented daily for our 
solution, we must beware of a slavish adoption of models. To do a 
thing merely because it has been done somewhere else, is the worst rea- 
son that can be assigned, unless we can show that the situations are ex- 
actly the same. You may make your coat of the same material as another 
man's, because he commends its texture, but you will have it cut to fit 
yourself, and not by his pattern. So we must adapt our educational 
institutions in each particular case to our own wants, and not another's. 

Solon made not the best code, but the best code for the Athenians. 
In arranging our schools, of whatever grade, we have to diagnose the 
case, as the doctors say. All the circumstances must be studied. We 
must do the best we can, not the best we would. In striving after 
ideals, it is not well to forget that we are of the earth, earthy. If we 
have a university, or a system of private high schools, and no common 
schools, it is well to regard the former in framing the latter. If the re- 
verse is the case, we must build on the public schools. In either case 
we are bound to regard the social culture and the educational condition 
of the people for whom we legislate. In a word, we should use a little 
common sense. And we need not be discouraged in either common 
school or university organization and work, if we fall far short of our 
hopes and plans and ideals. Experience teaches that such is the com- 
mon lot 5 and, if we are more fortunate, a wise humility will lead us to 
suspect that it is due more to luck than management ; or, to express 
the thought more truly and exactly, that Providence has favored us 
beyond our deserts. For, " Man proposes, but God disposes." 

In a word, then, I may say, that a direct relation exists between the 
university and the common schools, as successive phases of educational 
development, through the secondary schools and colleges, and that the 
relation should be recognized in the organization and development of 
each; and, moreover, that where circumstances require it, the univer- 
sity should do all necessary supplementary work within its power. 

Hon. D. L. KiEHLB, State Superintendent of Public Instruction for 
Minnesota, said : The theories announced here I cannot stop to con- 
sider. I will add, however, that our law requires that high schools 
receiving State aid shall receive non residents to the high school upon 
* satisfactory examination, so that these schools become free schools 

899 



86 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

for the use of the neighborhood. Professor Payne, of Ann Arbor, 
visited us, and gave a course of lectures at the University, and became 
acquainted with our work there, and he approved it as very superior. 

The promises are excellent. I desire to have it known what atten- 
tion we are giving to this matter. You can think about it from time 
to time, and in the future we shall know more about it than at present, 
but our confidence is continually growing. I will also say that the normal 
schools have passed a rule that in the case of students coming from 
high schools their certificates from the high school boards shall be 
accepted in lieu of an examination. 

The Chairman stated that Wisconsin had also adopted a similar 
rale. 

Mr. EOTE asked whether any particular number of pupils was re- 
quired. 

Mr. KiEHLE replied that every school should have a minimum of 
twenty. 

Dr, Harris. I suppose, Mr. Chairman, by the report from Harvard 
alluded to, that Harvard proposes to throw open its doors and allow 
persons not fitted in Latin and Greek to be admitted to certain uni- 
versity courses preparatory to a degree, in case they are sufficiently 
qualified in other things. During the move in that direction some years 
ago, instead of requiring less preparation in Latin and Greek, we se- 
cured more. It seems to me that it is the desire of the Faculty that it 
shall be on a healthy basis, and not on an artificial basis. In Harvard 
there is certainly more desire for Latin and Greek than there used to 
be, and to enter Harvard CoUege one has to be better posted in those 
languages than he used to be to graduate. The study of these lan- 
guages is much more scientific. Of course we hear of those who are 
against these studies. The sentiment of the community is not to be 
judged by them. It seems to me that the best way is to stimulate a desire 
to go into the college. I had some talk with a high-school teacher, and 
lie made the following remark: "The trouble is that our graduates do 
not go to colleges or universities, nor do they leave the community when 
they leave the high school. Personal influence of teachers can double 
the number of pupils going to colleges, and it is their business to do it. 
You know I do not believe entirely in a college course of study, but if 
the mountain is not coming to Mahomet, Mahomet should go to the 
mountain." 

The Chairman. As presiding officer of this section of the session, I 
have determined that I will not admit any exercises during the session 
until our programme was exhausted. "The Status of Education in the 
South" has been transferred to the International Congress, and will be 
discussed to-night in Dr. Bicknell's paper and such others as may have 
been designated. The programme of the Superintendents' Association 
is now closed. At the request of several gentlemen, I have consented 

900 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 87 

to hear from Mr. Angell, but will warn him that we can give him only 
a very limited time. 
Mr. Angell then read the following paper : 



THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING KINDNESS TO ANIMALS, AND THE 
AMERICAN "BANDS OF MERCY." 

Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen — I have your kind invitation to 
occupy fifteen minutes in behalf of the innumerable millions of God's 
lower creatures, who have no power in any language we can understand 
to speak for themselves — the beasts of the field, the birds of the air, 
the cattle on a thousand hills. 

I have no time to tell you about the hundreds of thousands that an- 
nually die on our cars and steamboats in transportation; how their 
flesh, with that of animals taken from cars and steamboats almost 
dead, are sold in our markets ; and of the effects on public health of 
eating those meats. 

I have no time to tell you of the cruel methods by which millions of 
animals are annually slaughtered ; and how every animal can be killed 
without fore-knowledge, and almost without pain, and ought to be ; and 
of the effects of this cruelty also on those who eat their meat. 

I have no time to tell you how, over a large part of this country, 
calves are taken from their mothers when too young to eat hay, and kept 
four to six days before they are killed without any nourishment what- 
ever, and during this time are bled, in some instances several times, to 
make their flesh whiter, more delicate, and more dangerous to eat. 

I have no time to tell you how in some parts of our country sheep are 
sheared in cold weather, and left standing in cold yards, without fleeces, 
several days before they are killed. 

I have no time to tell you how milch cows are ill treated, and the 
effects on the milk and its products, making it sometimes as poisonous 
as the milk of the ill-treated human mother. 

I have no time to tell you of the importance of our insect -eating birds 
to agriculture ; that we could not live on the earth without them ; and 
that they are decreasing in this country, while insects are increasing. . 

I have no time to tell you how our old and injured domestic animals 
can be killed in the most merciful ways, and are so killed where we have 
societies to do it. 

I have no time to tell you of cock fights, and dog fights, and bull 
fights,* and their influence wherever they are practiced. 

I have no time to tell you of the useless unrestricted vivisection which 
has been practiced so largely in this country many years ; how one man 
has taken already the lives of more than three thousand animals in his 
useless experiments; how these animals are kept in suffering some- 
times days, and sometimes weeks. Dr. Heary J. Bigelow, Harvard Uni- 
versity professor of surgery, told me some time since that from all this 

901 



88 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 

animal torture and destruction 7iot one useful fact has thus far, to his 
knowledge, been discovered in America. 

I have not time to speak of the ten thousand wrongs that are inflicted 
on man's useful servant, the horse, and his Southern cousin, the mule. 

If you stay long in this city you will see enough of them to makS 
your hearts sad with pity. 

I have not time to talk to you about the immortality of animals be- 
lieved in by more than half the human race, and in that half such men 
as Agassiz, who was a firm believer in the immortality of animals. 

If I had an hour instead of fifteen minutes, I could tell you about 
all these, and many other things which I think you would never forget. 

A few days since I had the pleasure of addressing one of the large 
educational institutions of this city, and at the close of my address a 
gentleman rose in the audience and said that some ten years ago he was 
a student at Dartmouth College when I had the pleasure of putting this 
information before some four hundred of them in the college chapel; 
and though he had never hardly thought of the subject before, he car- 
ried from his whole college course, when he graduated, no stronger or 
more durable impression than that of our duty to God's lower creatures. 
He is now a superintendent of the public schools of one of our most ioa- 
portant cities, and I believe a member of this convention. 

The wonderful growth of societies for the prevention of cruelty to 
animals is a subject with which probably some of you are familiar; how 
they have stretched out their protecting arms, nol! only in this country, 
but in Europe, Asia, Africa, and many islands of various oceans, num- 
bering among their members many of the noblest, and best, and most 
illustrious of the world's citizens. In England the Koyal Society is 
under the patronage of the Queen, and its president a member of the 
Queen's Privy Council. 

The first audience I had the pleasure of atddressing there some years 
ago was presided over by one of the most learned men in England, the 
Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, and the gentleman who moved 
the vote of thanks was Field Marshal Sir John Burgoyne, very near the 
head of the British army; the second was at the house of the Baroness 
Burdett Ooutts, probably, next to the Queen, the most highly respected 
woman in England. 

In France, Germany, and elsewhere, wherever I have traveled in 
Europe, I have found the game. One German society numbers among 
its members twenty-three generals and over two hundred officers of the 
German army. 

In my own State of Massachusetts I think tbat no charitable society 
of the State has on its roll of officers and members more distinguished 
and influential names than the Massachusetts Society for the Preven- 
tion of Cruelty to Animals. I think that no society in the State is better 
known or more popular. 

But, in the limited period allotted me, one thing I do have time to tell 
902 



PE0CEEDINX5S OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 89 

you; and that is, that we long ago found that the great remedy for all 
these wrongs lies, not in laws and prosecuting ofl&cers, but in the public 
and private schools; that a thousand cases of cruelty can be prevented 
by kind words and humane education, for every one that can be pre- 
vented by prosecution; and that if we were ever going to accomplish 
anything of permanent value for the protection of those whom our socie- 
ties were organized to protect, it must be through the kind assistance 
of the teachers in our public and private schools. 

We found another important fact — that when children were taught 
to be kind to animals, to spare in spring time the mother bird with its 
nest full of young, to pat the horses, and play with the dogs, and speak 
kindly to all harmless living creatures, they became more kind not only 
to animals, })ut also to each other. 

If there were more time, I should be very glad to give you the expe- 
rience of European teachers proving what I state. 

Out of two thousand convicts inquired of in American prisons, only 
twelve had any pet animal during childhood. 

Out of nearly seven thousand children carefully taught kindness to 
animals through a series of years, in an English school, not one has 
even been charged with a criminal offense in any court. 

To many of you it will be no new thing when I state that crime has 
grown in this country, for many years, far beyond our growth of popu- 
lation. 

If there were more time I would give you statistics. 

And it is becoming a great question how long our present form oi 
government, and the proper protection of property and life, can be 
maintained with this constant growth of crime over population, and 
how we are to stop it. 

ISTot more than one-half the people of this country, and in some 
States not more than a quarter, attend any church, or their children 
any Sunday-school. The churches cannot reach them. 

Science is making wonderful progress. A Mhilist lecturer recently 
stated to a large audience in Tremout Temple, Boston, that there were 
about four hundred schools in Europe (he did not say how many in Amer- 
ica) who&e only object was to teach the use of explosives, and that two 
ounces of an explosive he then had, placed at the entrance of Tremont 
Temple, would destroy the lives of every person in that building ! 

We want no French revolutions here, with barricades, and guillo- 
tines, and the streets red with blood ; and we think the best way to 
avoid such thing is through widespread merciful and humane educa- 
tion in our schools. 

How can you hetter reach the Nihilistic father or mother, who never 
enters the door of a church, or uses the name of the Supreme Being 
except in blasphemy, than through his or her child in our public schools? 
And how can you better reach the heart of the child than by teaching 

903 



90 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

it kindness to the weakest and most defenseless of God's creatures, 
with such other merciful teachings as may be easily added ? 

For this very purpose was founded, in Boston, on the 28th of July, 
1882, the "American Band of Mercy," whose badge I wear. 

Among its earliest members were the Governor of Massachusetts, the 
mayor of Boston, the chief justice of our commonwealth and other 
judges ; also the Eoman Catholic archbishop of Boston, who caused a 
branch to be established in his cathedral, with about 1,500 members 
and gave permission to esta.blish them in all the Sunday and parocjiial 
schools of his diocese. 

The leading editors of our religious and educational papers, and sev- 
eral hundreds of clergymen of all denominations, both Protestant and 
Eoman Catholic, also joined. 

It has now about four thousand seven hundred branches, reaching 
from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific coast, and numbering over three hundred thou- 
sand members. 

They are in Sunday-schools of all denominations, Protestant and 
Eoman Catholic, and in week-day schools of all grades, from the pri- 
mary to the university. 

Their badge is a five-pointed star, on which are the mottoes, '^ Glory 
to God," "Peace on earth," "Good will to all," and on the five points of 
the star, "Kindness to all harmless living creatures." On a recent 
public occasion the President of the United States, who belongs to a 
Buffalo branch, wore this badge while reviewing some ten thousand 
children. Their cards of membership have a bea,utiful picture of the 
signing of the pledge. 

Their object is to encourage in every possible way brave, generous, 
noble, and merciful deeds ; to protect not only the lower races, but also 
every suffering human being that needs and deserves protection. 

For this purpose they aim to use the best literature of the world, — 
songs, poems, pictures, and stories which will promote these objects ; 
and, by public "Band of Mercy" concerts and meetings, to reach all 
outside whom they can influence. 

Their methods of organization are so simple that a boy or girl can 
organize. 

Their meetings occupy various lengths of time, from an hour to ten 
minutes once a month or once a week — sometimes more often ; some- 
times separately, and sometimes as part of school or Sunday-school 
exercises. 

They cost nothing, for they require only the simple pledge, "I will try 
to be kind to all harmless living creatures, and try to protect them from 
cruel usage." 

To be sure, they have membership books for registry of names of 
members for those bands that want them ; beautiful imitation gold and 
silver badge pins for those who want them ; ribbon badges and cards 

904 



PROCEEDINGS OP THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 91 

of meinbersliip for those who want them ; some hundred thousand of 
these badges and cards have been sent out over the country, and they 
cost but a few cents each. 

But they are not necessary. All that is required is the simple pledge, 
" I will try to be kind to all harmless living creatures, and try to protect 
them from cruel usage." 

The parent Band of the Massachusetts Society sends to each Band 
formed from it, without cost, (1) Full information ; (2) ten interesting 
lessons on kindness, full of anecdote and instruction ; and (3) a copy 
for one year of its monthly paper, " Our Dumb Animals," filled with 
stories, songs, and instruction, encouraging kindness both to animals 
and human beings. It sends also to each Band specimens of Band of 
Mercy hymns and sougs, adapted to popular music and suitable for 
school and Sunday-school exercises. They are already sung from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific. All these it sends without cost. 

To every teacher who forms a Band of twenty or more, it sends in ad- 
dition its beautiful badge pin without cost. 

I have spoken of distinguished educators, statesmen, governors, 
judges, the President of the United States, and other distinguished per- 
sons who have joined the Bands of Mercy. 

Why did they join ? To make themselves more merciful ? Because 
they thought they needed it ? Probably not, but because they wanted 
to give the weight of their influence to lessen pain and suffering in the 
world ; to aid in carrying an education of mercy into all our schools ; 
to aid in hastening the day, 

" Wiiou Peace shall over all the earth 
Its ancient splendors fling, 
And the whole world giye back the song 
That now the angels sing." 

But will the Bands last? 

We think the man, or woman, or boy, or girl, who once takes the 
pledge, will never forget it — not in fifty years. If the pledge is repeated 
once a month, or once a week, we think the impression will be still 
stronger. If followed by proper reading and instruction once a month, 
or once a week, we think it will be stronger still. 

I can give instances in which a single talk on kindness to animals 
has produced wonderful results. 

President Hayes told me at Washington some years ago, that a sin- 
gle talk he once heard on the subject when at school in Massachusetts 
he had never forgotten, and so he put in his annual message what I 
wrote for him in regard to the cruel transportation of animals on our 
railroads. 

Seven to eight millions of animals in the great Chicago stock yards 
are now annually protected from cruelty, largely through the influence 
of one man, whose teacher fifty years ago, away up in the mountains 

905 



92 EDUCATIONAL CONT'ENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

of Kew Hampshire, put into his little boyish hand some verses on 
kindness to animals. 

Will the Bands last? 

We want everybody's influence to help us make them last as long as 
the world lasts and cruelty. We want to baptize them once, and then 
if they fall off baptize them again; and so keep baptizing' them to the 
end of time, or cruelty. 

In behalf of all whom I represent, and for the good of our own race 
and our common country, I pray you help us to form and baptize these 
Bands of Mercy in all your schools. 

The Chairman: Before we adjourn, I have a request from a State 
superintendent to present to this Association Johnson's Encyclopaedia. 
I can speak of it in the highest terms, but particularly of the philosoph- 
ical portion of it, by that most eminent of our thinkers, Dr. Harris. , 

Mr. Newell then announced that Mr. Packard's paper would be 
read at the afternoon session of the International Congress of Educa- 
tors. 

Gen. Eaton: I may add that Mr. Packard's paper will show you 
the climate of the schools as scientifically regulated. 

The Chairman: The business of this section of the National Associa- 
tion is now concluded, and therefore we are ready to adjourn until the 
meeting called by the executive committee of this section. I therefore 
declare this Department of the National Association adjourned sine die, 
906 



EDUCATION DAYS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



907 



LETTER 



Department op the Intekior, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington, J). <7., August 1, 1885. 

Dear Sir — A pleasing feature of the recent World's Exposition at New 
Orleans was the celebration of days set apart in honor of States, socie- 
ties, classes of men, or notable events. The early months of the Expo- 
sition passed away without any public gathering within its grounds to 
do honor to the Educational Department, or to recognize the wisdom of 
the management in determining upon its existence and promoting its 
organization and successful continuance. The custom of presenting 
collective exhibits to the officers of the Exposition had not been fol- 
lowed. Many regretted that the instructive lessons of the Department 
had not been brought by these means into greater notice; and, upon 
the suggestion of those who entertained this belief, the acting Director- 
General selected May 12 as "Education Day." 

The programme was arranged so as to have the exercises of an inter- 
national, as well as national, character. Gentlemen from widely dis- 
tant localities and countries were then examining the educational ex- 
hibits. Their large experience in educational fields enabled them to 
judge correctly the merits and usefulness of the displays which they 
had under observation. The examination had proceeded so far as to 
permit them to speak of the exhibits, or to present other topics sug- 
gested by the peculiarities of different systems of education. 

The ^me proved to be propitious, and the enthusiasm of the audience 
that listened to the addresses was more than was expected. A desire 
that these addresses should be printed was expressed, and I have the 
honor to transmit them to you for your consideration. They are broad 
in spirit, varied in character, rich in information, encouraging in tone, 
and representative of many differing yet allied methods of education. 

Near the close of the Exposition, at another reunion of the friends of 
education, William O. Rogers, Esq., who has long been a foremost man 
in the South, and ably filled the position of superintendent of the city 
schools of New Orleans, made a most appropriate address, full of 
thoughts derived from his experiences with the Exposition. It may 
well be counted as the New Orleans contribution to Education Day, 
though delivered on a later occasion. 

909 



P6 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

On the 14th of May Colored Education Day was celebrated. Emi- 
nent men addressed a large audience on a subject of great moment to 
the country. I submit these able addresses as worthy of your attention. 
Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

Lyndon A. Smith, 
Representative of Bureau of Education, 

W. I. <& G. G. Exposition. 
Hon. John Eaton, 

Gommissioner of Education. 

910 



ADDEESSES DELIVERED ON EDUCATION DAY, MAY 12, 1885. 



Presiding Ofpicer. 
HON. J. W. HOYT, ex- Governor of Wyoming. 

Vice-Presidents. 
Col. WM. PEESTON JOHNSTON, President of Tulane University, 

New Orleans. 
WILLIAM H. GAEDINER, Esq., Chief Cleric of U. S. B'ureau of JEd- 

ucation. 
JOHN G. PAEHAM, Esq., President of School Board. New Orleans. 
BEOTHER MATTHEW, of Christian Brothers^ College. 

Marshal. 
A. E. BUCKLEY, Esq., Superintendent of Indiana Educational Exhibit. 



ADDRESS OF EX- GOVERNOR J. W. HOYT, OF WYOMING. 

Officers of the WorWs Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, 
Ladies and G-entlemen — As the chairman of this clay's ceremonies in ob- 
servance of Education Day, I have much j^leasure in tendering grateful 
acknowledgments to the official board of this great Exposition for the 
fitting recognition they have given to the important cause this meeting 
represents. They have not only granted liberal space in these palaces 
of industry for the multitude of objects embraced in the' various exhib- 
its, individual, municipal. State, and national, but they have also made 
provision for the careful inspection and comparison of these exhibits, 
with a view to suitable recognition of them, and to an official report 
that shall make the knowledge thus gained by those, the common prop- 
erty of all who may be interested in it throughout the world. Last of 
all, they have designated this day as the appointed time when the 
lessons of the educational exhibit may be publicly referred to, and wlien 
the noble cause it represents may be publicly honored. For these evi- 
dences of intelligent and just, nay generous appreciation, I thank them 
in the name of educators and the friends of education everywhere. 

That there was propriety in the handsome recognition thus accorded 
them is manifest, since education is a world-wide interest. Other inter- 
ests, however Important, are of necessity more or less local and i^artial. 
The mighty machinery, the cunning inventions, the beautiful and mani- 
fold products of mechanical skill, the great collective exhibits of our 
7950 COT., PT. 3 '•! 911 



98 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

own country and of foreign lands, so attractively displayed in these 
vast buildings, — all these relate to partial aims and interests, whereas 
education is an interest underlying and embracing ev^ery other. Who 
shall define its boundaries, or measure the vital importance of its rela- 
tionships ? 

More than this, education is also the primary interest of man, since 
it means human development and perfectionment, which last constitutes 
the true end of being. 

We are wont to honor material things and to glorify material power. 
Wealth, dominion, — such are the common aims of human ambition. 
But what are these, rightly considered, if not means only? The innu- 
merable contrivances of man's ingenuity, and his mastery over the 
forces of nature, — what are they but vantage ground for the grander 
achievements of intellectual enlargement and spiritual exaltation 1 

I said human development was the great work of life, using thus the 
word human in its broadest significance. But to this grand conception 
the world has come steadily, because of false notions of prerogative and 
privilege. IJfevertheless extraordinary pi-ogress has been made during 
the last half century — a progress so marked that we find iu ourselves 
amazement at the past mingling with glad hopes for the greater future ; 
and not alone in this happy land ; there is progress of liberal ideas 
among civilized nations everywhere. Our ideas concerning the limita- 
tion of class, race, and sex, are rapidly changing from the narrow to the 
broader view. In the long past education was for the few ; to-day it is 
for the many ; on the morrow it will be for all. We already stand iu 
the dawn of that blessed day when none, not even the weakest and 
lowliest, shall be left to grope in darkness ; when all shall rejoice in the 
sunlight of intelligence. 

In yonder galleries of the Government Building, and wherever else 
the schools ai'e found represented, will be found abundant grounds for 
these high hopes. To them, Mr. Director-General, I point with confidence 
and gladness. There you will find evidence ' that the old distinctions 
are passing away; that the once lightly honored pursuits are taking 
their place among the professions ; that useful labor, of whatever sort, 
is honored as never before; that there is a growing appreciation of the 
necessity for fitting the worker for his work by giving him the best 
equipment that science and general intelligence can furnish ; that the 
newer views of woman's powers, and of her consequent rights to better 
and the best possible facilities for education, are fast gaining ground 
in all parts of the world ; that the old prejudices against color, because 
of its long association with conditions of inferiority and subordination, 
are giving place to just views of the importance of utilizing the forces 
of the colored population, as of every other, by securing to them the 
best available opportunities for gaining the knowledge and skill requi- 
site to the varied pursuits they may be fitted to follow ; that civilized 
communities in all countries are moved in these latter days to eftbrts 
912 



EDUCATION DAY ADDEESSES. 99 

for cultivating in children everywhere a taste for the beautiful in nature 
and art ; that moral culture in the schools is coming to be considered 
a needed security, as well for free institutions as for the individual soul. 
For these great ends the noble army of teachers must earnestly and 
ever strive. The final result of their labors will be the highest happi- 
ness of the individual, the peace of the nations, the brotherhood of the 
races, the dignity and glory of humanity. 

ADDRESS OF DIEECTOK-aENERAL BURKE. 

Ladies and Gentlemen — Only some half hour ago did I expect to be 
able to give myself the pleasure of joining with you in the celebration 
of to-day. I say pleasure, for it would have been a sincere pleasure- to 
me, not only to have borne testimony to the high appreciation enter- 
tained by the Board of Management of the success achieved in this de- 
partment, but to have borne testimony to their great appreciation of 
the effec t of this work of education upon the people, not only of the 
city, but of the South and of the whole country. Down at the bottom 
of all of our plans, and among the very first plans that were cherivshed 
by the Board of Management, was the idea of organizing an educational 
exhibit, which would not only represent the feeble effort of the South 
in that direction, but which would represent the effort of all the States 
and also of foreign countries, and which would be for the benefit of the 
South, inasmuch as it would show them the progress and the advance- 
ment made by other sections of our common conntry and by other 
countries. We knew that we of the South had nothing to boast of 
compared with our more fortunate neighbors of the ISTorth and East, 
and it was from our desire for improvement, and from our desire for 
learning, that we determined to make this department. We had hoped 
that we would gather to this standard the educators of the country; 
we had hoped, indeed, to bring here the prominent educators of all 
parts of the world. That we have not been able to do so has been due 
entirely to the very short time allowed for the preparation of exhibits, 
etc., a time dating only from July, 1884; and the brevity of the time 
allowed for these preparations makes us of the Board of Management 
feel all the more deeply indebted to those representatives of foreign 
countries who have honored us by their presence here, and on behalf 
of the management I extend my sincere thanks, not only to the repre- 
sentatives of foreign countries, but to the countries who have sent them. 
[Applause.] 

To the gentleman who has x>resided over that department, who has 
labored so zealously, so industriously, so effectively, not only through- 
out this country, but throughout foreign lands, the people of the United 
States owe a debt which they will be long in repaying. I will not un- 
dertake to say how many thousand miles this gentleman has traveled, 
how many weary days and nights he has spent in carrying out this matter. 

913 



100 ^EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

I know his heart was in the work from the very commeucement. To the 
able getitieineii who have assisted liiin we also return our most cordial 
thanks. We extend to them all, not alone the thanks of the manage- 
ment, but the thanks of the people of the whole South, on behalf of that 
section of our country (I say it without any sectional feeling) which 
is to be the chief beueficiary of this great work ; for it is idle to deny 
that, from the very commencement of this Exposition, the i)resent con- 
dition of the people of these southern States, and the means by which 
they could be raised to the level of ^their more fortunate neighbors, 
obtained full recognition. For the weary twenty years that have passed 
away since the late unpleasantness, the people of the section in which 
we. live have been engaged in a continual struggle with this great 
question. 

And why is it they have not made the progress that other com- 
munities, differently situated, have made? It is not because, they have 
not the same interest in the welfare of their children as is entertained 
by the people of other and more fortunate sections. N^o; it was solely 
because of the difference of the conditions that surrounded them. The 
$400,000,000 of indebtedness piled upon the people of the South since 
the war has compelled the people, in the maintenance of their honor 
and their credit, to rob their children of education. The taxation suf- 
fered by the southern States and cities to maintain their governments 
has been so great that it has been impossible to do those things for the 
education of the mass of the children that they would have desired. 

How is it in our own city ? It requires $1,000,000 of the alimony of 
the city to provide for the honor and the credit of the city. I do not 
say that this o ught not to be so, because it would be a poor system of 
education that inculcated upon the children of the city, or upon the 
children of the South, that they should disregard their legal obliga- 
tions. I mention the matter merely in explanation of the fact that the 
people of the South have not made that progress in education that 
would have been made had it not been for the great expense of carry- 
ing on their governments. But in this State, as in others in the South, 
these conditions have to a large extent passed away. The cry that 
goes up from Iowa of a school-house upon every hilltop is re-echoed 
throughout the South. We will have a school-house in every valley. 
[Applause.] And what is the effect of this display upon the people? 
We know that it will bear speedy fruit. It will no longer be a reflec 
tion on our fair State that the teachers of our children must go for half 
the year unpaid. 

I regret that I cannot speak on behalf of the progress made in edu- 
cation by the South during the last ten years, but I know it has been 
great, and I know of the abiding interest the people of the South feel 
in the question of the education of their children ; and I know that in 
the future the people who have engaged in this work, whether from 
France, Mexico, Japan, or Honduras, when they have witnessed the 
914 



- EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 101 

great results to be produced tLroug^bout the State and througiiout the 
South, will feel proud that they have phiyetl a part in this extraordi- 
nary display. I regret on behalf of the Board of Management that we 
have not been able to hold up their hands more in the work they have 
been engaged in. But for the circumstances that have surrounded us 
it would have been a pleasure and a j)ride to us to have done so. But 
the honor and the credit of the success they have achieved is all the 
greater, and therefore they have our heartfelt thanks. 

ADDRESS OF HON. J. aEOEGE HODGINS, LL. D., 

Deputy Minister of Education, Ontario, Canada. 

I feel honored at being permitted to take part in the proceedings of 
to-day. I have had for many years a more or less intimate knowledge 
of the progress of education in various States of this great Republic. 
But my experience during the last few weeks, as an educational juror, 
has impressed me very deeply with the fact that 'great and substantial 
advance has been made in every direction since the Centennial Exhibi- 
tion of 1876. 

I have been requested to represent Canada on this occasion, which I 
do with pleasure. As a subject of Her Majesty the Queen in that 
Dominion, I desire briefly to refer, first, to the state of education in 
our dear old mother land of England. Having recently visited that 
country, I can speak from personal knowledge. And I am glad to say 
that since the passage of what may be called the " Charter" (Education) 
Act of 1871, great and very gratifying progress has been made. The 
number of pupils attending school in England has immensely increased, 
and the parliamentary grants and local rates have, in the aggregate, 
been somewhat munificent. The general tendency of public sentiment 
in England is in favor of still greater efficiency in the various depart- 
ments of popular education, and also of its further expansion to meet 
the needs of all classes of the community. Some difficult aud trying- 
questions, too, in the educational problem have been practically solved, 
Xjarticularly those relating to local school rates, the inherent right of 
children to education in the schools or elsewhere, and the more difficult 
one of religious instruction. At all events, in the near future these 
questions will cease to be subjects of such bitter contention as hereto- 
fore amongst the educators of England. 

What I say of England is also largely true of the sister kingdoms of 
Ireland and Scotland. For fifty years a national system of education 
has been in efficient operation in Ireland, while the schools of Scotland 
have long been, especially of late years, famous for their numbers and 
excellence. 

As to the Dominion of Canada, which I have the honor to represent 
on this occasion, I may say that there are in that Dominion seven Prov^- 
inces, not including ISTewfoundhind nor tlie vast Territories in the 

915 



102 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

North-west, now unhappily in a partial state of insurrection on the 
part of the half-breeds and Indians. The brave and enthusiastic vol- 
unteers who have so nobly responded to the call of duty and gone out 
from each of the Provinces, will no doubt soon restore peace and har- 
mony in the disturbed districts north of your Territory of Montana. 

I may here give a brief statement (so far as I can) of the condition of 
education in these Provinces : 



Provinces. 


No. of 
schools. ' 


No. of pupils. 


Expenditure. 


Ontario 


5,362 
5,039 
1, 943 
1,447 

484 


464, 369 

245, 225 

98, 307 

66, 775 

21,843 

(no report) 

2, 693 


$3, 108, 429 

(not reported) 

612 889 


Quebec , . 




New Bntnswict 


(not reported) 
142 319 


Prince Edward Island 


Manitoba 




British Columbia 


53 


60, 758 





I would just mention one or two things which have struck ine very 
forcibly while acting here in my capacity as an educational juror. 

No one can visit the French educational exhibit without being pro- 
foundly impressed with its wonderful extent and completeness. The 
exhibit, too, under the direction of my friend, the Commissioner from 
Japan, Mr. Hattori, was to me a complete and most gratifying sur- 
prise. Not that I did not expect an advance even upon the excellent 
educational exhibit from Japan which was seen at the Centennial Ex- 
hibition of 1876; bat 1 was scarcely prepared for the very complete and 
most admirable exhibit in the various departments of education from 
that wonderfully progressive country, including examples of work from 
the primary school up to the university, which Mr. Hattori so fully and 
so courteously explained to the jurors. 

In speaking of the French educational exhibit, I cannot too strongly 
emphasize our estimate of its completeness and of its great practical 
value. The variety and extent of the multitudinous appliances for 
work of the schools and colleges was the subject of constant remark and 
commendation. The French seem to have excelled themselves in the 
beauty and finish, as well as excellence, of chart and model, map, and 
varied illustration of the subjects which go to make up the curriculum 
of study in each of the primary, intermediate, and higher schools of 
France. To our most courteous friend, M. Buisson, we were all indebt- 
ed for a most satisfactory explanation of the many points of interest 
in the great exhibit from France. 

There were one or two features in the French and Japanese exhibits 
which are of special interest, — in the French, for instance, the great 
variety of examples of industrial work from schools of all kinds. This 
is an entirely new feature, and quite a new departure in the schools of 
France. Within the last few years industrial education has been made 
compulsory in that country. The effect of it has been remarkable, as 

916 



, EDUCATION DAY ADDEESSES. 103 

the extent and variety of the work of the pupils exhibited abundantly 
testify. Time will not further allow a reference to other features of 
this remarkable exhibit. Those present can see and judge for them- 
selves. 

In the Japanese exhibit the inventive skill of the nation is admirably 
illustrated in the extent and variety of their educational appliances. 
In the kindergarten they are unequaled. Their collection is unique. 
In elementary science, simplicity and cheapness of illustration are com- 
bined in a remarkable degree; while in the appliances for higher edu- 
cation in the college and university they have in some things surpassed 
even France herself. 

I shall not be doing justice to other parts of the great exhibit if I 
did not refer to the very extensive and admirable collection of the 
Christian Brothers, under the direction of our excellent friend, Brother 
Maurelian, President of the College of Memphis. That exhibit is one 
of the most interesting in the Exposition. Its educational appliances 
are admirable, while the benevolent and truly Christian work done by 
the '• Catholic Protectory" was a surprise and a gratification to myself 
and to other members of the jury. 

Then the work exhibited by the Freedman's Aid Society of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Church was most interesting. It gave to those of us 
from foreign countries a vivid practical insight into the self-denying 
labors of that great organization for the education of the colored race 
in thirteen of the southern States. The exhibit of the American Mis- 
sionary Society was also interesting and valuable, while the extensive 
exhibit in one of the galleries of various colored schools in several States 
was both unique and instructive. 

I shall now for a few minutes briefly refer to two or three questions 
to which educators in the future will have to give heed. We have not 
reached our present proud position in the matter of popular education 
without a great struggle and without passing through many a conflict. 
Others may loom up in the distance, which may, or may not, be as for- 
midable in their character as those we have had to deal with, but yet 
they may be no less inimical to the cause which we have at heart. 

In the first place, the objection is frequently urged that we are edu- 
cating the people overmuch, and thereby unfitting them for the practical 
and homely duties of life. This is but the old cry, dating back many cen- 
turies, in a new form, that we are disturbing the social relations of the 
various classes in the community, that we are bringing these classes 
too near together, and that the necessary distinctions between the ar- 
tisan and the professional man, the employed and the employer, are 
being almost obliterated ; in fact, that the tendency of this over-education 
is to make "Jack as good as his master", and that thus we seek to over- 
turn the very foundations of society. 

The simple answer to all this is, that we are but endeavoring to reach 
a higher plane of intelligence, to equalize it for those classes which 

917 



104 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

were hitherto kept in ignorance, often designedly so; that the age and 
our country demand that this ignorance should be removed; that the 
general enlightenment of any community or people is a real substantial 
boon conferred upon that community or people; that in this general en- 
lightenment of the age, the relations between employers and employed 
will adjust themselves; and that educated labor is more valuable and 
less expensive to the employer than unskilled and une<lucated labor. 

Another objection is, that in certain other classes, which afterward 
live, as it is said, by their wits, we merely develop their mental powers, 
and thus make them clever in the ways of wickedness and dishonesty. 
It is true that hitherto national systems of education did not pretend 
to do more than give an intellectual, and, as far as possible, a moral 
training. Of late years, however, the force of the objection made has 
been .felt, and France and England and some other countries have 
sought to practically meet it. Within the last three or four years it has 
been decreed in France, and is now the law of the land, that all educa- 
tion in primary and intermediate schools must include in it industrial 
training also, and that thus a practical direction shall be given to the 
intelligence acquired at school. The result can be seen in the extensive 
school industrial exhibits from France. England is addressing herself 
(as Germany has done for many years) to this great educational reform, 
and in many of the exhibits here I am glad to see that the subject is 
receiving practical attention in several States. 

The third and only other objection to which I shall have time to refer 
comes from an unexpected quarter, from a distinguished authority on 
educational subjects, Herbert Spencer. In a series of articles published 
in the Contemj^orary Review last year, Mr. Spencer, under the head of 
the "Coming Slavery", discusses, among other things, the evil of ad- 
mitting the principle that education should be directed by the State. 
He says : " Legislators who, in 1833, voted £20,000 ($100,000) a year to 
aid in building school-houses, never supposed that the step they then 
took would lead to forced contributions, local and general, now amount- 
ing to £6,000,000 ($30,000,000); they did not intend to establish tbe 
principle that A should be made responsible for educating B's off- 
spring," etc. He further illustrates the point which he wishes to make 
against State systems of education. 

It is difiicult in a brief address like this to offer anything like a reply 
to so distinguished an authority as Herbert Spencer, especially as he is 
in fact discussing the broader principle of allowing government to ab- 
sorb so many things under its control, such as railroads, telegraphs, 
care for the poor, etc. All I can say is, that the tendency in the present 
day is to a division of labor ; and if in free countries, like yours and 
ours, the people (with a view to efificiency and economy) decide that the 
government should control and direct these things, who can reasonably 
object to its doing so *? 
Among the mottoes which adorn the display of the United States 

918 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 105 

Bureau of Education, I notice one which speaks of education as the 
basis find safeguard of republican institutions. True ; bat no less so is 
it the basis and safeguard of good government in monarchical countries 
also. Ko monopoly can be rightly claioied by any system of government 
in the matter of education, or in the blessings which it confers. 

One of the great features of the exhibition is the display of the pr(v 
vision made for the education of the colored race, and the result of the 
experiment now being mad*j toward that end is shown. As a British 
Canadian I greatly rejoice at what I have witnessed in this direction. 
The various southern States and the Freedman's Aid Societies from the 
North, — Methodist, Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Eomau 
Catholic, vie with each other in this great and benevolent work. I am 
rejoiced to know from the Director-General of this Exposition that as 
soon as the burden of war debts is removed from these States they will put 
forth their best efforts to educate and uplift the colored race. 

I cannot close without a reference to the great work being accom- 
plished each year by that distinguished man who presides over the Bureau 
of Education at Washington. I refer to Greneral Eaton. His successive 
Reports are mines of educational wealth. They have aroused and stimu- 
lated educational workers everywhere. Their fullness and comprehen- 
siveness have been a marvel. They have been eagerly welcomed every- 
where, and not least so in Canada, where they are highly prized as in- 
valuable storehouses of information and of the practical details of edu- 
cational labor all over the world. I hope that he may long be si)ared to 
carry on the good work in which he has been so ably and so sucessfully 
engaged. 

ADDRESS OE MONS. B. BUISSON, 
Educational Commissioner from France. 

It is an honor, but a dangerous honor, ladies and gentlemen, that the 
Board of Management have conferred upon me, in asking me to take an 
active part in these ceremonies. Ko doubt, since we are here iu Louisi- 
ana, in a State which has been several times French, and which has even 
yet not ceased to be a little French at heart, I would not be addressing 
you in a strange tongue were I to speak to you in my native language ; 
but there are in this large assemblage many visitors from various points 
of America, and so, to insure being understood by all, I crave permis- 
sion for a few moments to murder your beautiful English language. 

Once previously, several months ago, when the French section was 
inaugurated, the one-half in the Main Building, the other half in the 
Government Building, I had the honor of expressing before the Director- 
General the cordial sentiments, which time has tended rather to increase 
than otherwise, that I have entertained for all who have made pleasant 
here my position as commissioner. 

I am happy to have the opportunity of reiterating here to-day my 
most cordial thanks to the chief of the Education Department, to Gen. 

919 



106 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

John Eaton, of Washington, and to his esteemed colleague, Mr. 
Lyndon A. Smith, who have been the organizers of this branch of 
the World's Fair. It is to the Bureau of Education that Prance is par- 
ticularly indebted for the honor of having been called upon to co-operate 
in this grand civilizing work, of which we have seen so complete a suc- 
cess, and which will ever remain a bright spot, not only in the annals 
of Louisiana and the southern States, but in the history of America 
itself and in the peaceful progress of mankind. [Applause.] 

I do not forget that General Eaton has done the Minister of Public 
Instruction in France the honor of taking to him personally in Paris 
itself the flattering invitation to display here at your universal Exposi- 
tion the whole of the exhibit made at the Health and Educational Expo- 
sition of London. 

The French republic hastened to respond to the invitation of America 
because she is always happy to stretch forth her hand to her sister re- 
public across the ocean, because she has no reason to blush for her 
schools, and because she is conscious of having actually accomplished in 
her schools during the last seven or eight years a great work, a work 
almost Herculean in its character, a work worthy of being shown to the 
world [applause] ; and, finally, because in accomplishing this work she 
has not preceded, but in many points has followed, the example of her 
original, her brilliant, and her powerful sister of the United States. 

You do us honor, ladies and gentlemen, when you come to visit the 
different rooms of our French educational exhibit, to be a little jealous 
of some things we have displayed there; but I must tell you that 
many of the principal reforms of which you are so good as to approve 
as first results, have been elaborated from certain elements and germs 
which we have found in some of your own States, as exemplified at your 
grand and memorable Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. 

Thus It is that exhibitions and nations are tributary one to the other. 
We were therefore, in a sense, acquitting ourselves of a debt of gratitude 
in bringing to you here in New Orleans exemplifications of the scholastic 
systems wliich your country had actually inspired to us. Yes, I say it 
with pleasure, that our legislators, when they had succeeded in re-estab- 
lishing and consolidating the republic, felt a noble ardor to realize in 
France what had always been the first article in the republican pro- 
gramme — a truly national system of public education, perfectly free as 
far as affects what may be regarded as necessary to all, and entirely of 
such a character as to make free men, expert and intelligent workmen, 
and, above all, citizens devoted to their country; then the example of 
America was the first offered to them, and the system of education of 
your country was fully explained to the government of Prance in a 
voluminous report made on the Philadelphia Exposition by our com- 
missioners, who had been sent there for that purpose, and who were 
filled with a sincere admiration far the grand scholastic institutions of 
New England. To one other republic also we have been somewhat in- 
920 



. EDUCATION DAY ADDEESSES. 107 

debted, aud I must uot overlook the fact ; it is the little republic of 
Switzerland. 

I will uot occupy your time by sketching even briefly the principal 
features of the reforms of which I have spoken to you. They may be 
expressed in a word. They have founded a real scheme of i30i)ular in- 
struction. We possessed in France great resources for the instruction 
of what are still called in Europe the middle and the upper classes — 
excellent lyceums, colleges, and universities. But the instruction of the 
•children of the people, that grand majority that becomes the electoral 
body, although well developed in a few large towns, was, on the whole, 
far from sufficient. To make it complete, there were necessary thousands 
more schools, thousands more teachers, many millions more money. 

Let me say at once, in honor of republican institutions and republican 
customs, that the Parliament of the French republic dared to demand, 
and was enabled to obtain, but a few years after our terrible disasters, 
those great sacrifices which the monarchical government had never 
wished, or had never been able, to make on behalf of public education, 
even in times of prosperity. 

In seven years the number of schools has been increased by more 
than 7,000, the number of teachers has risen from 110,000 to nearly 
138,000, and the number of normal schools has been more than doubled. 
Of these we have now more than 150, of which 66 are for female teachers; 
570 new higher primary and professional schools have also been origi- 
nated. In fact, the part played by the state in primary education has 
grown to an amazing extent. Instead of the 9,000,000 francs expended 
by the empire on primary education, the republic spends 94,000,000, 
aud during the last seven or eight years more than 300,000,000 francs 
have been lent or given to the local boards for the building of schools, 
the need of which was evident. 

You see, gentlemen, we have accomplished reforms after the manner 
of the French, according to our habits of inexorable logic, following the 
spirit of our " centralizing" republic. In this case, however, centraliza- 
tion, while it certainly has its faults, has also shown, I think, that it has 
its good qualities. Instead of waiting until all the different departments 
of France had in turn imposed upon themselves the necessary sacrifices, 
Parliament came to their aid, and we were able to satisfy that impa- 
tience which, I admit, had somewhat of childishness possibly in its com- 
position, but which you also will admit was generous in its desire to see 
realized at once all that experience and intelligence had shown just and 
capable of realization. 

If time permitted, I would add a few words concerning the spirit 
which has presided over the recasting of our educational system, and I 
would take pleasure in showing you how we have striven to draw ad- 
vantages from that centralization of which I have spoken to you, in 
supplying the whole country at the same time with equally perfect sys- 
tems and instruments of education. To bring about this achievement 

921 



108 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

a grand elective council has been originated, which has been named the 
Bigher Council of Public Education. 

From its discussions has come forth a system of education at once en- 
larged and simplified, instructive and attractive, for it does not omit 
even music and singing; healthiest, for it takes care of the body as well 
as the mind, and includes gymnastic and manual exercises; more prac- 
tical, for it teaches drawing, which is the key of all industrial and me- 
chanical professions; and more moral and patriotic, finally, because it 
is founded on love of country. 

After mentioning the progress accomplished in secondary and higher 
instruction, M. Buisson, in concluding, invited the educators of America 
to attend the Paris Exposition of 1889, in which education will also oc- 
cupy a large place, and the object of which will be the celebration of the 
anniversary of the Revolution Frangaise. 

ADDRESS OF MR. lOHIZO HATTORI, 

Educational Commissioner from Japan. 

Japan is an old nation, whose history goes back over two thousand 
five hundred years ; but, on the other hand, she may be considered in a 
very new condition. She is new in regard to her intercourse with other 
nations, and the start she has taken in the course of occidental civiliza- 
tion. I take this opportunity to state brieiiy how Japan has thrown 
away her old system of education and has adopted the new. 

From the fourth century education has made gradual progress in the 
country. In thevyear 6G8 A. d. the first university was established in her 
capital, where classics, law, history, literature, mathematics, medicine, 
and astronomy were taught. Similar institutions soon sprang up in 
dilierent provinces, which were cherished by the Government. 

The aim of these institutions was not directed toward the diffusion 
of knowledge among the people at large, but merely to the education 
of persons to be employed in the public service. However, it exerted 
a good influence on the morals and manners of the people, and helped to 
train up virtuous men and women. 

The period of six hundred years, from the eleventh to the sixteenth 
century, was the dark age of Japan, and civil war prevented the edu- 
cational system from being kept in such a flourishing condition as be- 
fore. As many of you know, we had once an extensive intercourse with 
Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Several Japanese 
of high rank made visits to Europe and observed what was doing there, 
but we cannot find any trace of changes produced on general educa- 
tion in Japan by this intercourse. 

When x)erfect ijeace was restored, in the first part of the seventeenth 

century, the Government gave a fresh impulse to education, and the 

eighteenth century and first half of the nineteenth century may be 

considered the most flourishing periods of the old education of Japan. 

922 



EDUCATION DAY ADDEESSES. 109 

During this peaceful time of two hundred and fifty years Japan closed 
her doors against foreigners, but fortunately she did not close thera en- 
tirely; and. while the education under the old system was carried on with 
full energy, European knowledge was very slowly, but snrely, being 
introduced by some remarkable men. This is one of the most interest- 
ing parts of Japan's history. Men traveled from one end of the country 
to the other to meet some Holland traders at IS^agasaki, in order to obtain 
from them some knowledge of Europe by the awkward means of gestures, 
or through incompetent interpreters. Whenever they procured a book 
on any subject of Europe, they gathered together around it like so many 
ants on sweet cake, and night and day they labored on it till they made 
out its meaning. 

Their diligence, their perseverance, their suffering, were sometimes 
well repaid by the high reputations they obtained by their publications; 
but, alas! too often they were rewarded by imprisonment, or banishment 
to some isolated island. 

One generation iiassed away, but another generation followed its ex- 
ample, until at last they succeeded in their great aim to spread Euro- 
pean knowledge to some extent among the people, and prepared them 
for the event which was surely to come soon. When the Government 
of the United States sent Commodore Perry to Japan, and the treaty 
was signed between the two nations, the desire of the people to know 
of European sciences and arts became so strong that, despite the pro- 
hibition by the Government to go abroad, several dangerous attemi:)ts' 
were made to escape to America or Europe, to obtain knowledge of the 
western nations; and when the famous work of Fukuzawa on "Condi- 
tions of Western Nations" was first published, it was sold by many 
hundred thousand copies in a few months, and it was in this very work 
we first got the idea of the European system of education. 

Important events followed in rapid succession. The great political 
revolution of 1868 was accomplished, and ]S"ew Japan started with 
promise and energy. The old system of education was cast aside, and 
a new law of education was issued in the year 1870. 

Hundreds of young students were sent abroad year after year, while 
many officials were also commissioned to study the educational systems 
of America and Europe. In this manner we have revolutionized en- 
tirely our system of education. 

At present all educational affairs throughout the Empire are under 
the control of the Minister of Education, who is also a member of the 
Cabinet. 

All wards or villages have their school committees, and they have to 
establish elementary schools efficient to give education to the children 
of school age, which is from six to fourteen. 

The school attendance is compulsory, at least for the first three years' 
course of elementary schools, and parents and guardians are held re- 
sponsible for their children's attendance. The courses of study of ele. 

U23 



110 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

mentary, high, and normal schools are constituted according to the 
standard outlines issued by the Department of Education, with modi- 
fications in accordance with local conditions ; officers of the Educational 
DepartmcDt from time to time examine into the actual condition of 
educational affairs, and no school, either private or public, can close its 
doors against these inspections. 

We have already built about 30,000 elementary schools, 173 high 
schools, and 76 normal schools. 

While we are encouraging general education with the view to secure 
the safety and prosperity of the nation, we have not been slow in estab- 
lishing institutions for professional training and improving the uni- 
versity. There are now in Japan 1,219 professional schools, besides 
those high institutions under direct control of the Government, such as 
the University of Tokio, the Imperial College of Engineering, the School 
of Forestry, and many others. 

If a student wishes to enter the University of Tokio, he has to pass 
through first the eight or six years in an elementary school, and six 
years in a high school. When he comes to the university, there are 
provided the departments of law, science, medicine, and literature. 

The department of science is subdivided into: 1, course of math- 
ematics ; 2, course of physics ; 3, course of chemistry ; 4, course of bi- 
ology; 5, course of astronomy; 6, course of engineering; 7, course of 
geology ; 8, course of mining and metallurgy. 

The department of literature is divided into: 1, course of philosophy; 
2, course of political science and political economy; 3, course of Japan- 
ese and Chinese literature ; 4, course of Koten Koshiu Kua. 

Each one of these courses requires four years' study, except the course 
of medicine, where the study of five years is required. 

From these several government institutions alone, and without count- 
ing provincial and private institutions, we are sending every year over 
2,000 graduates into the field of activity. 

Japan is fully awake to the importance of education, and we find, 
among 8,200 new books published in the year 1882, 2,000 of them on 
educational subjects. 

Kow, Mr. Director-General, on behalf of the New Ja.pan of eighteen 
years old, started in 1868, I respectfully invite you all to inspect some 
of her enterprise in the field of education. Thank you for the kind in- 
vitation extended to Japan to bring her goods and the evidences of her 
progress to this great Exposition. 

ADDRESS OF J. R. DOBYNS, ESQ., 
Superintendent of the Mississippi Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb. 

It is an unexpected pleasure I enjoy to-day in responding to an invi- 
tation to speak a few words to this intelligent assemblage, gathered, as 
you are, from the four quarters of the globe, upon the great and inter- 
esting subject of deaf-mute education. 
984 



EDUCATION DAY ADDKESSES. Ill 

Standing a.s the representative of over thirty thousand deaf-mutes of 
the United States and Canada, I feel a just pride in their recognition 
on so important an occasion, and they, too, will be gratified when the 
news goes out that a feeble effort has been made in their behalf to-day. 

I have listened to the gentlemen from France and Japan with very 
great interest, and am sure we all feel complimented that their system 
of education is in any manner modeled after our own. In regard to 
deaf-mute instruction, we are, in some measure, indebted to France for 
the model upon which it is based ; and I am happy to say that Japan 
has taken hold of the subject, and with the growing desire of. her peo- 
ple for knowledge, deaf-mute institutions will soon rise as monuments 
to their humanity and as evidences of their liberality. 

While the great forces of civilization have been at work, the mighty 
arm of education has reached out and rescued the deaf-mute from the 
darkness of ignorance and lifted him into the glorious light of knowl- 
edge. 

As late as the year 1815, there was not, in the broad limits of this 
continent, a single school for deaf-mutes, but I am happy to state, Mr. 
Chairman, that these institutions now number about one hundred, and 
are educating over eight thousand pupils. 

There is not a State in our Union but what has its school for the edu- 
cation of the deaf and dumb. The Kev. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet 
planted the first seed in American soil in 1816, when he founded the 
American Asylum at Hartford ; while he has ceased from his labors, his 
works do follow him. 

There are hundreds of thousands of dollars appropriated annually by 
our legislatures for the education of these children, and our national 
Government has provided most liberally for their higher education. Ev- 
idences of their knowledge and skill as authors, artists, and mechanics, 
are to be seen in these buildings, and they ought surely to be congrat- 
ulated upon their handsome and varied display, and it will afford me 
pleasure, as their commissioner, to show you their exhibit. 

Mr. Chairman, the sign language is purely a philosophical language; 
that is, we have a reason for everything in it. It is the only universal 
language. I have the advantage of my* distinguished friends from 
France and Japan, for I can not only converse with deaf-mutes from the 
different States in my own country, but, when I meet an educated deaf- 
mute, whether he be from France or Germany or England or Japan, or 
whatever country, I can speak to him in his vernacular. 

Many noble men and women are devoting their lives to the.ameliora- 
tion of these people, and striving to improve the means of instruction ; 
and the day has come, when the man or woman who would successfully 
teach the deaf and dumb must be alive to the work. 

We are not only teaching them to read and write and think, but we 
are successfully preparing them for useful citizenship by giving them a 
thorough knowledge of some art or trade, 

9^5 



112 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

There is not a profession or trade iu our country but what has a deaf- 
mute representative. The minister, the lawyer, the author, and the 
teacher, are to be found among them. 

When we h)ok over the broad field of education we are exceedingly 
gratified at the progress iu this department. But this good work has 
gone one step farther, and the dumb have been made to speak. 

Prof. A. Graham Bell has invented a system of "vocal physiology," 
by a knowledge of which many deaf-mutes are enabled to articulate, and 
thereby. to gain a surprising command over spoken language. 

While I think a certain clasS' of deaf-mutes can and will be wonder- 
fully benefited by this system of instruction, I cannot appreciate the 
possibilities claimed by Professor Bell and his followers. I cannot per- 
suade myself that it is the only proper mode of instruction. But what- 
ever may be said for the superiority of the different systems, we are all 
making our best endeavor and will hail with joy any advancement in 
our work. 

I have with me to-day about forty deaf-mutes of Mississippi, who are 
indeed feasting their minds on this wonderful Exposition, and in two 
days have gained a knowledge of the world that thej'' could not have 
acquired in months and years of study. 

If Major Burke is present, 1 desire to thank him, in their name, for 
the kindness he has shown them in granting them the privileges of the 
Exposition free of charge. This experience will be a bright spot in their 
memory. In responding to this call, I did not expect to explain or de- 
velop the great plan of deaf-mute instruction, but I wanted to claim 
that it was a factor in the great problem of education, and that this 
people have been brought to appreciate whence they came and whither 
they are going. 

ADDEESS OF BROTHER MAURELIAN, 

Of the Christian Brothers' Schools. 

I feel highly honored in being called upon to represent Catholic edu- 
cation in the United Sta^tes, and with it, the Society of the Christian 
Brothers, of which I have the privilege of being a member. The cor- 
diality with which, the Brothers were greeted by the Bureau of Educa- 
tion and the managers of the Exposition, when about to exhibit in the 
Educational Department, can never be forgotten. I likewise deem it a 
duty to note the pleasure afforded me by the visits of very many dis- 
tinguished educators from all parts of the country, who have unreserv- 
edly given assurance of their gratification that the Brothers have taken 
part in the educational exhibit. 

Intimatelj^ connected with the work of the Brothers in the United 
State-s is the history of their founder, the organization of their society, 
and the results attained by them during the past two centuries. 

To France belongs the glory of having given us the venerable Jean 
Baptiste de la Salle and his order, the Brothers of the Christian Schools, 
926 



, EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 113 

popularly known in England and America as Christian Brothers. This 
remarkable man was born at Rheims, April 30, 1651. He was descended 
from one of the most ancient and most noble families of France, and was 
a near relative of the great explorers of the Mississippi valley, La Salle 
and the distinguished Father Marquette. Although Jean Baptiste de 
la Salle was afforded every facility for the enjoyment of the pleasures 
and honors of this life, yet, at the early age of seventeen he renounced 
all future worldly prospects for the purpose of devoting himself to God's 
holy service. In due time he was ordained priest, received the degree 
of doctor of divinity, and devoted himself with all the energy of his soul 
to the good of his neighbor. 

The grea.t aim of his life was to provide for the Christian education 
of youth, for whiish purpose he spared no effort, and, after distributing 
his patrimony among the poor, he at once labored with all his might in 
behalf of those grades which, at that time, were neglected in his own 
dear country. On June 29, 1680, the venerable founder formally organ- 
ized his society. He personally taught school at Rheims, Marseilles, 
Paris, and Grenoble, and died a most consoling death on Good Friday, 
April 7,1719, after having had the consolation of seeing his order estab- 
lished on a firm basis. To this saintly founder of the Brothers does the 
world owe the simultaneous and mutual simultaneous methods of in- 
struction, which he origiuated and substituted for the individual method, 
in use up to that date. Under this, his new system, he established 
thirty-three primary schools; a reformatory; two boarding schools, 
into which he introduced object lessons, and whose programme of stud- 
ies was more than a century ahead of modern establishments o*f higher 
instruction, and for which it might still ^erve as a model ; two schools 
of technology ; Sunday and evening schools having special courses for 
the study of mercantile and industrial pursuits ; four normal schools 
for lay teachers ; and a scholascicate, or normal school, for his own dis- 
ciples. It is a fact of history that the first normal school ever founded 
was that established by the Abbe De la Salle at Rheims, in 1683 ; and 
while France enjoys the glory of having had the first normal school 
ever established in the world, and of having had normal schools more 
than fifty years before any other country, it owes this glory to the 
founder of the Brothers. A modern author, commenting on the work 
accomplished by the venerable founder of the Brothers, says : "All con- 
versant with the state of education in the seventeenth century will ap- 
preciate the daring and genius of the man who not only conceived, 
but who actually achieved so much. At his bidding the whole modern 
educational system leaped into existence." In addition to the kinds of 
schools mentioned as having been founded by De la Salle during his life- 
time, the Brothers have under their control orphanages, intermediate, 
agricultural, military, and art schools, academies, commercial schools, 
and colleges. 

To realize the magnitude of the work accomplished by this great and 
7950 COT., PT. 3 8 827 



114 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

holy man, we have but to reflect that the general outlines of his raelh 
ods of instruction and of his graded schools, with iheir salient features, 
have been adopted by every civilized country, and that his society at 
this time numbers about twelve thousand trained teachers, who have 
a complete system of their own for the religious, moral, mental, physi ■ 
cal, industrial, art, and agricultural instruction and training of boys 
and young men. The society has normal manuals and complete appli 
ances, invented and adopted by the Brothers, for instruction in all 
branches of literature, science, and art. Its schools are to be found in 
all parts of the world. 

Of the society and its methods of instruction much appreciative tes 
timony could be cited; but I shall content myself with a few brief ex- 
tracts; I quote Dr. Barnard, who, treating of public instruction in 
France, asserts that "the most systematic, efficient, and widely dissem- 
inated order of the Christian Brothers was so wisely organized in 1680 
as to survive all the mutations of civil government since that time." 
Mons. De Bonald, in his "Theory of Social Order," writes : "The vener 
erable De la Salle is a hero in the eyes of the political world, and his 
institute is a master-piece of wisdom and of knowledge of men." A 
committee in a recent report to the English Parliament wrote: " Had 
we known the system of the Christian Brothers, Lancasterian methods 
would never have been tolerated in our schools." 

In reference to education in the United States, as well as elsewhere, 
I request your indulgence for a few moments longer to consider the 
dignity or status of the educator. 

Cur Divine Lord gives us his appreciation of children in these words: 
" Suffer little children to come unto me and forbid them not, for of such 
is the Kingdom of Heaven;" and Eichter, evidently impressed by the 
foregoing words, beautifully exclaims, " I love God and little children !" 
Here we have embodied the idea of whatever is purest and best in 
Heaven and on earth. Were I to ask parents this question, "Have 
you anything on earth that you value more than your children?" I 
feel convinced that all true parents would unhesitatingly assert that 
they regard their children as their most precious jewels. Their acts 
prove this, for if a child is unfortunate in health or otherwise, parents 
at once sacrifice rest, comfort, money, property — in fact, everything — 
to restore the child's health or to relieve its distress. If children are 
treasures of such inestimable value, and if parents are so deeply con- 
cerned for their bodily welfare, it should challenge their solicitude to 
exercise the most scrupulous care for the superior and more precious 
part of their children — I mean their spiritual and moral welfare. The 
child has a soul, an intellect, a mind, a heart, affections, a high sense 
of the moral, a desire to learn, and all these faculties require the most 
careful guarding, direction, and cultivation. A child in the hands of 
an incompetent person can in a short time acquire knowledge of moral 
928 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 115 

■wrong that should never enter its mind, and for the blotting out of 
which true parents would willingly sacrifice a fortune. 

It therefore behooves statesmen, educators, and parents to insist that 
the best, the purest, and the most skillful men and women be secured 
to deal with so important a matter as the education of youth. 

Concerning the dignity of the educator or the Christian professor, 
St. John Chrysostom most happily remarks, ''There is no painter, there 
is no sculptor nor artist, be he who he may, that can be compared with 
the man who knows how to form the minds and hearts of youth. This 
is a work far surpassing the finest creations of human art— to reproduce 
in souls the living image of Jesus Christ." 

On the subject of securing none but the ablest and the best for edu- 
cating youth, the distinguished Whitelaw Eeid was inspired to say: 
"There is no place in the public service where bad work, ineflficient 
work, is more to be deplored than in the education of children. If laws 
are badly made, you can repeal them; if courts do not rule justly, you 
can turn out the judges; if your rulers steal your money, you can send 
them to Blackwell's Island; but if the schools are ill-managed, if the 
children are led astray, or even not led aright, you are poisoning the 
life-blood of the community. You might as well economize by mixing 
chalk and water with the milk for your baby as economize by getting 
ignorant people to open the gates of knowledge for your children, or 
unfit people to mold their character at the most impressible age." 

An eminent European statesman has said, " Whatever you desire to 
have in your nation you must introduce through your schools." If, 
therefore, we desire to have a nation great and prosperous, free from 
corruption, we must insist on fostering a high standard of morality in 
our schools, and this standard of morality must have God's holy law 
for its basis. It is in this way only that we can create in youth that 
lasting sense of responsibility to G-od for their actions, which will train 
them to self-control and to making a right use of knowledge. 

In conclusion, I invite attention to the fact that in a few years the 
young men and boys, and the young women and girls, whom we are 
now educating, will take their j^laces in the world to control all its great 
interests, whether in Church or State, commerce or the professions, arts 
or industries, society and family, and it devolves upon educators on this 
great day to emphasize the importance of the moral in education, that 
by the acquirement of every religious, moral, and social virtue, the rising 
generation may be fully prepared for such serious responsibilities. 

ADDRESS OF LE EOT D. BROWN, 

State Commissioner of Common Schools for Ohio. 

In compliance with the invitation of the committee of arrangements 
for Education Day, I am here to address you briefly on one of the most 
important subjects connected with education in any country. Eepre- 
senting the great State of Ohio a.s her chief school officer, and also rep- 

929 



116 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

resenting that large body of professional men known as school superin- 
tendents, it seems appropriate that I should sx)eak of the executive side 
of public school work in the United States. 

Evidence is not lacking to show that our fathers, in founding this na- 
tion, adhered to the doctrine that the education of the people should be 
fostered, encouraged, and directed^ by the State. Thomas Jefferson, 
whose enduring and brightening fame rests in part upon his eflPorts in 
behalf of education, advocated a system of public instruction for Virginia 
which included elementary schools, academies, colleges, and even the 
university. The educational system developed by Jefferson, like all 
practical systems of public education, gave due prominence to school 
supervision. 

The conditions of society in America during Jefferson's life were too 
crude for the fruitage of his noble work in behalf of free schools to be 
made manifest while he lived But in the ordinance of 1787, and in the 
constitutions of the new States which were admitted into the Union, 
the influence of the advocates of public instruction is clearly seen. Nor 
was this influence confined to the new States. Still, it was full fifty 
years after the famous Ordinance had gone into effect, before any State 
in the Union had anything like a thorough and comprehensive system 
of common schools. 

In 1837 HoRAC h: Mann was appointed secretary of the Massachusetts 
State Board of Education. His appointment to this office marks an era 
in the history of education in the United States. He was th^ first man 
who was employed as a specialist to supervise the public schools of a 
State. He was the first great school executive officer that America 
produced. His annual reports, containing the records of his remarkable 
labors, are the very gospel of the "new education," and are found in 
the libraries of every country. 

But Horace Mann's light did not shine for Massachusetts alone, nor 
were its rays limited to Kew England and the Middle States. Here, at 
this World's Exposition, in the school exhibits of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
and a score of States besides, may you see the results of educational 
systems shaped after the model formed by the immortal secretary of 
the Massachusetts Board of Education. I need not say that the ed- 
ucators of the present, as well as of the past generation in America, 
have been imbued with the spirit of Horace Mann, Philbrick of Boston, 
Hancock of Cincinnati, Eickoff' of Cleveland, Pickard of Chicago, Harris 
of Saint Louis, and the distinguished gentleman, to-day present, who 
for more than a quartei; of a century superintended the public schools 
of Xew Orleans, were all in some sense disciples of Horace Mann, and 
showed to the world the great value of placing strong men empowered 
with large authority at the head of systems of schools. 

Since the days of Horace Mann, school superintendents have been 
noted for the spirit of self sacrifi ce which has pervaded their work. 
As I speak this afternoon, the Superintendent of Public Instruction for 
930 



- EDUCATION" DAY ADDRESSES. ' 117 

Louisiana is laboring like a true missionary to establish a system of 
teachers' institutes throughout the State. Those who know the advan- 
tages which such institutes affonl in the direction of the professional 
training of teachers will not fail to commend the zeal of Superintendent 
Eastou at Opelousas, New Iberia, and other places in the Evangeline 
country. In a letter just received from South Carolina, I learn that 
State Superintendent Coward is to be occupied with this same institute 
work during the hot months of next July and August. Time would 
fail me were I to attempt to cite the numerous examples of school super- 
intendents who have been willing to sacrifice themselves that the cause 
of education might prosper. 

Superintendent Philbrick has recently told us that in G-ermany they 
say : As is the teacher, so is the school. In Holland they say : As is 
the inspection, so is the school. In the United States, I think, the his- 
tory of education convincingly proves that as is the supervision, so is 
the school. What we need in this country, therefore, is a better super- 
vision of the public schools, supervision like that of France, and like 
that of Japan, in which large powers are granted to competent men, 
who are held responsible for the thorough inspection of every public 
school in the land. 

Let us strive, then, to magnify the office of those who direct the work 
of teachers. Let us as educators and as citizens urge that education, 
which is universally admitted to be the foundation of all our Nation's 
greatness, be exalted at Washington by the creation of a Department 
of Education, whose chief shall be a member of the cabinet. The great 
good which the Bureau of Education has accomplished under Commis- 
sioner Eaton and his predecessor would be more than doubled were 
education conceded the position in our national government that its 
importance demands. 

I trust, Mr. President, that this day's work may tell for good toward 
the cause of education, not only in America, but also in every country. 

ADDHESS OF LYNDON A. SMITH, ESQ., 
Of the United States Bureau of Education. 

It seems appropriate for one who has had the immediate supervision 
of the Department of Education to speak of the beneficial results at- 
tendant upon its existence. They commenced long before the giant en- 
gines set in motion the miles of shafting and the multitude of machines 
that announced the opening of another World's Exposition. In a myriad 
school-rooms, from Minnesota to Florida, from Maine to Oregon, the 
minds of children and youth turned more intently to their tasks as 
they realized that their examinations and exercises were to be shown to 
crowds of visitors in a distant city. The interest in their duties in- 
creased and accelerated the development of mind for which the school is 
maintained. Not only did the mind of the pupil grasp more earnestly 
his daily lessons, but it stretched out from its narrow and familiar sur- 

931 



118 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

roundings to another and a dissimilar place. Our country is great 
and wide, and it is well for the child eveu to have his thoughts and sym- 
pathies extended to plS-ces distant in miles, but near in common inter- 
ests and common dangers. The need of patriotism is as great as ever, 
and that grand sentiment is nourished by every tie that binds together 
in thought, in sympathy, and in interest the citizens of our spacious 
country. 

The value of the Exposition is most realized, and its advantages best 
gained, by those who visit and examine its wealth of display in agri- 
culture, in commerce, in manufactures, in art, in education. The in- 
spection of the last-mentioned display has not been forgotten by 
numerous classes of visitors. Especially has the collection of school 
work and educational material attracted attention from the progressive 
citizen, the professional educator, and the student of human affairs, as 
they affect the welfare of the State and the progress of civilization. 
There are many things in an educational display attractive to the ordi- 
nary observer. The work of some child of his acquaintance lies con- 
cealed in a bound volume or is spread on the wall. The memory of his 
own school days is quickened by the likeness and unlikeness of the 
text-books and furniture of to-day to ruder ones that once bore the 
marks of his thumb and his knife. The drawings, the collections of 
natural science, and the classes in operation invite his attention by their 
novelty and usefulness. The drawing that composes a large part of 
the exhibit of any series of schools has specimens attractive to every 
eye. The displays of art receive admiration and commendation from 
those not yet interested materially in the system of education they rej)- 
resent or the results they represent. Not less works of art are the 
combined effects of the marvelously systematic and orderly appoint- 
ments of the Christian Brothers' exhibit, and the artistic effects pro- 
duced by the arrangement of form and color in the admirable display 
of France. 

The scientific collections have been visited by great numbers of per- 
sons. 

The discovery of common natural objects in a systematic collection 
tends to increase a person's respect for them as he meets them day by 
day, and draws his attention to them, whether they be rocks, flowers, 
trees, birds, or other animate or inanimate things. The casual obser- 
vation of animals is not eminently an intellectual occupation, but it may 
be a first insight into the animal world. It is a step, only, from the 
still menageiie of a museum to the wild and unrestrained denizens of 
the forest and the swamp and the lake. Such a habit in any child or 
adult is a lump of leaven to raise up from degrading or selfish thoughts, 
and to neutralize or replace desire for debasing indulgence or trifling 
amusement. All grades of museums, from those collected by the indus- 
try of almost baby hands to those of the veterans of world-wide tours 

932 



EDUCATION DAY ADDEESSES. 119 

and life-long efforts, have been examined and yielded their benefits to 
the passing visitor. 

Actual school operations, kitchen garden, kindergarten, and manual 
training, have been noticed by people of all ages and circumstances. 
We cannot watch the seeds sown in their minds as they watch these 
forms of mental and physical development, yet we cannot doubt but 
they sometimes fall on good ground, to bring forth fruit a hundred 
fold. The experiments in physics (especially in electricity) and the per- 
formances in gymnastics which have been shown, have been suggest- 
ive to those that have seen them of the wonderful powers that surround 
them or lie dormant within their own bodies. 

The immediate purpose of the educational exhibits was to furnish 
opportunities to teachers and educators to study methods and systems 
of instruction. The systems of our country 'differ both among them- 
selves and from those of foreign countries. Those familiar with the 
principles of each system are anxious to know the workings of its schools 
and find them illustrated in the collections of school work and appli- 
ances. If these systems were to be studied merely to discover how the 
best educational results could, come from the vast expenditures of money 
for education ($90,000,000 in 1882-'83) it would be most profitable. When 
they are considered in view of their influence on society and on prog- 
ress they assume greater importance. Kot only the systems of instruc- 
tions adopted by legislatures and educational authorities, but the 
methods used by individual teachers are shown in the volumes of ex- 
amination papers, the reports of work being done, the specimens of 
drawing, the articles made by boys or girls where the industries have 
made their presence felt in the school-room. Teachers are not alike, 
and they excel in different qualities. Their excellences appear in the 
results of their work with the scholars. Only educators dull of com- 
prehension can fail to find in examination of these exhibits their own 
defects painfully reflected in other's work, and methods of teaching 
unthought of before. The exhibits of normal schools are rich in these 
suggestions. The methods by which persons are prepared for the 
teacher's profession are outlined in them. That profession has to deal, 
not with values, but with lives. We admire the skill of the electrician 
who transforms that subtle fluid harmlessly into power and light. A 
more subtle influence pervades the child than that which fills yonder 
wires, and the teacher may make it yield a light more beautiful than 
at evening shines from these globes, or end in darkness most deplora- 
ble. The means and instrumentalities used by the most discerning 
and taught by them to the multitude of teachers now passing out of 
our normal schools, are amply illustrated in the Department of Education 

The student of political and social science is mostly richly rewarded 
for his time spent among the educational exhibits. They indicate the 
ability of the political bodies they represent to govern themselves, to 
restrain violence, to extenxi a cordial welcome to new citizens and new 

933 



120 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

industries, to grow rich in material wealth and productive power, to in- 
crease in character and influence. No State neglectful of its educa- 
tional interests can hope to prosper. It may have fertile soil, but its 
harvests will be meager without intelligent husbandmen. Its mineral 
resources may be unlimited, but they will not avail in ignorant hands. 
It is the increase in intelligence, the multiplication of school-houses, 
that convert the natural resources of a country into the means of life and 
comfort. 

Two other points, noticeable to all examining closely the Department 
of Education, are, the moral atmosphere of the school-room and the ten- 
dency to teach a child that which he is to know and to do in after life. 
The exhibits contain industrial features, specimens of carpentry and 
iron work and sewing. These do not illustrate what skill an apt me- 
chanic may acquire. They do not show intricate design and perfect 
finish. But they do show that youth may learn to use the implements 
of industry with intelligence, and cultivate the hand and the head 
together. We need and are to have more skillful laborers, and a 
generation more proud of labor and less ashamed of its requirements. 

The moral tone of our education is shown in the character of the 
compositions, and the mottoes of the books of school work. The read- 
ing-books in use contain selections possessing not only literary excel- 
lence, but an elevating moral tone. The contents of geographies and 
histories are strengthening to children in many ways. The ideas that 
pervade the school-room are proven by the testimony of a multitude of 
exhibits, which taken alone might not be convincing, but which corrob- 
orate each other to such an extent that their evidence cannot be doubted. 
The teacher has an ambition to lead children forward, not backward. 
IsTo parent need feel that our schools are likely to build other than good 
characters in their children, so far as they build any. If they are not 
all that could be desired in the cultivation of character, they arfe vastly 
superior to the ordinary surroundings of childhood and are full of safe- 
guards against moral injury. 

ADDRESS OF WM. O. ROGERS, ESQ. 
Delivered, May 30, 1885, at a meeting of educational exhibitors,^ W. I. Sf G. C. Exposition. 

One of the side lights of the great Exposition to the people of New 
Orleans has been found in the great number of intelligent and agree- 
able persons which it has brought to our city during the past winter. 
Some of the great educational associations of the country have assembled 

^ This meeting was called for tlie purpose of passing resolutions relative to the man- 
agement of the educational department of the Exposition. The resolutions adopted 
were as follow*: 

Whereas, We, the representatives of different departments of public education in 

the United States and foreign countries, ha^e been associated most profitably during 

the World's Exposition at New Orleans, La., in showing the recent progress and 

present facilities of public education of every grade, and now, at its close, wish to 

934 



- EDUCATION DAY ADDEESSES. 121 

iu convention. It is not necessary to enumerate all of them, but to re- 
fer only to the International Congress of Educators, the Dej)artmei!it of 
Superintendence of the National Educational Association, the National 
and State Medical Associations and various press associations, the 
convocation of Jewish rabbis and the like. There has been a steady 
stream of distinguished men from our sister States and from the enlight- 
ened nations of Europe and Asia. The commissioners in charge of the 
various exhibits, in many instaiices, have been men distinguished ior 
learning and of high social positions in their own countries. They have 
been ably assisted by men selected for their peculiar fitness for the posi- 
tion. The intercourse uf our peof^le with men whom we had known only 
by fame, or who had made themselves respected by their talents and 
esteemed for their personal worth, has been an agreeable feature of the 
past season. I do not know how many hearts have been stolen from 
our Southern laud by the eloquent whispering of the north wind among 
the stately pines and the bearded live oaks during the continuance of 
the Exposition, but I do know that many pleasant friendships have 
been formed ; that many agreeable memories will remain, giving a larger 
and fuller appreciation of the enjoyments of refined social intercourse. 
We shall think long and pleasantly of the many good, kind-hearted, 
clear-headed, learned men who have come and gone, or are about to go, 
with the great Exposition. 

Nor can I, as a citizen of I^ouisiana, fail to be grateful for the fact of 
the Exposition. A profound sorrow is felt by all, young and old, rich 
and poor, at the thought that a life so brief may soon pass out into dark- 
ness and silence. Already the sound of the hammer may be heard in 
the work of removal, and the echo falls upon our hearts as when one 
hears the sod fall for the first time upon the coffin of a friend. It is 

express onr appreciation of the hearty co-operation of the Bureau of Education at 
Washington, D. C, in furtherance of these iuterests: Therefore, 

Resolved, That hereby we commend the plan devised by Gen. Eaton, United States 
Commissioner of Education, in providing means to represent at this Exposition the 
various i^hases of education, at home and abroad, as wise and very successful in giving 
all governments, States, and institutions of superior education, the fullest liberty and 
opportunity to present their respective methods of educational work in their own 
way, so far a3 consistent with a needful unity, to serve an intelligent purpose for 
comparative study in the minds of teachers and educators generally. 

Resolved, That our most cordial thanks are due to Prof. Lyndon A. Smith, Gen. 
Eaton's official representative here, for his untiring attention and discreet supervision, 
uniformly given in the discharge of the diificult and delicate duties assigned him, and 
we very gratefully acknowledge that no small part of our success and pleasure has 
been due to his effort and zeal in our behalf. 

Resolved, That these resolutions bQ printed in the city jiapers, and copies of the 
same be sent to all exhibitors connected with the educational department of the Ex- 
position. « 

WM, W. PAYNE, of Minnesota, 

• E. C. JilTCRCOGK, of Louisiana, 
LE EOY D. BROWN, o/0/(Jo, 

Committee on resolutions. 
935 



1 22 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

difficult to realize that we shall in a few hours or days cease to look 
upon these rich and varied treasures, the resources of great States and 
countries and the products of a skill and industry which dignify human- 
ity everywhere. 

Our only consolation is the hope that we have not been insensible to 
the lessons of the Exposition while it lasted, and that we shall be able 
to profit by those lessons after it has ceased to exist. In that special 
branch of the Exposition with which we who are here assembled have 
most to do, there has been much to excite our admiration and to pro- 
voke our most earnest investigation. In the extent and variety of 
material 5 in the carefully prepared tracings of progress through all 
lines of school instruction 5 in the presentation of results actually ac- 
quired and the indications of possibilities yet to be attained, the edu- 
cational exhibit is, unless I greatly err, the largest, fullest, best devised, 
and best prepared exhibit ever found in any of the great expositions. 
Much of this result is unquestionably due to the foresight and energy 
of the Commissioner of Education, and to the cheerful co-operation ex- 
tended to him by the political and educational authorities of our own 
and foreign countries. We are also, assembled here to testify, as with 
one voice, to the patience, discretion, and good sense of our esteemed 
friend who, as representative of the Bureau during the absence of Gen- 
eral Eaton, has so wisely performed the difficult, and, at times, delicate 
task intrusted to his care. 

If, indeed, this grand school-house of the* nation is closed as a thing 
of the past, we who have been permitted to study within its walls have 
the grave responsibility which is always attached to golden opportu- 
nity. I believe that notwithstanding the embarrassments under which 
the Exposition has labored; notwithstanding exceptional difficulties of 
an execrably bad season, when we treated our friends to chilling winds 
and mud-lined streets, and desolate gardens, instead of genial zephyrs, 
clean crossings, and blooming flowers; notwithstanding an attendance 
at times almost meager; notwithstanding all these things, I believe the 
Exposition was wisely planned, and that it has accomplished an im- 
mense influence for good. Thousands upon thousands of earnest, intel- 
ligent persons have come here from far and near, with pencil and note- 
book, in earnest, thoughtful study. They have taken their lessons with 
them, and the school-houses of the world and the world must beat more 
bravely for the fresh inspiration. 

In the early days, when Truth and Fiction were strangely blended, 
the story goes that in Eome there stood, where two ways meet, a lofty 
pedestal, upon which was an image of brass. The right arm of the 
statue pointed to the ground and on the extended forefinger were en- 
graved the words, " Strike here?^ !N"o man could tell the meaning of 
those words. Children played and grew in years around the base of 
that monument. Some curious persons, rougher in their ways, would 
beat the hollow finger and form, and then move on again. One day a 
936 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 123 

though tful clerk, gazing earnestly on the image, suddenly noted how 
the shadow fell from the forefinger on the cross-roads, and there came 
to him a flash of divine light. Silently and secretly he marked the 
spot, and at night, with pickaxe and spade, began to remove the soil. 
He was rewarded by finding a stairway which led to a subterranean 
cave. There he beheld beauty and riches which I may not tnke 
your time to describe, and only when he was recreant to» the spirit 
which presided over that gorgeous scene the darkness closed upon him 
and he well nigh perished. The motto which, I think, could have been 
properly inscribed upon the tower of this grand building is the sim- 
ple yet mystical phrase, " Strike here." Those who have wisely availed 
themselves of the opportunities here presented may mingle some satis- 
faction with regret at the close of the Exposition. 

937 



124 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 



ADDEESSES DELIVEEED ON COLORED EDUCATION DAY, 

MAY 14, 1885. 



ADDRESS OF REV. T. R. MARKHAM, D. D. 

lyTo view, however expanded, and no words, however heightened, can 
overpass the bounds or exaggerate the i^raise of a true and proper edu- 
cation, just, consistent, and honest in its aims, judicious, earnest, and 
thorough in its plan. And when in the end proposed and the i)lan pur- 
sued there is a right harmony in the relations and ^ conscientious fidelity 
in the execution, there is also a sweetness in the pursuit and a joy in 
the attainment, which, in certain stages in its progress and certain jioints 
in its development, is so repaying and refreshing that the toiling learner, 
enamored of his work and its gains, catches the enthusiasm of the great 
Syracusan, who, when he had solved a famous problem, running through 
the streets of his city exclaimed : '■'■ Eureka! eureica! I have found it! 
I have found it!" And Milton's words are familiar, who likens the as- 
cending path of a noble and virtuous education to "a hillside, laborious 
indeed at the first ascent, but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly 
prospects and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of Jrpheus 
was not more charming." 

And Bacon calls the inquiry of truth, which is the love-making or 
wooing of it, the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it, and 
the belief of truth, which is the enjoying it, the sovereign good of hu- 
man nature. 

For truth, all truth, truth as to matter, truth as to mind, truth as to 
the universe, truth as to man, and truth as to God, is the food of the 
soul, and its attainment the aim of a right education. 

But education in its parts, relations, and co-ordinations, and in its 
aspects, general and technical, will be presented to you by two renowned 
students — one an experienced educator, and both accomplished thinkers. 

I shall, therefore, offer only the application of education in one of its 
concrete forms, and in a connection possessing interest to those to whom 
I speak. 

For the application of education, the use to which it is set, the end it 
subserves, — these are vital points in estimating its value. Used by knaves 
and fiends, it becomes an instrument of evil, a destructive force; used 
by loving hearts in doing good, it becomes an agent of blessing, angel- 
like, scattering healing with its wings. 

You, as a people, are a peculiar people in this land, as much so as the 
938 



EDUCATION DA.Y ADDRESSES. 125 

Jew in the lauds in which he lives. This thought especially impressed 
me as I sat here "Louisiana Day," listening to a representative of your 
race who spoke for his people so well, so earnestly, that he gained our 
close and interested attention. , 

Accepting his views as embodying your convictions and aims, I shall 
offer some thoughts based on his statements. 

In speaking of his race he used a word which impressed me as giving 
you your right and your classifying name. I think it was Senator Bruce, 
of Mississippi, who represented that State in the upper House of the 
United States Congress, and who now holds a government office in 
Washington City, who said that he preferred the word negro as applied 
to his people, because it was defining and distinctive, while the phrase 
colored people was indefinite and vague, indicating and including a num- 
ber of different races and peoples. The frankness and manliness of that 
brave and independent utterance was sustained by Eev. Mr. Albert, a 
printed copy of whose address I hold in my hand, and from which I 
read. Speaking of the "Colored Department's Day," he terms it the 
"American ]N"egroes' Day," and mentions the "negroes' extraordinary 
attendance on that and the opening day of the Exposition." Walking 
through your department in the Grovernment Building, the impression 
there received prepared me to appreciate his statements as to your "in- 
crease in education, character, and wealtli," the exhibits giving evidence 
of your " thrift, industry and intelligence," and of your " ai)titude in the 
arts and sciences, as well as in profitable and useful inventions, and 
showing the improvement the brother in black has made since the war." 

His statistics were also striking and suggestive — "7,000,000 negroes 
owning 5,000,000 acres of southern soil, with nearly 1,000,000 children; 
furnishing nearly 16,000 teachers, and about 15,000 students in high 
schools; publishing over 80 newspapers; producing annually 1,000,000 
more bales of cotton since than before the war; with savings of 
$56,000,000 in the fraudulent Freedman's Bank, and an assessment of 
$100,000,000 of taxable property— figures gatherc^d not by black, but by 
white men." Well might he add, "Is not this marked and rapid prog- 
ress in a race which the publisher of these figures said did not own 
itself twenty-three years ago?" Facts like these prove the possession 
of a growing power and influence. 

And at this point I enter on my application. What shall be done 
with this gathered treasure, these resources, these attainments ? To 
care for and transmit all this to worthy successors, careful trustees, and 
wise stewards, your children, the generation after you, mu t receive 
mental, moral, and religious training. But is this all? Is there no 
higher aim, no broader and wiser use of all this? 

Friends, we are not reservoirs, but fountains; we are not pools, but 
running, dispensing, and distributing along all our lines of influence. 
Education, like every other gift, bestowment, attainment, is a trust, a 
stewardship. Education, like religion, which, alas ! is too often made 

939 



126 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the means of self-indulgence and self-congratulation — " thanking God 
we are not as other men" — education, like religion, is a grace to be 
used, an influence to be exerted, a power to be applied. 

An^ is there no career before you"^ no manifest mission? no broad 
and blessed use of this trust and these talents committed to your stew- 
ardship! no outlook? no horizon with an inviting land and a beckon- 
ing field ? 

Let the answer come from an impressive parallel. I have likened 
you to the Jew, in that, here, you dwell a peculiar people. There is 
also a i)eriod in his history marked and suggestive in its resemblance 
to yours. He spent 400 years in a house of bondage. It pleased an 
all- wise Providence to place him there, but a family, a tribe, that he 
might become a nation, and grow to be such beside the first people of 
his day — the people foremost in knowledge, in science, in art. Israel 
expanded under the influence of this civilization, and when they went 
forth, their leader, Moses, went before them skilled in all the learning 
of the Egyptians. Taught thus by those who held them in bondage, 
they went forth on their mission, the preservation and perpetuation of 
the unity and the worship of the one God, the one only, the living and 
the true. 

And now for the resemblance. Speaking for you, to us, Mr. Albert 
says: "Except in so far as our condition has been modified by our for- 
mer relations of slaves and masters, freed men and freemen, we have 
ever shared a common destiny. Our ancestors came here almost con- 
temporaneously with your ancestors. Kow, here we are, bound to this 
country and this State by all that is most dear to man. Here are our 
homes, our altars, and the graves of our fathers * * * and, for weal 
or woe, the American negro has come to stay." 

To which I add, if God means you shall stay, in God's name stayj 
aye! and prosper in ail that is good and right and true. 

But remember that through these centuries you, too, have grown 
into your proportions under the influence of the foremost civilization of 
your day, side by side with the first people of your time and of your 
generations in this land. To attest this, hear that great German states- 
man whose renown to-day fills the world. Three days since. May 11th, 
as the telegraph told us, when in the Eeichstag a deputy said that Eng- 
lish and American manufacturers were far beyond those of Germany, 
Bismarck answered that England was centuries in advance of Germany 
in civilization. 

Yes, and the training of this civilization has placed you where you 
are to-day. Under the nurture and admonition of this English-speaking 
people, this Anglo-Saxon race, you have developed, attained, and 
achieved what of progress and possession is yours to-day. 

And now is there no sphere, no work, no mission outside yourselves, 
where your training in this mental, moral, and material civilization 
may be put to practical and beneficial use ; one that appeals especially 
940 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 127 

to you ? I ttiiuk that when you hear me you will agree with me that 
there is. 

Here is this matchless Exposition, a microcosm, a world in miniature, 
with its wondrous showing of the products of sea and earth and sky, 
arid its amazing exhibitions of the works of human industry and skill. 
Here the continents have come together, and the islands. But one 
place is vacant, one record is blank. Day before yesterday was "Edu- 
cation Day," when from one vast continent, covering seventy degrees 
of latitude and longitude, a land larger than Europe; five thousand 
miles long, and in its wider portion nearly as broad : a land unlimited 
in capabilities and possibilities, — not one teacher appeared, not one 
map, one book, one chart; no work of art, no school of science; not a 
system shown, not a treatise read. 

Now understand me, I am entering on no discussion and pronouncing 
no opinion on perplexing questions or vexing problems of deportation, 
expatriation, or colonization. I say but this, that land is the home of 
your ancestors. Into its darkness, from the days of Mungo Park, that 
adventurous Scotchman, who, at the close of the last century, became 
a pioneer explorer, Frenchmen, Germans, Portuguese, Englishmen, and 
Americans have penetrated, one atYer another, and laid their lives ou 
the altar of sacrifice. 

You are now on their vantage ground. You are the inheritors of 
their civilization. It is your time, your turn, your day, and your op- 
portunity; the day when from the ranks of these 1,000,000 school 
children, these 16,000 teachers, these 15,000 advanced students, and 
from these hundred million dollars of tax lists and these 5,000,000 acre 
owners, shall come forth the Peabodys and the Tulanes of your race, 
and the men like Livingstone and Moffat, who shall render service and 
lay down life for those who dwell in this thick darkness. 

Friends, I am making no holiday talk, offering no oration to while 
away an hour. I am speaking with earnestness my convictions, and 
laying these upon your consciences and affections. And I appeal to 
you, preachers, who are the leaders of your people, to impress upon 
them this obligation that is theirs — a clear, a grave, a present respon- 
sibility, that cannot be shifted to other shoulders or left to other hands. 
And if you answer as you should, if through your oflered resources 
and your consecrated and representative men and women, with the 
Christlike spirit and the Ohristlike love, shall come forth from the 
ranks of your two million church members missionaries to be sent by 
you to bear to your ancestral kindred across the sea the benefits and 
blessings of that civilization, physical and material, mental, moral, and 
spiritual, that has blessed and elevated you, it will be an application 
of your education, a use of your attainments and advancements, that 
will approve and exalt you among men and get for you the commenda- 
tion and benediction of God. 

And if thus true to your day and time you do this, looking through 

941 



128 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

the years we may forecast a day when, iu aaother land aud perhaps 
under a warmer sky, there shall arise aaother temple of the industries 
aud arts, beneath whose arches, beside the other favored nations, a new 
banner shall be unfurled, bearing upon it's folds the names of nations 
now dwelling in the darkness, but then living in the light in a land 
through your instrumentality "redeemed, regenerated, and disen- 
thralled." 

ADDEESS OF KEY. B. M. PALMER, D. D. 

1 speak with the greater pleasure to this assemblage because it is not, 
in my judgment, a mere holiday occasion ; it is not gathered here for the 
gratification of a sentiment. There lies in this assemblage, aud in this 
occasion, a purpose so grand and so earnest that it wil require years of 
patient thought and labor to accomplish it hereafter. The problem pre- 
sented for solution here, my friends, is that of the elevation of an entire 
people to as high an intellectual, and moral plane as can possibly be 
achieved. You have done me the honor to ask for the utterance of my 
thoughts on this occasion, and I will take the liberty of speaking with 
entire frankness all that is in my heart, for I do not know how I can in 
any other way contribute to the solution of this grand problem. 

Let me say at the very outset that I recognize very lieartily both the 
distinction and the instinct of race. Of course, as a Christian man, I be- 
lieve in the unity of the Christian family, all springing from one original 
stock, for it is written in the Sacred Book, "God has made of one blood 
all the nations of the eoirth." But I believe just as firmly that it is the 
policy of Almighty G-od to divide this family up into distinct and sepa" 
rate members for His own beneficent ends. AA^Ijbu the great bow was 
placed in the heavens as the sign of that covenant that God made with 
man after the Flood, that He would never again desti'oy the earth with 
a universal deluge, it had become necessary, in accordance with the 
principles upon which God's government is founded and organized, that 
He should put a restraint upon the license and wickedness of man, so 
that he should not rise to that extravagant height which had brought 
upon the earth the catastrophe of the Deluge. Hence, it has become a 
matter of history that He broke the unity of humau speech, and stamped 
upon the peoples of the earth those characteristic marks by which the 
great families or groups of nations have ever since been distinguished. 
So much for the distinction of race. 

I said that I believed also in the instinct of race. 1 believe the in- 
stinct of race springs from that principle of self-respect which is ])roper 
to every man, and which is placed iu the human breast as the basis of 
whatever of good may be developed there; and planted thus in the in- 
dividual, it widens out into the family when the individual becomes con- 
stituted so that the respect and aflection which a man properly enter- 
tains for himself is developed into that domestic affection which binds 
together the members of a household; broadening out from that until it 
942 



, EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 129 

spreads over the world, ajad becomes what we call patriotism; widening- 
out still, in broader circles, until it overtakes the universe and is recog- 
nized in the cause of philanthropy. ISTow, this instinct of self-respect 
and self-appreciation, which I hold to be indispensable as the basis of 
individual and personal character, extends to every race of men that ex- 
ists. When, therefore, it became apparent in your history, when you 
were some twenty years ago suddenly thrust to the front to make the 
most of your own resources, it was perfectly natural that there should 
be developed in your bosoms, as in mine, and as in that of every honest 
and true man, the instinct of race. 

It was right that you should create those associations among your- 
selves which should develop and occupy the social element of your peo- 
ple. It was perfectly right and altogether in accordance with the prin- 
ciples of the highest reasoning that you should be gathered in your own 
schools, and that you should be taught by teachers well instructed of 
your own race ; that j'ou should be gathered in your own churches, and 
taught by pastors well instructed of your own race. I say again, and 
with renewed emphasis, that I recognize distinctly, not only the dis- 
tinction, but the instinct of race. 

And now, my friends, permit me to add, as the climax of this thought, 
that as a race you are put this day upon an elevated platform before 
all the nations of mankind. Here, in connection with this Ex]>osition, 
you touch the highest civilization upon earth. You behold with your 
eyes the products of every part of this great continent. Not only so, 
but you behold the ijroducts which represent the education, and the 
civilization, and the thought of the more ancient nations of the earth. 
It was a wonderful history, that of the means by which four million of 
people — at that time, twenty years ago— by that high Providence which 
rules over nations as well as over men, were brought out from that 
state of dependence upon the will of other men and made to develop be- 
fore all mankind upon a platform as elevated as oiir own Eocky Mount- 
ains, or as the mountains upon the eastern shore of our continent, to 
workout before the nations of the earth your own history and distinc- 
tion. I congratulate you upon that event. Providence has brought 
you as a people and as a race, and put you upon this exalted platform 
to work out your own history and career. I say, from the dtepths of 
ray breast, a hearty "amen " to it all. 

But now mark. If you are to be a historic people, you must make 
yourselves worthy of a history, for it is a law of nature in all of her 
departments that everything must grow from its own roots. There are 
parasitic plants that climb about the trees upon which they live, and 
that sometimes even put forth little flowers of their own, but they have 
no root of their own, and therefore no strength and no glory. It is an 
ordinance of Him who has made nature and man, and it is as true of races 
as of plants, that ev^erything must grow from its own root. And I am 
here to day in accordance with your own wishes to emphasize that 
7950 COT., PT. 3 9 943 



1.30 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

thought. You are to be in history just as you are worthy to be, neither 
more nor less, and I am here to exhort you all, so that your roots may 
take hold in time. Now, to recur again to the analogy of the plant: 
there must be a living seed, and that living seed must stand in direct 
relation to the soil, and when pat into the earth it must be strength- 
ened and warmed and refreshed and nourished until it bursts its shell 
and the hidden life goes forth into the plant; and as soon as it enierges 
from the soil it must shoot out its leaves, the lungs of the plants, through 
which it breathes the pure air of heaven, and be painted as to its colors 
by that highest of all artists, the sun, which God has placed in the zenith 
of the heavens. 

Just so with man. He must have capacities. There must be within 
him the qualities of courage and patience and hopefulness. There must 
be those mental and moral traits that give life to the seed that produces 
corn in harvest time; and there must be time for all this, and there 
must be the proper surroundings, and the proper agencies at work. 
Now I come to the point which is submitted for our consideration in the 
programme of this occasion. What are to be the agencies by which you 
are to rise to a historic position among the nations of the earth? For 
here I have to say that you shall have what all other nations have had, 
just that place in history that you make for yourselves. 

When you develop the qualities that are in you, and form a character 
upon which that history is to be built, unquestionably, according to the 
a[)i)ointment of Him who rules the universe, you will have your own 
orbit described for you. For as there are orbits in which the planets 
jnove, orbits in which the solar systems themselves move, all sweeping 
around that great common center, which for aught we know may be the 
abode of the Almighty, so there are orbits provided for men and for 
races and for nations just according to their own fitness. I point again 
to the responsibility that lies upon you, and I take the full share of 
responsibility upon myself. 

We are here on this occasion standing side by side, white men and 
black men. We have known each other through the centuries that are 
past. We white men were born and brought up in the arms of nurses 
that came of your race. If there are any two classes who should be 
perfectly friendly one to the other, who should rejoice in their mutual 
advancement and prosperity, they are the Southern whites and the 
negroes of America. Now as to that which we call character, the basis 
of all history, how very remarkable it is that even the nations that be- 
long to the same race yet differ in the characteristics they de^'elop. 
Look upon the map of Europe. There you find England and France 
and Germany and Spain and Italv — all of them of the Caucasian stock, 
all of them bearing the impress of the race to which they belong, yet 
with individual distinctions by which they are perfectly separated one 
from the other. You cannot confound the Englishman with the Frent:h- 
man, the Frenchman with the German, nor the German with the Italian 

944 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 131 

or the Spaniard. What are the causes that combine to produce those 
minute differences that exist between nations of the same stock ? I, 
perhaps, am not competent to indicate. At any rate this is not the 
place to discuss the subject. 

It is the same with regard to the nations of the East. The Arabian 
and the Persian, for example, came from the same stock ; so did the 
Chinese and the Japanese; and yet, though they have traits in common 
that have descended to them, tbey are distinct from each other in the 
traits they have developed. Hence, as has been suggested by the 
speakers who have preceded me, there is to be a type of character, per- 
haps a type of civilization, that is to be peculiarly your own. A type 
of civilization that shall produce new qualities even. What are the 
agencies that are to be brought into operation to effect this? I reduce 
them to three. They are : First, the home ; second, the church ; third, 
the school. I say home, because it is the primary state, the firsr, society, 
out of which all states and societies spring. Home ! Knit together by 
the bonds of chaste affection in which children shall be taught the law 
of obedience to authority, and in the exercise of that obedience, all 
their faculties, intellectual and moral, shall be trained. If it were not 
for the desi)Otism of the family — I say despotism; it is a strong word, 
but not too strong — I do not believe that men would be capable of sub- 
jection under any form of government in the world. Then there is the 
church. Streams do not rise higher tlian their sources. Tell me the 
religion of a people, and I shall know the people themselves. Not until 
the religious character of a man or of a nation is developed does he be- 
come capable of subjection to human law ; until theu he is entirely use- 
less to the society around h]m. 

But it is more appropriate on the present occasion, seeing the char- 
acter of the object that has called us together, that I should dwell upon 
the third and last of the agencies to which I have referred, namely, the 
schools. Through the generosity of friends at a distance your people 
have been wonderfully well supplied with the higher class of schools. 
I have sometimes thought that perhaps there had been a mistake in 
putting so much of that libera.lity in that direction, and not a little more 
lower down in the scale of literary development. However that may 
be, it so happens that through all this southern country, from the Gulf 
up to the border of the northern States, you are everywhere provided 
to a good degree with the institutions that impart a high education. 

But besides these institutions there are the technical schools, that 
have been so eloquently referred tobymyfriend,Colone]Johnston. These 
furnish a supplementary education, as it were, an education that 
should everywhere be encouraged. Such schools bring your young 
Ijeopleinto intimate connection with those requirements and those pur- 
suits of life in which many of them will have to earn their bread. Let 
me say, in closing, that in all your efforts to advance yourselves, 

945 



132 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

whether socially or edacationally, you have the very heartiest sympath j 
and co-operation of all wise and thoughful men upon the face of the earth. 

ADDRESS OF REV. A. E. P. ALBERT, D. D. 

Mr. President and Fellow -citizens — In the spirit of our lamented Presi- 
dent Garfield, I bow in reverence before the school-children of to-day, 
because no one knows what undeveloped possibilities are wrapped up in 
their tiny suits. Among them are those who are to be the future mas- 
ters in oratory, in music, and in arts; those who are to be the invent- 
ors, scientists, scholars, professional and business men; the mechanics, 
farmers, manufacturers, law-makers, judges, and rulers of this nation. 
They are the heirs apparent iu the line of succession, to whom we must 
soon turn over the sovereignty and destiny of the Kepublic. Upon their 
present training depends whether they shall bless the world with their 
greatness, or curse it with their wickedness. 

Divine Providence, as well as human economy, commits to us the 
sacred charge of preparing these coming millions for the active respon 
sibilities of life. 

Primarily, this burden rests upon the parents of the present. And 
well might it rest there, because, for weal or woe, "the hand that rocks 
the cradle rules the world." How solemn the charge! how vast the re- 
sponsibilities! — so sacred, that had I the voice of a trumpet, and the 
power of an archangel, I would go up and down the earth, awakening 
with thundering blasts the parents of this nation to the sacredness and 
solemnity of their charge. Infidelity, with its withering curses; vice and 
immorality, with their seething mass of pollution; intemperauce, the 
liydra-headed, bloody monster, whose stony heart, blinded eyes, and 
listless ears, unaffected by the poverty, misery, and crimes which it pro- 
duces, and the hundred thousand drunkards' graves which it digs an- 
nually, — are threatening the very foundation of the home, and calling 
loudly for the interposition of parental training and influence to stay the 
coming destruction. 

Secondarily, this responsibility rests upon the States and the nation, 
whose welfare is vitally involved. 

The monarchical powers of Europe find it to their advantage to aid the 
cause ofpublic education from their national treasuries, and, with Edmund 
Burke, they believe it to be the "cheap defense of nations." The British 
Parliament expended for public education in 1882, in Englaatl and Wales, 
$13,749,315 ; in Scotland, $1,736,160; in Ireland, $2,677,080, besides the 
local revenues for educational purposes. Prussia, during the same year, 
spent $11,458,856; Russia, $9,000,000; Austria, $8,800,000; Italy, $6,000,- 
000; Belgium, with a population of only 5,403,006, spent for education 
during the same year 20,000,000 francs. The French Eepublic, wiser if 
not better for her dearly bought experience with the Prussians, — that an 
educated soldiery is superior to an illiterate one, spent in 1881-'82, $22,- 

946 



EDUCATION DAY ADDEESSES. 133 

717,880. These sums, be it remembered, are simply supplementary to the 
millious raised and expended from endowments and local taxation for the 
. cause of education. And, in order to further the cause, not only are 
these millions of dollars spent annually, but Prussia, France, Italy, Aus- 
tria, and even Japan, and many other countries, have adopted compul- 
sory systems of education. 

The purpose of the American Union, based upon universal suffrage, 
and where every man is a sovereign, is " to establish justice, insure do- 
mestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general 
welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our pos- 
terity." The question of importance to a government thus constituted, 
is, by what methods can these purposes be best fulfilled! Since expe- 
rience has demonstrated that no republic can live and prosper amid the 
rank and noxious growth of vice and ignorance, we answer, unquestion- 
ably by promoting universal education. The strength and stability of 
republics do not consist in floating batteries, swarming battalions, and 
terror-striking guillotines and gibbets, but in the virtue and intelligence 
of their citizens. And this education, to produce the greatest blessing, 
must be sanctified by the holy influence of the pulpits of the land. Vice 
is the twin sister of ignorance. They constitute the greatest danger 
menacing our free institutions. Universal suft'rage, not unlike the use- 
ful benefits of steam, electricity, and the chemical forces, is a blessing 
fraught with the direst consequen(jes, if exercised by an ig'norant and 
vicious people. The nation needs to be fully aroused to the enormity 
of the evil which, above all others, endangers her life and happiness. 
Intelligence is necessary to the proper exercise of the elective franchise, 
and to day, as in the days of the fathers of the republic, " we must edu- 
cate or we must perish." " Self-preservation is the first law of nature," 
to nations as well as to individuals; hence the imperative duty of the na- 
tional government in this her vital interest. 

It is not be assumed, however, that intelligence is but a mere synonym 
for honesty, integrit^^, and patriotism, and that it transforms every one 
into an Aristides, a Leouidas, or an Horatius. Nay, pne may possess 
the eloquence of a Demosthenes or Cicero, the polish of a Pericles, a 
Livy, or a Tacitus, and yet be a Judas, a Benedict Arnold, or an Aaron 
Burr. Education, however, increases the value and self-respect of every 
citizen ; hence its tendency to decrease pauperism and crime, the two 
greatest burdens on a State. In these the State, and not the national, 
government is vitally involved; but every citizen of the State is a 
co-ordinate king of the Republic, upon whom rests the mighty fabric of 
our national institutions, and by whom its questions of policy must be 
decided. This the voter must express by his ballot. 

But how can the illiterate voter so express himself intelligently, hon- 
estly, and effectively ? This he cannot do without that intelligence 
which enhances the moral senses, and that is capable of baffling corrup- 
tion. In this the national life is at stake. A dreadful pall of ignorance, 

947 



134 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

breeding death and destruction, overhangs the Eepublic! Over 2,000,000 
voters, or one in every five of the voters in the United vStates, are un- 
able to read the ballots which they cast. The great storm center is in ' 
the sixteen southern States, where the 7,000,000 colored people are 
chiefly to be found. From 40 to 55 ])eT cent, of the voters of that sec- 
tion are unable to read their ballots. Eighty per cent, of the colored 
and 30 per cent, of the white population of the South are illiterate. 
The South, with only one-third of the population, has three-fourths of the 
illiteracy of the nation, and tully a third of her voters are illiterate. But 
the most alarming aspect here presented is that the cloud of ignorance is 
becomiugdenser. The ten years preceding the takingofthecensus of 1880 
show an increase of 187,671 illiterates in the South. The work of ed- 
ucation is not keeping pace with the increase of our population, to say 
nothing of removing the vast cloud of ignorance which hangs over mul- 
titudes of our older masses ; 16,337 white, and 86,555 colored voters, or 
nearly half of our voting population in Louisiana, cannoti read their 
ballots. There are more illiterate voters in South Carolina than there 
are voters able to read their ballots, while in Kentucky there are more 
white than colored illiterates. South Carolina has five times as many 
illiterate voters as New York, with her millions of inhabitants and all her 
foreign population ; w^hile Georgia, which has nearly the same popula- 
tion as Iowa, has nine times as many illiterate voters, and twice as many, 
without counting her colored illiterates. These figures show that not 
only the colored, but that the white people, too, of the South, are sadly 
wrapped up in the abject bondage of igoorauce. But how else can it 
be, when the States of New York and Michigan alone have a larger in- 
come for public schools than the whole South combined? 

The census shows further that the States suffering the most from illit- 
eracy are those most financially disabled to provide the necessary means 
to educate the masses. Is not this fact an eloquent appeal for national 
aid for public education in such States'? Can the national government 
guarantee for the future a republican form of government to such States, 
while she indifferently allows the increasing growth of the poisonous 
upas which threatens her own existence, and against which such States 
are helpless'^ Not only in the South is tbis great danger, but the 
great cities of the country also furnish cause for alarm. Fifty-seven 
percent, of the children of school age in Chicago are not in school; 
eighty-two per cent, of those of Wilmington, N. C, are not enrolled in 
school; while in thirty-four cities fifty per cent, and upward are out of 
school. The growing political influence of our cities gives significant 
importance to such fearful figures. The salvation of the Union against 
internal ruiu and forei^ju invasio n is in the idea of universal education, 
by national aid, as a safeguard around universal sufl'rage. The igno- 
rant masses easily become the pliant tools and the turbulent rabble of 
schemers and designing politicians. 

They are the ready converts to socialism, communism, and every 
948 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 135 

other ism destructive of the euds for which the governineut was fouuded. 
The menacing clouds call for vigorous efforts to wipe away the curse, 
before, like a mighty cyclone, it sweeps the nation and her liberties 
from the face of the earth. The evil is national and calls for national 
remedies. The panacea is universal education, or national ruin follows. 
However statesmen might differ upon States rights principles involved, 
they are all agreed as to the dire necessity which calls for national aid, 
and as to the duty of the Groverument to provide it. The voice of the 
people, which is the voice of God, is that statesmen should settle their 
differences forthwith, that the aid, which all have agreed is needful and 
reasonable, may be made available. The evil to be eradicated is a tre- 
mendous one. To remove it every agency skould immediately be put 
to work. The home and the iJulpit, the State and the nation, — they are 
all threatened; they all should defend. Our colored population, freed 
amid shot and shell, fire and smoke, rivers of blood and millions of 
treasure, is iutenselj' interested in this matter. 

The negro craves education. He wants to learn to make himself in- 
telligent and more valuable, as a man and a citizen, in every sphere 
of usefulness. Twenty-two years ago he entered the race of life, bound 
up in the densest ignorance. Nearly every man's hand then was 
against him. Having demonstrated his ability to acquire elementary, 
classical, and professional education quite as readily as any other race, 
his value as a producer no less than a consumer, and his political im- 
portance, he has now succeeded in arousing the sober reflection of his 
fellow-citizens ; and to-day all classes recognize the obligation of his 
preparation for the duties and privileges of citizenship. Public opinion, 
based upon substantial facts, declares that the progress made in educa- 
tion amid the hindrances encountered, has been most flattering. 

Tbe educational exhibits — examination papers, drawings, and so on 
— from every State and Territory in the Union, prove conclusively, from 
actual results, the ability of the race. Already we can point with pride 
to a growing and distinguished class of scholars — autbors, college pro- 
fessors, teachers, lawyers, physicians, and clergymen — many of whom 
were born under the yoke of slavery, besides the vast numbers who 
have become intelligent business men, mechanics, farmers, and more 
valuable and reliable laborers, and better citizens. These are but the 
first fruits of a grand harvest. We can now discover a promising sil- 
ver lining to the thick and murky cloud of ignorance which stdl over- 
casts our sky. 

The census of 1880 shows that there are 4,601,207 colored persons 
ten years of age and over in this country, and that of this number 
3,220,878, or 70 per cent., cannot write. 

Over half of the illiterate voting population of the nation are col- 
ored, although we form but one-eighth of the population. The increase 
of school population among the whites in the South during the year 
1880-'81 was 54,639, while the increase of enrollment was only 19,203, 

949 



136 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

but little more than oue-tliird what it ought to have been. Among the 
negroes the comparison is still more unsatisfactory. Our increase in 
school population was 125,930, while the increase in enrollment was 
only 17,663— that is to say, that but little over one-seventh of the in- 
crease of our youths in the South were enrolled during that year. Ed- 
ucate a man's head. Lands, and heart, and he learns his duties and 
privileges of his citizenship, and he becomes better and more valuable. 
The negro is a man, therefore education ameliorates his condition and 
enhances his material and moral worth. 

To accomplish these results for our people, 18,000 public schools, with 
1,000,000 scholars and ] 7,000 colored teachers, beside a number of white 
teachers, are now in successful operation. The religious denominations, 
too, are at work. The Methodist, Baptist, Congregational, and other 
I^orthern denominations have dotted the South everywhere with their 
high schools, colleges, and universities, as so many central fires, to pre- 
pare teachers, ministers, physicians, artisans, and leaders for the race, 
and to lighten up this Southland. The Methodist Episcopal Church 
alone has disbursed over $1,500,000, over $500,000 of which has been 
invested in permanent school property, toward our higher education 
since the war, beside the multiplied thousands of dollars expended 
through her church extension, missionary, and other benevolent agen- 
cies. Her freedmen's aid institutions have taught over 100,000 pupils, 
and these in turn have instructed 1,000,000 children, and still the work 
goes on increasing every year. The Baptist Church, through her Home 
Missionary Society, has spent over $1,000,000, over $400,000 of which 
is in permanent property. The American Missionary Society, with her 
twenty chartered and normal institutions and thirty-five other schools, 
350 teachers, and 9,000 scholars, is quite abreast of either of these de- 
nominations in this divine mission. 

The Presbyterians, Unitarians, Friends, Episcopalians, and some of 
the churches of the South, are more or less engaged in the good work. 
These churches have expended over $25,000,000 for negro education 
since Lincoln's proclamation. Their continued efforts and interest, and 
the incessant labors of such philanthropists as Chamberlain, Gen. Pisk, 
Dr. Rust, Dr. Braden, and our own Bishop Mallalieu in this city, Drs. 
Streiby and Eoy, Drs. Morehouse and Haygood, and the charitable 
remembrance of such noble Christian-hearted benefactors as John F. 
Slater, Mrs. Valeria G. Stone, and many others whose names are house- 
hold treasures among us, all inspire us with encouragement for the 
future. The presence here of these students from our i^ublic schools, 
from the Southern, Straight, Leland, and N^ew Orleans Universities, 
together with their overworked and underpaid teachers and faithful 
presidents, all mark the coming dawn. 

The presence among us to-day of such men as the Rev. Dr. Palmer, 
the scholarly and eminent divine, whose superior qualifications place 
him at the head of the Southern clergy; of Col. William Preston John- 

950 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 137 

ston, the distinguished university president; Rev. Dr, Thos. R. Mark- 
ham, the popular pastor and one of the most influential Southern 
divines; the generous temper manifested by Director-General Burke 
and by the other managers of this Exposition; and the encouragemeat 
afforded us by the recognized leaders and formulators of Southern pub- 
lic opinion — all point to a better and brighter day for the future intel- 
ligence and well-being of our people. Education is the consummate 
flower of modern civilization, which gives fragrance to the condition of 
all races and na,tions. Let us cultivate it. It is the great center around 
which our national life and happiness revolve. Under its influence, 
fostered by charitable, State, and national aid, the night of darkness 
shall soon pass away. Ignorance, vices, and race prejudices shall perish, 
and the sunshine of intelligence shall penetrate the darkest nook^ the 
bonds of brotherhood shall be strengthened, and the blessings of our 
free institutions, founded upon universal suffrage and protected by uni- 
versal education, shall here be enjoyed by every race alike, and shall be 
handed down to our children's children unimpaired. 

ADDRESS OF COL. WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON. 

I am here by invitation, to-day, to address you on the subject of indus- 
trial education in its bearings on the colored ijeople. I presume I am 
invited in view of the fact that I am known to favor industrial educa- 
tion in all its aspects, in every race, class, and condition, and because I 
am myself a teacher. But it may not be known to you, though I recall 
the incident with pleasure, that the very first teaching I ever did 
was in giving lessons in reading and ciphering to a colored man. He 
was a very large and a very black man, indeed, and I was a very small 
boy, but we were the best of friends. He was a cornfield hand, not one 
of our own servants, but a neighbor's, and he used to walk several miles 
on Saturday nights or Sundays, to say his lessons. He was only a mod- 
erately apt scholar, and I was not a very skillful teacher, but what I 
lacked in experience I made up in zeal. We had a great deal of talk 
outside our lessons, and 1 hope we were both the better for it. You 
will pardon this little reminiscence, but I offer it to show that I have, 
in my humble way, been from the first anxious to impart to my colored 
friends the best treasure I ever had, my share of knowledge. And I 
wish to say right here, before I begin to discuss the subject matter in 
hand, that if I know my own heart, no one can feel a sincerer or deeper 
interest than I do in the welfare, happiness, and progress of the colored 
people, with whom I have been brought up, and have been associated, 
in so many ways, all my life. The friendship I have toward your peo- 
ple is honest and genuine, and I am always glad to lend you a helping 
hand or a word of cheer when needed. It is prompted solely by this 
feeling that I am here now. But I may well add that I am touched by 

951 



138 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

this mark of your confidence in inviting me to confer and advise with 
you on this important occasion. 

Before we talk about how we are to educate a man, we ought to de- 
cide what we are aiming at. To educate him is nothing more nor less 
than to train him, or break him, into his work in life. You all know 
what is meant when we talk of training, or breaking, a horse. It may be 
to haul a dray, to draw a carriage, to run a race, or to take bis paces 
under the saddle. We train him for what he has got to do, however, 
and not to dance hornpipes or play trick-mule in a circus. Now, Just 
so, educating a man is training or breaking him in for his work in life, 
and not to make a show merely. 

But a man's work is a good deal more difficult than a horse's. He 
has to work like a horse, it is true; but a horse has somebody to think 
for him, and the man has to do his own thinking, if he is a man. More- 
over a horse's morals consist in obeying the bit and curb of a master 
mind; but a man, no matter how abject, has affections and a conscience, 
and these must be kept sound and healthy, or the man becomes a nui- 
sance to himself and all the world. 

'Now a great philosopher, as Mr. Herbert Spencer is called, informs 
us that '^knowledge immediately conducive to self-preservation is of 
primary importance." In plainer language, the first thing we have to 
learn is to keep out of the fire — to take care of ourselves. Fortunately, 
nature and the rude ex})erience of most barbarous races help toward 
this most important knowledge of all, though it leaves much for even 
the most civilized to learn, and more for them to act upon. We see this 
illustrated here in IsTew Orleans, where we do not clean our streets and 
back yards, though Azrael, the angel of death, is on the wiug, holding 
aloft the vial of pestilence with broken seal and filled to the brim. 

As self-preservation is the first law of nature — that is to say, in the 
material world — we ought to learn in our very infancy all the laws and 
rules to keep in health and good working order the machine we call our 
body; and to this end we must be prepared, or educated, to provide for 
it the food and clothing and dwelling place that are necessary for its 
comfort and well being. It is not necessary or desirable that the body 
should become the servant of the clothes it wears, or of the food it con- 
sumes. Health, not luxury, should be our aim. But a man is badly 
educated who does not easily win bread and secure comfort for himself 
and his family; and this, not through cunning arts, but by honest toil, 
lu training a man, we must train him first to make his own living, and 
next to make a good living for his famil.y. If we can do this with the 
great majority of men, the problem of education is nearly solved. 

A very large proportion of the people of the world must make their 
living by the sweat of the brow, by the labor of the hand. Onlj' a 
small number are needed for the professions, for managing that share 
of the world's business in which the hands do not perform the greatest 
part, though not the best part of the work. There is oaly one physi- 
952 



- EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 139 

ciau for 115 families, and that is too many 5 there is only one lawyer 
for 156 families; and, taking all the professions together, their members 
include only one man out of every 220 of the entire population. There 
are men evidently fitted by nature for professional life, and it is a great 
pity when any such should be debarred from it, or kept out of it ; but 
they are exceptional men. The real trouble is that the wrong men get 
into it, and the business of the world is badly done. 

There is a mistake, too, in believing that professions necessarily con- 
fer greater rewards in wealth, honor, or happiness, than industrial pur- 
suits. The intellectual, life confers a happiness of its own, a peace which 
the world cannot give, but it is not the sort of happiness that most men 
are seeking. 

Now, if there should be a rush to any profession, or indeed a very 
small addition to its percentage, the supply would be greater than the 
demand ; many would be left unemployed in it, and poverty and suffer- 
ing would follow. This is not so with the hand workers. You cannot 
have too much corn, for the world is j'our market. 

But 1 will be told that you can have too many carpenters, or iron- 
workers, or shoemakers. I confess this would be true under the old 
system of education, tho,ugh not under the new. 

But this is a large question, and one which I am not dealing with 
today. On some other occasion I may attempt to show how I think 
labor may jDrotect itself from the oppressions of monopoly, and reconcile 
justice, progress, and happiness, by the equable and equitable condi- 
tions of peace, instead of making hostility, or at best armed neutrality, 
the basis of the social and economic life. 

Suffice it now to say, that if a man must be taught, as was the case 
in old times, to do a few things by rule of thumb, so that he would 
know those things and nothing else, then, as soon as an invention came 
along which showed a shorter, easier, and cheaper way of doing those 
few things, he would be left high and dry on a shelf, to lift up his idle 
hands to heaven in prayer and starve. 

But such is not the case now under our new system of training, 
though I admit that it was under the old apprenticeship system. We 
do not make a carpenter, or a turner, or a blacksmith, or a foundryman 
of him, but a mechanic. We teach him principles, and how to apply 
them ; tools and how to use them. When one set of tools fails to pro- 
vide a competence he turns his hand to another that will, for he has a 
mastery of all. 

Our modern education manages these things better than the old 
method did. We put brains into the fingers. We find out the best 
way to do a thing, and the reason why it is the best way. Then in 
teaching a man how to do it we teach his fingers to do the job, not like 
a dumb, blind piece of machinery. But we say: "Come, ears, listen 
while I tell 30U ; come, eyes, look upon this work, not with a dazed, 
uncertain stare, but keenly ; come, tongue, tell me how to do this ; and 

953 



140 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

last of all, come, O thou captain of the host, Boss Brains, understand 
this work, what it is for, how it is done, wliy it is carried out in this 
particular way and not iu another." And when Boss Brains takes 
charge of a piece of business, my friends, it is well done. When you 
find the mark of that master mechanic on it you may be satisfied. 

Now, one thing about this new, or modern, education. What would 
you think of a schoolmaster who would take up a book and read it 
glibly, and then turn to a little beginner and say, " Now, my boy, you 
have heard me read, take this book; and here is a spelling book, too, 
with the alphabet in it, and lots of nice words ; you just learn your 
letters, and spell these words all out, and then after you practice read- 
ing you will get to be a nice reader like me." Would you blame the 
l>oy for saying, " Master, I do not know how to do all this" ? A sensible 
schoolmaster would first teach the boy the words which ' make up the 
sentences, and how he must use all his faculties to learn, before he put 
him to read by himself. 

Nine numerals and a cipher, or zero, make up all the signs needed 
for the vast numeration and complicated calculations in arithmetic. So 
handicraft has its alphabet and its master- words. Its has its digits and 
numerals. There are a few typical forms, as they are called, in wood 
or iron, a few shapes into which the carpenter saws and planes his wood, 
which, put together, make up all the vast variety we see in joinery, car- 
penter's work, or cabinet-making. 

He does not call these A, B, C, D, X, Y, Z. tie calls them square, 
flat, dovetail, mortice, tenon, etc., etc. When a man learns to make 
these typical forms })erfectly well, and how to put them together, he can 
get anything he wants in wood by arranging them properly. The little 
schoolboy takes D, O, G, and finds it spells dog ; but when he arranges 
the same letters differently they spell God. So the worker in wood, who 
is properly taught, soon begins to spell new words in wood ; and I have 
seen a lad spell box with pieces of j^lank, after a few lessons. And so 
he goes on, with the teacher showing him every step, spelling harder 
and harder things in wood, till he can spell bureau without helj), and, 
may be, house ; and I expect thiit same of our boys will one of these days 
be able to spell Worlds JExposition. 

The same happens in teaching iron-working. The student has to 
learn the typical forms, or letters, for iron. And these are as diflerent 
from the wood alphabet as Greek is from Latin, or German from Eng- 
lish, He has to work with difterent tools, too; and these must be 
learned. But by this time he has been taught to think, and, though 
the iron is harder than wood, the thinking has become easier. So much 
for the alphabet and syllables and words of hand- work; so much for 
the digits and ciphers. 

This short and easy way I have of explaining hand-work will make 
you understand what we are trying to do in the Tulane Manual Training 
School. But you will understand it better, if you will go any day, ex- 
954 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 141 

cept Sunday, between three and five o'clock, to the Government Build- 
ing at the Exposition, and see the teachers and the boys, not saying, 
but doing, their lessons. 

You will see there, too, another teacher instructing the same classes 
in drawing. I want every boy in the South, white and black, taught 
how to draw. I do not wish this done as an accomplishment. Heaven 
forbid that I should advise any large class of my countrymen to quit 
the serious business of life to learn pretty things. We do not want 
dudes of any complexion. But to know how to draw is to be able to 
tell with your fingers and pencil to another man's eyes what you cannot 
tell with your tongue to. his ears. Hence it is another language, which 
talks things instead of words, just as handicraft thinks in things instead 
of in words. It is hard to be a first-rate mechanic without being able 
to draw and read drawings, for thus only can you best arrive at what 
is wanted. 

I remember the time when th^ shoemakers used a tape to measure the 
foot for a shoe; but, afterward, some genius caught the bright idea of 
making you put your foot flat down, and then drawing its outline on 
paper. After that any fool knew the shape of the sole better than a 
wise man could before by half a dozen measurements; aud, ever since 
then, shoes have been easier to wear. 

Now iron-working and wood-working are not the only arts, and it 
would be very desirable if others were taken up and taught on the 
same general ideas that I have described. I am quite aware that other 
trades are taught, but what 1 wish to see is the same scientific method 
applied in them, as now in the manual training in wood and in iron. I 
wish to see the elementary principles sought out by able men, the al- 
phabet of the art invented, or formulated rather, and principles taught. 
I wish Boss Brains in every shop. 

Before the trustees of the Slater Fund had made their plans, one of 
their number did me the honor to consult me as to how it should be 
employed, and he heartily approved my emphatic recommendation that 
it should go to the industrial education of the colored people. It was a 
matter of sincere gratification with me when I saw that this disposition 
was made of it. 

Aud here I may say that your white brethren rejoice with you that 
wealthy and generous men at the Korth have .been moved to bestow 
such large donations for the exclusive education of our colored people, 
amounting, it is said, to $15,000,000. We know that what helps you 
helps us, though the gifts for the exclusive use of the white youth 
amount only to two or three millions, and we cannot feel otherwise than 
grateful when good fortune befalls you. 

So, too, I am sure our colored friends are pleased to see the good 
which is being done by the splendid donation of Mr. Paul Tulane for 
the exclusive use of the white youth of Louisiana, who need it so much. 
They will, in fact, themselves indirectly profit by it, for whatever raises 

955 



142 EDUCATIONAL COTVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the general level of education, and gives a broader, more tolerant, and 
more Christian aspect to oar civilization, will benefit them. 

Kow, my friends, I have no wish to deter any young persons from 
availing themselves of the best education they can get in any occupa- 
tion for which they feel they have a special call or vocation. Bat you 
must recollect that the man who spends his youth in preparing for a 
learned profession for which he has no fitness, is after that not good 
for much of anything. A gentleman once met Beau Brummell's body 
servant coming down stairs with a clothes basket full of white cravats 
rumpled by the beau in trying to tie one to suit himself. " Why, what 
are those!" asked the astonished visitor. ''Those," replied the valet, 
"are our failures^ I fear that, under ordinary systems of college edu- 
cation, the danger will be that we may have a basket full of failures as 
useless as rumpled cravats for each one perfect success. 

I believe in the transcendent power of wise words, words which ex- 
press well great thoughts ; but talk without good thinking behind the 
fine language is worse than the chatter of monkeys. It is what the 
newspaper men call in expressive, but not very elegant, slang, " rot." 
And so of the education which teaches this artof twaddle and bosh. We 
are now wanting men who will do things, rather than those others who 
merely talk about doing things. Without derogating at all from those 
persons who honestly and conscientiously take up tJie business of teach- 
ing or preaching, for instance, I can say that I believe the workers, the 
handicraftsmen, will soon outstrip the ablest of those in wealtJi and 
social importance. The reason is plain enough. The former have only 
religion and knowledge to offer, articles held very cheap in the market ; 
the latter have something to sell which everybody wants — skilled labor. 

Now, my friends, I have said to you that education was a preparation 
for life, a training or breaking in of the man for the work he has to do. 
What is true of an individual is likewise true of a race or nation. Every 
great nation now in the world has had an education not unlike that of 
a man. It has risen by slow and painful steps from ignorance and bar- 
barism, yea, from the depths of savagery, to the high plane of modern 
civilization, on which it is now living with its destiny forbetter or worse, ac- 
cording to the way it has profited by its advantages. Take, for example, 
the most powerful, humane, and orderly of European nations, the British 
people. When Disraeli was taunted by an Englishman as a Jew, he re- 
torted truly and wittily : " When your ancestors were hunting the wild 
boar in the marshes and forests of Germany, mine were princes and 
poets in Israel." 

Some of you may remember the story which led to the conversion of 
the Anglo-Saxons, who were the forefathers of the modern English, to 
Christianity by St. Augustine. Pope Gregory saw some beautiful Sax- 
ons, or Angles — which is only another name for the Saxons — for sale 
in Rome : and when told that they were Angles, he said, '• No ; they are 
not Angles, but angels, and like the cherubim." These poor children 
956 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 143 

had })robably been sold by tbeir own parents, which was not unusual. 
The Anglo-Saxon has risen from a savage hunter and child-dealer to a 
man armed and equipped with all the infinite possibilities of civilization. 
But in reaching this high estate he passed under the yoke of the Nor- 
man. He went to school, so to speak, to one of the best and hardest 
schoolmasters the world has ever known, the brilliant, energetic, organ- 
izing Norman. He endured servitude, or to call things by tbeir right 
names, slavery, for centuries — for a period longer than the African has 
endured it in America, with the grand and beneficent result that we 
see. Other nations have had a similar experience. Is it not plain, 
then, that, in the Providence of God, a nation, like a man, must learn 
to serve before it is fit to command ; must learn to submit the lawless, 
individual will, to the authority of law fexercised for the good of all f 
Subordination is necessary to order. The tribes and races which can- 
not submit to the authority of superior intelligence, perish, as we have 
seen so many Indian tribes vanish from the earth. The docile races 
survive, and grow, and wax great, as we have seen the African on the 
soil of America, and in the house of bondage. 

Some foolish people will make it a reproach to you that your race 
has endured slavery. It is no shame to you. On the contrary, it should 
be your pride that you were not a wild race, but a domestic one, which 
could learn and become civilized. 

The colored race has had a tutelage of two centuries on this continent. 
There are those who will tell you that this servitude tended to encoarage 
every servile vice, and to crush every manly aspiration. This is not 
true. It is just neither to master nor to servant. The direct contrary 
is true. And the answer to the charge that the bondage of the colored 
race was unnecessarily harsh or repressive, in its larger aspects, is to 
be found in their tremendous progress. lieal progress is inconsistent 
with bad government. 

It would be the part neither of a philosopher nor a historian to pict- 
ure slavery as an Arcadian pastoral. There was enough of sin and 
sorrow and suffering in it to touch any heart; but some of the wisest 
of men find human life, in all its aspects, a profound tragedy ; and Sol- 
omon, the wisest and most prosperous of kings, declared that all is 
'' vanity and vexation of spirit." When Christ comes to reign on earth 
you will see the millenium, but not till then. 

What I now want to call your attention to is this : The colored race 
in the South has been at school for two centuries. Have they learned 
anything? Has their progress been real? The answer to this can be 
fully made onjy by a comparison of their condition when they left the 
shores of Africa and their condition to-day. This comparison I cannot 
on this occasion undertake to make at length ; but when we remember 
the naked captive sold on the Guinea coast by the slave-hunter of his 
own race for a string of beads — the poor trembling heathen, ignorant 
of all that concerned himself here or hereafter, and compare him with 

957 



144 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the men and women ttiat I see here present, well may we exclaim, with 
the Psalmist : 

He brongbt them out of darkness, and out of the shadow of death, and brake their 
bands in sunder. O, that men would therefore praise the Lord for His goodness, and 
dechire the wonders that He doeth for the children of men. 

What do I see before me and around me to-day? Xot a people who 
refused to be taug^ht, but a teachable people. !N^ot Ishmaelites, with 
their hands against ev^ery man's hand, but a people like unto the chil- 
dren of Israel, who, while they served their task-masters, possessed 
themselves of all the learning of Egypt. What is the result? Take 
this audience as an example. 

I see before me a well-clad, well-behaved, intelligent Christian com- 
munity, with the light of intelligence in their countenances and the 
flame of moral purpose warming and brightening their hearts. I say, 
is there any art, or trade, or calling, in the great workshop of civiliza- 
tion, in which the colored man cannot be found ? IS'o. You have been 
at school, and you are now entering on the manhood of your powers. 
I wish you God-speed. 

The great problem before us that must be solved is what you are to 
do next. After the war, too many of you, like boys just out of school, 
believed life one long holiday and acted accordingly. I am not blam- 
ing these for what was so natural; but much time has been wasted, and 
there has been a good deal of headache and heartache in consequence. 
Twenty odd years have passed, and if there is to be any serious life in 
the great future for the colored race on this continent, it must now re- 
ceive a new and stronger and final impulse. What direction shall this 
impulse take? I speak for myself, it is true, and there may be many 
who will differ with me, but I believe that I speak also for the best part 
of the white people of the South. The hope of the colored race and of 
the South, of which they are a part, lies in their education. 

But education is a broad term, and, we must determine what sort of 
an education it shall be. I have said all my life that books make only 
a small part of education. Coleridge said that "he did not believe in 
ghosts, because he had seen too many." Perhaps a like reason may 
make me doubt the power of mere book learning to civilize and human- 
ize and Christianize a people. The book cannot tell any more than the 
man who made it. And there must be a man behind every book to 
make it a real, living power for good. But books do give a hand.v wny 
of getting at the truth, wlien you know how to use them, and leading 
and writing and study in books do help people to think. So does diaw 
ing. So does talk, if it is of the right sort. So does a u^an's trade. So 
does a woman's sewing and cooking and setting her house in order. All 
these things require thought. All of it is hard thinking to begin with, 
and easy after it has been i^racticed. And all good thought and all 
good work go to improve the mind and conduct of people, and make 
tbem better. And that is what education is for, 

958 



EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 145 

The colored people, when the war closed, knew a great deal which 
the rising generation has not learned. Industries have been forgotten 
which ought to have been kept up and improved. Kew industries have 
been started, which would help you if you would learn them. If you 
do not know it yet, you will soon discover that the wealth and position 
of the next generation of men will be measured by the amount of labor 
in thi%; the skill, intelligence and industry of parents will determine 
where their children are to stand. What do I advise, then ? That you 
avail yourselves of every opportunity to make yourselves intelligent 
and skillful in those arts which pay — which pay in health, wealth, and 
happiness. Agriculture claims more than one-seventh of our popula- 
tion — nearly one-half of the workers. I believe it the best of all occu- 
pations in the long run. But it needs brains, just like all others, and 
I advise the colored man who follows it to put brains into it. 

But the people I see around me to-night are not country people, but 
town folk. 1 do not advise them to turn farmers. I advise them each 
to stick to his own trade or business, and try to learn all about it — ^its 
in^s and its out's, what is in it and the outcome of it. Try to do your 
own work honestly and better than anybody else, and you wiU. succeed; 
and if anybody can teach you anything about it which you do not know, 
learn by all means. As for the children, teach them their A, B, C's; 
teach them to read, write, and cipher, and as much more as they will 
learn ; but, first of all, and above all, teach them to work, to use their 
eyes, to use their fingers in honest industry, to make their own living, 
so that they may be neither idlers nor paupers, nor beggars nor thieves, 
but independent, useful, God-fearin g citizens. Fingers busy with steady 
work do no harm; brains busy with innocent thought help us toward 
heaven. Work is not a curse ; it is not only the bread-winner, but a 
balm for sorrow, and one of the rungs of that ladder on which Jacob 
saw the angels ascending and descending. 

The great world does not ask or care what the colored people are 
talking about, but what they are doing. The questions in which it con- 
cerns itself are : " What is the cotton crop ? " " What is the sugar crop ? ^ 
"Do the colored people read books?" "How many thousand shoes do 
they wear?" " How much soap do they buy ?" " What houses do they 
live in ? " etc. Kewspaper articles do not really answer these questions. 
Trade columns to some extent do. But the best answer is a colored 
man in decent clothes, in a good house, with his family at church on 
Sunday, and with good humor in his face and sunlight in his heart. 

I do not profess to have the spirit of prophecy. But a great future 
seems opening in Africa; light is shining into the dark continent. 
Every European nation is laying an iron hand on some portion of that 
silent and unknown country. Millions of dark-skinned men swarm its 
valleys and mountain sides and plains ; and now, as its gates are thrown 
open to the world, greed of gain and lust of power will compete with 
Christian zeal for a footing there. In this great movement of civilized 
7950 COT., PT. 3 10 959 



146 EDUCATIONAL CONVE*JTI(MS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

thought and action toward those tropical shores, I believe that our col- 
ored people will play the most useful and prominent part. I am not 
talking of any exodus, or dreaming the opium dreams of the philan- 
thropists; but I mean that, as a practical question, as merchants, as 
engineers, as teachers, preachers, missionaries, as leaders in every arena 
of thought and action, our educated colored people, trained in mind 
and eye and hand and heart, and accustomed to a hot climate, will be 
found among the most useful and successful pioneers in that great and 
unexplored field. They will carry with them the blessings of modern 
progress to their ancestral land, and sit down in the high places of the 
states and nations which will soon crystallize from this new-born civili- 
zation. And they will serve, too, as golden links between the colored 
people in America, — between all the citizens of the United States, in- 
deed, and the rising star of the Southern hemisphere. 

960 



INDEX TO PART III. 



Achille. Brother, referred to, 66. 

Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 

61, 63. 
Albert, Eev. A. E. P., on the position of the negro 
in the South, 126. 
address of, 132-137. 
American Band of Mercy, 90. 
Angell, Mr., on teaching kindness to animals, 87- 

92. 
Animals, kindness to, 87-92. 

cruelties practiced upon, 87-88. 

societies for the prevention of cruelty to, high 

character of, 88. 
kindness to, should be taught in the common 
schools, 89. 
Architecture, school, improvement in, 12. 

of school-houses a secondary consideration, 13. 
Arithmetic, methods in, 68. 

Barbour, Eev. L. G-., men^iion of, 8, 32. 

Bartholomew, W. H., referred to, 50. 

Bell, A. Graham, system of vocal physiology of, 

112. 
Brown, Hon. Le Key D., mention of, 8. 

.addro8.s of, 115-117. 
Buckley, A. E., mention of, 97. 
Bulsson, B., address of, 105-108. 
Bureau of Education referred to, 105, 106. 
Burke, Director- General, address by, 90-101. 

Canada, statistics of education in, 102-103. 
Charity, the highest of the virtues, 77-78. 
Children, varyinsr intellpctual capacity of, to what 

due. 39^2. 
Christian Brothers, exhibit oi'. referred to, 103. 

society of, founded by La SaUe, 113. 

extent and completeness of system of, 114. 
Classics at Harvard, study of the, 86. 
Colored Education Day addresses, 124-146. 
Common schools, relation of universities to, 83. 
Compulsory education in Texas, 57, 58, 59. 

in Japan, 109. 
Co-ordination in instruction and in education, 65- 

69. 
Corporal punishment, diminution of, 76. 
Courtesy, as taught at school, 74. 

Deaf-mute education, progress in, 110-112. 
Department of Superintendence, proceedings of, 
7-92. 

list ot persons in attendance, 7-8. 
Development, human, progress in, 98. 
Dickinson, J. W., referred to, 50. 
Discipline, school, as a moral training, 71, 79-80. 
Dobyns, J. R., address of, 110-112. 
Dougherty, !N". C, referred to, 50. 
Drawing, study of, 141. 
Duties, semi-mechanical, 71-73. 

moral, 73-76. 

to self, physical, 73. 

EatoD, Hon. John, Ltter of ' 

referred to, 11. 106,122 

quoted, 66. 

remarks by, 92. 

gtea,t work of, 105, 117. 

i«solutions of thanks to, 120-121. 
Easton, Hon. Warren, address of welcome by, 9-10. 

mention of, 80. 
JCducat.'.on, relation of, to material civilization, 
10-11. 

the supreme end of. 11. 

and instruction, co-oidination in, 65-69. 



Education — C ontinued . 
agencies of, 81. 

the primary interest of man, 98. 
cause of lack of, in the South, 100. 
popular, a real scheme of, founded in Francie, 

107. 
centralization in, 107. 
a preparation for life, 138. 
modem system of, 139-140. 
Education Day addresses, 97-146. 
Educational institutions should be adapted to cir- 

cumstancps of localiiy, 85. 
Elementary instruction, principles and methods of, 

33-49. 
Examinations at the University of Virginia, 25-26. 

of teachers in Texas, 64. 
Exhibits, educational, remarks on the general 

character of, 117-120. 
Expenditure for schools, necessity for preserving 
a proper balance in, 12-13. 
wasfte in, a result of inefficient teachers, 14. 
for education, statistics of, 132. 

Faculties, the, should be exercised in their natural 

order, 42-43. 
Faith considered 76-77. 

Freedmen's Aid Society exhibit referred to, 103. 
French exhibit, extent, &c., of, 102-103. 

Gallaudet, Eev. T. H., referred to. 111. 

Gardiner, William H., mention of, 97. 

Garnett, Prof. James M., on the inner working of 

the University of Virginia, 17-32. 
Grammar, methodi? of teaching, 46. 
Great Britain, progress of education in, 101. 

Hancock, Hon. John, mention of, 32, 69. 

Handicraftsmen more needed than talkers, 142. 

Harris, Dr. W. T., on moral education in the com- 
mon schools, 69-80. 
remarks by, 86. 

Harvard University, the study of Latin and Greek 
at, 86. 

Hattori, Ichizo, address of, 108-110. 

High schools of Minnesota, remarks on, 85-86. 

Hodgins, Hon. J. George, address of, 101-105. 

Hope considered, 77. 

Hoyt, Hon. J. W., address of, 97-99. 

Ideals in teaching, 45-46. 
Ideas must be taught objectively, 44. 
Ignorance endangers free institutions, 133. 
Illiteracy in the South, 10, 134. 
Industrial education, compulsory in France, 102, 
104. 
for the colored people, 137-146. 
Industry, habits of, acquired at school, 74. 
Instruction, efficiency of, as related to cost of 
school-houses, 14. 
must be adapted to the capacity of pupils, 

39-43, 43. 
theoretical and practical, 4.5-46. 
Intellect, processes and powers of the, 34-37. 
Intellectual powers, order of development of, 37- 
39. 

Japan, sketch of educational progress in, 108-110. 
Japanese exhibit, extent of, 102. 
Jefferson, Thomas, opposed to governing a college 
through a president, 19. 
system of public instruction devised by, 116. 
Johnson, Hon. D. B., mention of, 80. 

961 



148 



INDEX TO PART III. 



'_> 



Johnston, Col. 'William Preston, quoted, 22. 

on the I elation of the nniversity to the com- 
mon school, 80-85. 

mention of, 97. 

address of, 137-146. 
Justice, the school eflective in teaching, 75. 

^[iehle. Hon. D. L., remarks hy, 85-86. 
Knowledge conducive to self-preservation of pri- 
mary importance. 138. 

La Salle, educational work of, 113. 

founder of first normal school, 113. 
Law, respect lor, inculcated in t be school-room, 76. 
Lectures, poptilar. advantages of, 84. 

Mann, Horace, the first great school executive oflS- 

eer, 116. 
Ttfarkham, Rev. T. E.. address of, 124-128. 
Matthew, Brother, mention of, 97. 
Maurelian, Brother, address of, 112-115. 
Minor, Prof. John D.. mention of, 17. 
Moral in education, the, importance of, 115. 
Moral instruction in the public schools, 69-80. 
Moral training, necessity of, 66. 
Morality, definition of. 70. 

consists in practice rather than in theory, 72, 

79. 

National aid, appi ' for, 9-10. 

need of, 134. 
Negro, the, education of, in Texas, 55, 60 62. 

material progress of, 125. 

mission of. 127. 

place in history of, 130. 

agencie.'* for the development of, 131. 

charact r of the education needed for, 131. 

capabilities of, 135. 

statistics of the education of, 135-136. 

denominational work for, 1.36. 

industrial educytiou for, discussed, 137-146. 

teachableness of. 143-144. 

comparison of the present with the past of, 
143-144. 
Newell, Hon. H. M.. remarks by, 92. 
jSToah, Brother, on co-ordination in instruction and 

in education. 65-d9. 
Normal schools in Texas, 64. 
Notes, pupils should be made to take, 6C. 

Obedience, 72. 

Oral te.iching before text-hooks in elementary 

schools, 46-48. 
Orr, G-. J., referred to, 50. 
Over-education considered, 103-104. 

Palmer, Kov. B. M., address of, 128-132. 

Parents, r'-sponsibility of, 132. 

Parham, Hon. John G., remarks by, 49-50. 

mention of. 97. 
Pay of teachers discussed. 15-16. 
Prairie View Colored Normal Institute (Texas), 62. 
Preparatory schools in the South, 27-29. 
Professional men. limited number of. needed, 138- 

139. 
Public schools, moral instruction in the. 69-80. 

the place to teach kindness to animals. 89. 
Punctualitv, 72. 



Eace, distinction of, 128, 130-131. 

instinct of. 128-129. 
Reading, importance of, 47. 

model lesson in, 68-69. 
Recitations, to supplement oral teaching, 48. 
Regularitv, '..he discipline of, 73. 
Eeid, J. Whitelaw. quoted, 115. 
Religious instruction in common s^chools, possi- 
bility of, 78-79. 

how to be effected, 79. 
Religious observances, moral education consid- 
ered apart from, 70. 
Rlckoff Hon. Auilrew J., on school economy. 11-15. 

reraaiks by. lG-17. 
Rogers, William O.. alluded to. 95. 

address of, 110-123. 



l^nte, Supertot6n4ent W. C, remarks bv, 15-16, 
17, 86. ^ ■ . • ' 

on public education in Texas, 50-64. 

Sam Houston Normal Institute (Texas), 62, 64. 
School children cannot have too much to do, 63. . 

American, characteristics of, 66. 
School economy, 11-15. <■ \ 
School fund of Texas, 63. ^ - 
School population of Texas, 64. * 
School-houses, relation of cost of, to efficiency of 

instruction, 14. i 

Self-culture, 74. ^ 

Shaw, John A., referred to, 50. ^ 

Sheldon, Hon. W. E., mention of, 8. 
Silence, significance of, in tb ; school-room, 73. 
Smith, Prof. Charles F., quoted, 22. 

referred to, 23. 
Smith, LOTdon A., letter of, to the Commissioner 
of Education, 95-96. 

referred to, 106. 

address of, 117-130. 

resolutions of thanks to, 120-121. 
South, illiteracy in the, 10. 

preparatory schools in the, 27-29. 

lessened demand for higher education in the, 
29. 

conditioD of education in the, 100. 
Spencer, Herbert, on government control of edu- 
cation. 104. 
Stockwell, Hon. T. B., mention of, 80. 
Subordination necessary to order, 143. 
Supervision, importance of, 116-117. 

Teacher, the. more important than the architect- 
ure of the school-house, 13. 
Teachers, incompetent, a cause of waste of monev, 
14. 
pay of, discussed, 15-16. 
in Texas, pay of, 60. 
qualification of, 63. 
examination of, 64. 
self-improvement of, 67. 
should he judged bj" results, 67. 
effect of character of. 75, 76. 
how they can inculcat« the religious and moral 

virtues, 79. 
importance of securing the ablest, 114-115. 
Teachers' institutes in Texas, 64. 
Texas, rise and progress of public education in, 

50-64. 
Text-books should follow oral teaching in ele- 
mentary schools. 46-48 
unsatisfactory character of, 68. 
Tillotson, Prof. D. C, mention of, 8. 
Traver, Rev. H. R.. mention of 32. 
Tnlane, Paul, donation of, 141. 
Tulane Manual Training School, 140. , 

University, relation of the. to the common school, 

80-85. 
University of Texa-^. fiS. 
University of Tokio, 110. 
University of "Virjrinia, the. inner working of, and 

preparation for, 17-32. 
schools of, 18. 

freedom of teaching at, 18-19. 
the Faculty of, the immediate governing body, 

19-20. 
Board of Visitors of, 20. 
requiremente as to studies and degrees at, 20- 

27. 
the elective system at, 21-22. 
lime required" to obtain degrees at, 24. 
class woik at, 24. 
examinations at, 25-26. 
no honoraiy degrees conferred by, 27. 
character of the preparation necessary to enter, 

27-29. 
requirements for degreis at, 29-30. 

Virtues, religions, 76-78. 
Vivisection, u elessuess of, 87. 

Wh'te. Hon E E.. remarks by, 10-11. 

on principles and methods of elementary in> 
structioa, 33-49. 
"Work, blessings of, 145. 

i 962 



V' \^ 



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